298 Internal Combustion Engines

500'0
[Sec. 8.8
->.
L..
L..
u
u
L;
001
:r:I
.Sec.
L..
111

~III
.§Y.
2·5
1·5
2'0Recovered
8.8]
204
288
316
232
260
temperature. ·c Fuels
299
4,0
(e) Pourpoint. Pour point is the temperature below which the entire 1·0
mass of the fuel, solid and liquid together, freeze and thus cause flow of 3·0
3,5
fuel impossible. Pour point is usually 5 to lOoC below the cloud point.
8.8.2. Smooth and Efficient Burning. In order to burn well a diesel fuel
should atomise property, ignite quickly, and burn completely. Atomisation
is controlled by surface tension and viscosity. Surface tension is practically
same for all petroleum fractions for kerosene to medium lubricating oil but
the viscosity changes. However, more important are the properties which
affect the ignition qualities of the diesel fuel. Volatility, cetane number,
aromatic contents are important properties which affect ignition quality of
a diesel fuel. These properties are discussed below in more detail. Specific
gravity of the fuel is related to the energy content of the fuel and greatly
affects the specific as well as volumetric fuel consumption of a diesel
engine. Before a detailed discussion of these properties is taken up it is
necessary to point out that properties such as specific gravity, volatility,
cetane number and aromatic content are interrelated and it is difficult to
isolate the effect of any single variable.

(a) Volatility. Evaporation and mixing of diesel fuel with air is

essential for ignition and burning. However, since unlike spark ignition
engine this vaporisation and mixing takes place inside the engine, the
volatility of a diesel fuel is not as high as that for gasoline fuels. Like
gasoline, the volatility of diesel fuels is measured by the distillation
tempyratures versus percent evaporated. The ASTM distribution curve of
a typical diesel fuel is given in Fig. 8.8. The boiling range varies from initial
boiling point of 220°C to end point of 390°C with 50% evaporation at 270°C.
The normal range of 10% evaporation point is 204-250°C and that for 95%
point is 320 t0385°C.
The volatility characteristic of the diesel fuel affect the hydrocarbon,
NOx emissions, smoke density and odour of engine exhaust. Fig. 8.17 shows
that an increase in 50% evaporation point results in a decrease in
hydrocarbon emissions measured over 13-mode Federal Test Cycle.
Decreasing volatility reduces the amount of fuel boil-off from the injectors
during the exhaust stroke, thus reducing the unburned hydrocarbons in the
exhaust. There is a strong correlation between 50% point and cetane
number of the fuel. Effect of cetane number is discussed later. The 10%
point and 90% point do not have a significant effect on hydrocarbon
emISSiOns.
Fig. 8.18 shows the effect of fuel volatility on NOx levels as measured
over 13-mode Federal Test Cycle with two fuels having same cetane
number and same 50% evaporation point but having a difference in the
Fig. 8.17. Effect of 50% recovered temperature on hydrocarbon emissions of different
diesel engines.
initial boiling point. NOx levels in exhaust are higher with more volatile fuel.
Initial boiling points affects the quantity of fuel vaporised prior to start to
combustion and hence, the premixing and preparation rates of combustible
mixtures of air and fuel to affect NOx levels.
There is very little effect of fuel volatility on carbon monoxide, smoke,
power and fuel consumption.
(b) Ignition quality. For a diesel fuel smooth spontaneous ignition
at relatively low temperature is essential. Ignition delay, the time period
between start of injection and start of combustion, has a great influence on
the correct optimisation of a diesel engine. If it is too long the rate of
pressure rise, once it starts, can become so rapid that severe diesel knock
and engine damage can Occur. If it is too short then there is not sufficient
time for complete mixing and smoking can result.
(c) Cetane number. The cetane rating of a diesel fuel is a measure
of its ability to autoignite quickly when it is injected into the compressed
and heated air in the engine. Though ignition delay is affected by several
engine design parameters such as compression ratio, injection rate,
300 [memal Combustion Engines [Sec. 8.8 Sec. 8.8] Fuels 301

f-
o High volatility fuel napthalene was given a number 0 but now reference is heptamethylnonane
which is given the value 15.
16 &?a Low volatility fuel
Table 8.15. Ignition quality test diesel fuels.

Engine speed 900rpm

Jacket air temperature 100°C
Inlet air temperature 65.6°C constant at 13°C before IDC

~
-.
0z
.r;
CI
)(III
.x
E Jl
1078 Injection advance
Ignition delay
13°fIXedinjection point
Pressure rising at IDC
~
For a gasoline engine we are concerned with resistance to spontaneous
ignition as measured by octane number. For the diesel, case of spontaneous
ignition or cetane number becomes the criteria. Octane and cetane
therefore are inverse measurements of the same property. This relationship
for some typical fuels is shown in Fig. 8.19. A simple, though not rigorous,
relationship between octane number and cetane number is

A B c D
Engine
Fig. 8.18. Effect of fuel volatility on NOx levels measured over 13-mode. Federal Test,
Cycle for 4-stroke DJ diesel engine. A turbocharged vee, is naturally aspirated vee, C
naturally aspirated ignite and D turbocharged low emission engine).
CN = 104 - ON
2.75 .
It is clear that a good diesel engine fuel is a bad gasoline engine fuel.
Diesel fuels have typical cetane rating of 40 to 60 while high octane fuels as
gasoline which are difficult to autoignite have cetane numbers of about 10
to 20 indicating their poor suitability as a diesel fuel.
80

injection time, inlet air temperature etc., it is also dependent on

hydrocarbon composition of the fuel and to some extent on its volatility
characteristic. The cetane number is a numerical measure of the influence
o
the diesel fuel has in determining the ignition delay. Higher the cetane z; 40
'"
rating of the fuel lesser is the propensity for diesel knock. c
In practice, cetane number is actually measured in a single cylinder -o
CFR test engine. In the standard test, fuel injection is begun 13 degrees u'"
before top dead centre and the compression ratio of the engine is adjusted 20
till the ignition begins at exactly top dead centre, i.e., an ignition delay of
13 degrees is achieved. The actual numerical values are set by means of
reference fuel. The cetane number of a fuel is the percentage by volume of
cetane in a mixture of cetane and a-methylnapthalene (ClOH7CH3) that o
o 20 40 60 80
has the same performance in the standard test engine as that of the fuel.
Research octane No.
Cetanc (C16H34) is arbitrarily given a number 100 and originally a-methyl
Fig. 8.19. Fuel oclane-cetane relationship.
 302 Internal Combustion Engines [Sec. 8.8 Fuels 303
Sec. 8.8]

An unnecessarily high octane number in a gasoline is wasteful but not rise caused by longer delay periods. The effect is greater for naturally
harmful in operation. But an unnecessarily high cetane number can induce aspirated engine than for turbocharged engines.
pre-ignition in diesel engine.
Fig. 8.21 shows the effect of fuel cetane number on engine cranking
Catane number of a fuel can be related to chemical structure of its
time to start. Lower the cetane number longer are the starting times at low
constituents. Normal paraffms (CnHZn + 2) which are straight chain com-
ambient temperatures. The effect of cetane number at higher ambient
pounds have highest cetane number and lowest specific gravity.
temperatures is less pronounced. At QOC the time required to start
Isoparaffms which are branched chain compounds have about the same increased from 18 to over 60 sec when switching from a fuel of 50 cetane
specific gravity as normal paraffms but lower cetane numbers and lower to 33 cetane fuel. White smoke is also increased when cetane number is
boiling points. Napthenes or cyloparaffins and olefms (CnH]n) have higher reduced.
specific gravity and boiling point but lower cetane numbers. Aromatics
haVing benzene rings (C~6) have higher specific gravity and boiling points
but lower cetane numbers than paraffmic molecules. Napthalenes having
80
napthelene rings (ClOH6) have the highest specific gravity and boiling point
and lowest cetane numbers.
Cetane number is the most important single fuel property which affects
60
the exhaust emissions, noise and startability of a diesel engine. In general,
lower the cetane number higher are the hydrocarbon emissions and noise u•..
-0c
~u
•••
CJl

2 III
III
40
20
levels. Low cetane fuels increase ignition delay so that start of combustion
is nearer to top dead centre. This is similar to retarding of injection timing
which is also known to result in higher hydrocarbon levels.
Fig. 8.20 shows the effect of cetane number on noise levels. Lower the
cetane number higher are the noise levels due to increased rate of pressure

•••
CJl . -u0a.u:)c 0 lOr
•..
III
:>ll
CloI

t;;CD
Tur
Natural
6
Natural
01
4~
I44
number
40
a36
Tu rbocharged
48
spirated
aspi
bocharge low
veerated
vee
6- D
0 0
Id emission 0
el cetane number on sound pressure level.
2~ ~

- 6 5
Ambient temperature.·C

Fig.8.21. Effect of fud cetane number on time required for starting at various ambient
temperatures .

(ii) Diesel index. An alternative method of expressing the quality of

diesel oils is 'Dies.el index' which is defined as

D. I' d _ Aniline point COF)x API Gravity at 60°F(lSOC) (8 5)

lese 10 ex - 100 .

Fig. 8.22 shows that the diesel index number correlates, approXimately,
with the cetane number of most of commercial fuels.