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n 1940's abolition of caste was the talk of the town in India. The discussion took place in the student
community, political guild, media h ouses and in several other among several others.
In 1950, the Constitution of independent India, under Part III on Fundamental Rights, declared discrimination
on the ground of caste unlawful ( Articles 15 and 16 ), and abolished untouchability ( Art 17 ). Part IV on DPSP
provided promotion of rights of the Scheduled Castes (SCs) and Scheduled Tribes (STs) ( Article 46 ). These
constitutional provisions raised h opes of progressing faster towards the goal of creating a casteless society.
Now, with this background, let us examine h ow far Indian society h as progressed in this direction.
First of all, we should be clear about the meaning of the term “caste.”
Modern sociological work has established that caste is different from varna , the term used for the fourfold
division of Hindu society, namely, Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaishya, and Shudra, in ancient Hindu texts.
Castes are numerous, and words such as jati, jat, gnati, gnat, nati and nat are used.
It is often said that jatis emerged by divisions within each varna but this is a myth, not a proven historical fact.
Available evidence shows that jatis existed along with varnas s ince the Vedic times .
Usually, a jati claims to belong to a particular varna , but that does not mean that it has come into
existence by division of that varna .
Every caste is a community with a name . Its members are spread over a number of villages and towns in
an area; hence sociologists call it a horizontal unit . The relations between various castes in the context
of a village, town, or local area are h ierarchical and therefore called vertical .
These vertical relations dominate thinking on caste so much that the entire caste system is usually considered
as the extreme form of inequality in the world. In social sciences also these intercaste relations have received
overwhelming attention while the h orizontal unit h as been relatively neglected.
When the law courts in British India began to adjudicate on matters of caste in the early 19th century,
they searched for certainty about the definition of caste . They consulted indigenous scholars (pandits and
shastris) of ancient Hindu law, and concluded that every caste is an entity rigidly defined by the practice of
endogamy, that is, marriage within the boundaries of caste . This definition has prevailed in legal thought, and
in Indological scholarship that began to develop in the early 19th century.
However, modern sociological work h as found two major complications.
1. The first complication arises out of divisiveness ( with)in castes.
In every region of India, the Hindu population is divided into a number of caste divisions of the first
order : for example, there are Brahmins, Banias, Rajputs, Patidars, Kolis, etc, in Gujarat. Each of these
divisions is divided further into divisions of the second order : for example, the Banias are divided into
about 40 divisions, such as Khadayata, Modh, Nagar, and Shrimali.
Most of these are further divided into divisions of the third order , called ekdas (units) or gols
(circles) .
Traditionally, the ekda or gol is the most effective and the primary endogamous unit , although the
caste divisions of the other two orders also play an important role. As every division of a higher order is
susceptible to divisions of a lower order, the boundaries of both in the divisive process are
indeterminate . The boundaries of a caste may appear to be fixed at any point of time, but they are not
so fixed over a longer period . People use the word jati or caste indiscriminately for divisions of all the
three orders which h as been a source of confusion in every census of caste population since 1871.
2. Another major complication about the term “caste” is due to the prevalence of the custom of
hypergamy , that is, marriage of a woman of a lower status group with a man of a h igher status group.
The term “hypergamy” was coined by an official of the 1881 Census of Punjab by Herbert Risley. Subsequently,
a few sociologists studied hypergamy intensively. Nevertheless, it remains one of the least explored institutions
in India.
Called anuloma marriage in ancient Indian law books, hypergamy has prevailed since the ancient times.
The law books also refer to pratiloma marriage ( hypogamy , the opposite of hypergamy), that is, marriage
between a woman of a higher caste and a man of a lower caste. While hypergamy was tolerated ,
hypogamy was frowned upon and prohibited . The concept of varnasankara (miscegenation or
interbreeding of varnas), used often in literary as well as popular discourse, is a consequence of hypergamy and
hypogamy.
Hypergamy is related to prevalence of heterogeneity and hierarchy within every caste . Although in
Indology as well as in law a caste is viewed as a homogeneous group, in reality every caste is
heterogeneous .
In every part of India there are large, widely spread castes , for example, the Rajput in western India, the
Patidar and Koli in Gujarat, the Maratha in Maharashtra, the Jat in north India, the Okkaliga and Lingayat in
Karnataka, and the Yadava in Bihar and Uttar Pradesh, every one of which is h ighly differentiated.
It has big landlords and even royal families at one end and landless families at the other . It is
differentiated in customs also . The upper strata would practise dowry, and prohibit divorce, and marriage
of widowed and divorced women, while the lower strata would practise bride price, and permit divorce, and
marriage of widowed and divorced women.
In almost every such caste there is preference for hypergamy, marriage of a woman of lower status with a man
of higher status. As families of every lower stratum try to get their daughters married upward, a surplus of
marriageable women is created at the upper end of the hierarchy. In the past, such hypergamy led to
polygamy as well as female infanticide at this end .
At the lower end, shortage of marriageable women prevails, aggravated by adverse sex ratio at birth.
The shortage is minimised to some extent by the marriage of widowed and divorced women, and, in
a family of two or more s ons , one son remaining unmarried .
An important consequence of hypergamy in such a caste is a tendency among its men, especially at its
lower end, to marry women from acceptable lower castes and tribes . Such a marriage should not be
seen merely as a union between one man and one woman. The lower caste or tribal woman would of
course get integrated into the husband’s caste over time . The upper caste husband, on the other hand,
acquires many new relatives in a lower caste or tribe, such as his wife’s father, mother, brother, sister, brother’s
wife, sister’s husband, and so on. Similarly, the couple’s child acquires such important relatives as the mother’s
father and mother, the mother’s brother and his wife, the mother’s sister and her husband, and so on in the
same lower caste or tribe. This network of relatives might grow large in course of time, and claim
inclusion in the caste above it in the hypergamous hierarchy .
Full acceptance and inclusion would take time. Till then they would use two caste names depending upon
context, a process David Pocock (1957) aptly called “exclusion and inclusion.” This is another source of
confusion in a caste census .
Hypergamy entails violation of the rule of endogamy over a short period of time, but also inclusion of a
lower group into the higher endogamous group over a longer period an avenue for upward mobility of a
section of a lower caste or tribe into an upper caste . Intercaste hypergamy may also be seen as
an extension of intracaste hypergamy , and vice versa. It is not negation of caste, h owever.
Two major complications discussed above, namely, existence of several orders of caste divisions, and
hypergamous hierarchies within and between castes, make the definition of caste as a clearly demarcated
endogamous group questionable .
They make any castebased census or survey inaccurate. The census enumerators in villages and towns calmly
enter in their schedules an individual’s or her/his household’s varying caste names. This happened at every
periodical census from 1871 to 1931. One has to read the chapter on “caste claims” in every census report to
realise this; leave alone the petitions for caste claims that did not reach the census office. Sometimes the
census officials also disagreed in resolving a claim, whereupon a senior official imposed his verdict
arbitrarily.
Thus, the lists of castes printed in census reports from 1871 to 1931 and the figures of their population are
highly questionable, and should not be quoted at present as if they are absolutely correct. The widely accepted
definition of caste as a rigid and closed group is an ideal. In reality, every caste has loose boundaries,
especially at its lower end. This flexibility enables caste to perpetuate itself.
During the independence movement a view had developed that the best way to create a casteless India was to
slowly remove the subcastes and amalgamate them . In other words, the idea was to eliminate first
the boundaries of what I have called the caste divisions of the third order and amalgamate them into
those of the second order , then to amalgamate these into those of the first order , and finally
eliminate these and create one integrated society . Such a process was set in motion in some parts of the
country, and is still going on. The net result, h owever, is a society of castes with ever increasing size.
Ghurye wrote in his seminal book on caste “To propose to abolish caste by slow consolidation of the smaller
groups into larger ones is to miss the real problem … The subcastes that join together to create a super
organisation retain their internal feelings of exclusiveness with undiminished vigour. The new organisation
takes up a rather militant attitude against other castes, especially those which are popularly regarded as
immediately higher or lower than the caste it represents. Thus casteconsciousness becomes more definite
and virile.”
Modern India has been witnessing such virile caste consciousness all the time. Even the first two decades of
the 21st century have witnessed violent agitations by the Gurjars in Rajasthan, the Jats in Haryana, and the
Patidars in Gujarat.
Schedules Castes
It is well known that the resentment of the lower castes against the higher ones , especially against
the Brahmins , took an organised form in the name of the backward class movement in the first decade of
the 20th century in south India and then spread to other parts of the country. The British government and
a few princely states conceded the demands of these castes for reservations in government jobs
and in legislative bodies, and for several other privileges. The Constitution continued to provide these
privileges , classifying the backward classes into three categories, SCs, STs, and Other Backward Classes
(OBCs) (Article 340, under Part XVI: Special Provisions Relating to Certain Classes).
When the Constitution was promulgated in 1950, it was relatively easy to decide which castes should be
considered as SCs and which tribes as STs because of two reasons. One, there was broad consensus about
criteria to be applied in defining them, and two, the governments in the British provinces and some princely
states h ad already been giving certain privileges to these castes and tribes, thus enabling continuity.
The term SC used in the Constitution has been the end result of evolution of terms used since the 1871 Census
of India to grapple with the reality of what has long been known as the asprishyas or untouchables or
Dalits in Indian society. A total of 1,280 SCs have been listed in the Constitution until 2013, and with a total
population of more than 201.4 million, comprise 16.6% of the population of India.
There is huge deficit of sound sociological research on this vital section of Indian society. If, as mentioned
earlier, the study of the horizontal dimension of caste in general has been relatively neglected, the study
of this dimension of the SC is even more neglected . However, I may state from bits and pieces of available
information that every SC is internally divided into subcastes and subsubcastes just like other
castes .
The SCs in every part of India are differentiated in various ways , contrary to the popular tendency to
view them as homogeneous—especially as if all of them practise menial occupations. Often there is sharp
conflict between two or more of them . The conflict between the Malas and Madigas, the two SCs of
Andhra Pradesh, for example, is well known. They have been fighting legal battles all the way to the Supreme
Court since 2000 (Balagopal 2005). In Gujarat, besides the Valmiki, another major SC is Vankar (weavers)
which played an important role in the pre modern textile industry. I may also mention the Garoda or Garo
(derived from Sanskrit guru), an SC of priests performing Sanskritic rituals for other SCs.
The Bombay Gazetteer, compiled in the 1870s, writes about them: Most of them can read and a few
understand Sanskrit, reciting and explaining hymns and passages from the Purans. They teach their boys
privately. They draw up and use horoscopes. Nowadays they get training in karmakand (the corpus of
Sanskritic rituals) in schools and colleges, helped by scholarships awarded by the government. They call
themselves Brahmins, and use such Brahmin surnames as Dave, Joshi, Pandya and Vyas. They have a high
literacy rate and are in government jobs in a proportion higher than their proportion in the SC population in
Gujarat. The term Dalit thus overlooks differentiation among the SCs.
Whatever be the economic and social status of 1,280 SCs, every one of them is an endogamous group . If
a member of an SC wants to get the benefits of reservation, she/he must obtain a certificate of its membership
from a competent authority. We do not know if there is a movement for intercaste marriage between the
various SCs, as also whether there is hypergamy between a lower status SC and a higher status one. However,
they too have formed caste associations, which organise many activities for the members of the caste, including
marriage melas (fairs) to enable their young boys and girls, especially in urban areas, to have freedom of spouse
selection within the caste(in the second and third order).
Other Backward Classes
The Constitution does not define OBCs, but provides for the appointment of a commission to recommend a
definition and to list these “Classes” accordingly ( Article 340 ). The first Backward Classes Commission
was appointed in 1953 with Kaka Kalelkar as chairperson.
It was confronted with the problem as to whether the term “backward class” should be used in the
sense of backward caste . It could not come to an unanimous conclusion. Moreover, while submitting its
report to the government in 1955 Kalelkar wrote a letter expressing his anguish at caste being made
the criterion of backwardness . The report therefore became infructuous .
The issue was revived in 1979 with the appointment of the second Backward Classes Commission , well
known as the Mandal Commission as it was headed by parliamentarian B P Mandal. It submitted its report
in 1980, recommending caste as the basic unit for backward class status. Its implementation was announced in
August 1990.
While the Kalelkar Commission had identified 2,394 OBCs, the Mandal Commission identified 3,743 OBCs,
reserving 27% of government jobs for them. The Backward Classes Commissions in the states also
resolved to apply the caste criterion . If any state commission disagreed, as did the Rane
Commission in Gujarat in 1981, the government did not accept its report . In 2013, the total
number of OBCs recognised by all the states was 2,449, of which 2,342 were approved by the National
Commission for Backward Classes. In 2015, the number of approved OBCs has gone up to 2,418 . As
the Census of India does not recognise OBC as a special category , there are no officially
recognised figures of its population . There are only estimates based on the 1931 Census figures, which are
unreliable.
The semantic equivalence between “class” and “caste” is controversial . These two words do not
have the same meaning in the social sciences or among educated Indians. Of course, there is no unanimity
about the meaning of the word “class” in the social sciences, but no social scientist would stretch it to mean
“caste.” The judiciary also considered this question. Its position may be summed up as stated in the Supreme
Court ’s judgment in the case of P Rajendran v State of Madras (1968): “A caste is also a class of
citizens.” The word “ class ” is used here in a very wide and general sense, meaning a number of persons
possessing common attributes and grouped together under a general or “class” name . In this
sense, women, children, fathers, mothers, doctors, advocates, etc, are also classes. One suspects here what
Zechariah Chafee (1941) said long ago in a paper, “The Disorderly Conduct of Words” in the judicial process.
However, the class factor could not be held back. The Constitution itself uses the designation “ S ocially and
Educationally Backward Class ” (Article 340), which has led to considering differences in social and
educational backwardness . The government and the judiciary have responded by dividing the OBCs into
“backward,” “more backward” and “most backward” sections, and denying benefits of reservation to a class
called the “ creamy layer ” in every caste (Srinivas 1996: xxviii–xxxi).
Thus, the class factor now operates under the umbrella of caste , allowing the latter to be the
dominant force . If an individual wants to get the benefits of reservation as a member of an OBC, she/he
must be a member of a particular caste included in the lists of OBCs, and obtain a certificate of membership
from a competent authority.
With 2,418 castes receiving benefits of reservation irrespective of economic and social
differentiation within them , many of the castes that were left out have begun to demand
reservation , arguing that they too have many economically and socially disadvantaged members. The castes
with large populations are especially vociferous, such as the Gurjars in Rajasthan, the Jats in
Haryana, and the Patidars in Gujarat , because they wield considerable clout in electoral politics .
Certain castes with somewhat smaller populations and occupying higher status in traditional social hierarchy
also do not wish to be left behind in the competition for benefits of reservation. “Backward class” is no longer
an odious epithet. These castes too project radical postures.
The Brahmins hold allIndia conferences, where they invoke the ancient Brahmin warrior Parashuram who,
according to legend, eliminated all Kshatriyas from the surface of the earth (Shah 2005). A large subcaste
among the Banias in Gujarat has been announcing for the last few years, on the cover page of their
mouthpiece, that it is endowed with virility. The artisan and craftsman castes such as blacksmiths, carpenters
and potters hold conferences where they invoke Vishwakarma, the creator of the universe. Recently they held
a conference in Ahmedabad, which was addressed by an internationally reputed technocrat. Similarly, a
celebrity participated in the allIndia conference of Kayasthas held in another city in Gujarat. These new
demands for reservation are opposed by the castes that are already receiving the benefits of
reservation, leading to violent demonstrations by both on the s treets .
Both the central and the state governments are faced with the problem of dealing with these new demands for
reservation. Since the executive has to deal with this problem within the contours set by the judiciary, the
problem reaches the portals of the h igh courts and the Supreme Court (Reservations should not exceed 50%).
The court orders the governments to get these claims examined by committees of experts, and submit relevant
data. However, no committee has been able to provide satisfactory data . The judiciary had asked the
government to carry out a caste census all over India.
It has been reported that the National Commission for Backward Classes and the Registrar General and Census
Commissioner of India expressed their inability to conduct the caste census , whereupon the job was handed
over to the Ministry of Rural Development, which is even less competent than the other two for this job. No
results have been published so far. As discussed earlier, so many complex issues are involved in conducting a
caste census that it has not been possible to conduct it accurately since 1871. Let us hope the judiciary, the
government and the social scientists recognise this reality.
Towards a Casteless Society: Reality vs. Illusion
It is often argued that intercaste marriages will soon bring about a casteless society . Surely, since
intercaste marriages began to take place roughly at the beginning of the 20th century, their number has been
increasing.
However, their nature requires careful examination.
First of all, as discussed earlier, it is necessary to recognise that there have been several orders of caste
divisions, that is, caste, subcaste, and subsubcaste. The rule of caste endogamy worked well even in
the smallest castes as long as the parents and other elders controlled the arrangement of marriages of
young boys and girls. But, with the age at marriage increasing , and consent of young boys and girls in
arranging their marriage gradually becoming the norm , the endogamous boundaries of small caste
units became unviable . Consequently, there developed movements to merge these units and form larger
endogamous units as the effective units of endogamy , so that boys and girls—as well as their
elders—get wider fields for arranging marriage.
Most of the socalled intercaste marriages are therefore in fact intersubcaste marriages . The larger
castes persist . This is another dimension of the movements for amalgamation of castes discussed
earlier.
In the past, repressive means were used to enforce caste endogamy . The law does not permit
these repressive means now, though cases of such repression get reported in the media from time to time,
like the penalties imposed by the khap panchayats on adult boys and girls and their families in parts of
north India. Such repressive measures are declining gradually. However, those belonging to different castes are
developing all kinds of “soft” stratagems to restrict spouse selection within caste boundaries . The
caste associations organise a number of activities for the children of the caste to inculcate in them the
ideology of caste .
Khap panchayat is the union of a few villages, mainly in north India though it exists in similar forms in the
rest of the country. Lately they have emerged as quasijudicial bodies that pronounce harsh punishments
based on ageold customs and traditions, often bordering on regressive measures to modern problems .
For adult boys and girls, spouse selection has become a cooperative exercise involving the network of close
kin and friends, marriage bureaus, and modern means of communication such as caste journals, newspapers,
magazines, and the internet. The caste associations organise activities for marriageable boys and girls of the
caste to interact closely. Most important, they organise elaborate “ marriage melas .”
The main point is that the basic idea of arranged marriage persists along with the individual’s freedom of
choice. The elders do not also mind if their child “falls in love” as long as love is within the caste. Actually, it is
freedom of choice within a caste . Even if it is called “love,” it is love shackled by the bonds of caste .
The children accept this method of spouse selection with two main baseless arguments: one, “we wish to
keep our parents happy , ” and two, “common culture provided by caste is necessary for success
of marriage . ”
The idea of caste endogamy persists in the Indian diaspora . Caste associations which are active in the US,
Australia, Africa, Britain and Canada, promote caste endogamy . These associations are in active interaction
with caste associations in India. And all kinds of stratagems are employed to arrange intracaste marriages
across continents.
In the case of marriages that have taken place breaking major caste barriers, it is necessary to observe them
over at least two generations. Often a child born out of such a marriage identifies herself/himself with the kin
and caste of one of the parents and eventually marries into this caste. This leads to what one may call a reversal
to the caste order.
The number of marriages crossing the boundaries of major endogamous units is of course increasing.
But, most of them occur in large cities and that too in certain sections of urban society. Marriages take
place between members of the caste in the village and the city, are often hypergamous . It would
be a mistake to think that caste does not exist in the city , or that the idea of caste endogamy has
disappeared from the castes that exist in the city.
In fact, the city is the centre of activities of caste associations , and provides leadership to the
members of the horizontal unit s pread in villages and towns all over the country .
A new social category of people that appears to be free from the bonds of caste has indeed emerged in
the country. However, it is quite small, compared to the size of the country. It claims to be liberal,
cosmopolitan and global. But, it is necessary to assess its capacity to influence the rest of this vast
society . It does not appear to be even loosely organised, compared with the tight organisation of
castes . Often the claim to being casteless is skin deep, and caste surfaces all of a sudden in mysterious ways.
Endogamy and Reservation Nexus
Every caste included in the SC and OBC lists is endogamous . Its membership carries with it the
entitlement of claiming benefits of reservation. If it wants to retain this entitlement for its members,
it has to guard its boundaries , for which it h as to mobilise itself to promote endogamous marriage.
This is a challenge its leadership faces in view of its younger generation demanding freedom of
spouse selection . Those castes which do not have reservations but are demanding them have also to face this
challenge, if they are not already facing it. As mentioned earlier, since the law does not allow repressive
measures to enforce endogamy, every caste is inventing “soft” ways to promote it.
Traditionally, every caste has of course been trying to maintain its endogamous boundaries . But if it
acquires the statutory status of an SC or OBC , and therefore entitlement to the benefits of reservation,
maintenance of that entitlement requires it to maintain it even more rigorously . The size and nature
of the casteless category is therefore dependent on the number of castes free from this nexus between
caste endogamy and castebased reservation . If we take into account the number of castes already
enjoying the privileges of reservation and the number of castes now demanding reservation in the country as a
whole, the total number of such castes would be huge, and so would be their total population. The space for a
casteless society is thus shrinking . A casteless society is a mirage, and the mirage is moving
further away .