J. Fish. Soc.

Taiwan, 33(3): 229-244Milkfish Culture in the Asian-Pacific Region 229

Milkfish (Chanos chanos) Culture: Situations and Trends

Franklin S. Martinez1, Mei-Chen Tseng2* and Sin-Ping Yeh2

(Received, July 10, 2006; Accepted, August 20, 2006)

ABSTRACT

In this article, we present an overview of milkfish (Chanos chanos) culture, in order to provide
basic information on its life history, reproductive biology, fry production, culture methods, and genetics
as well as its commercial importance. Milkfish is a warm-water marine species, and its culture is
widespread in the Asian-Pacific region; it is a unique species in the family Chanidae. Currently
milkfish is an important brackish water aquaculture species in Southeast Asia and represents an
important component of the fisheries sector and national economy in Indonesia, the Philippines,
and Taiwan; in Taiwan, annual total production has surpassed 450,000 metric tons since 2000.
However, milkfish production is faced with limitations, the most significant of which is the unpredic-
table and limited supply of fry. Milkfish production comes mostly from aquaculture, and the availability
of fry for stocking plays an important role in the success and development of the industry. Traditionally
milkfish production relied on the capture of fry from the wild; but important attempts have been made
to develop milkfish broodstock-hatchery technology, and significant successes have been achieved
in the artificial propagation of this species.

Key words: Milkfish, Chanos chanos, Life history, Reproductive biology, Culture methods.

in the direction of fresh water (Lin et al., 2003;

GENERAL BIOLOGY
The milkfish (Chanos chanos) belongs to
the order Gonorynchiformes and is the only
species of the family Chanidae (Leis and
Reader, 1991). Milkfish are widely distributed
throughout the tropical and subtropical Indo-
Pacific oceans, being found on the coast of
Africa, as far east as the Pacific waters of
Central America, and as far south as Hawaii,
Mexico, southern Australia, and New Zealand
(Nelson, 1994; Lee, 1995).
In the life history of the milkfish, different
stages can be described based on their
morphological characteristics and ecological
requirements (Fig. 1) (Lee, 1995). The larvae
and juveniles spend their lives in inshore
estuarine areas and then migrate into rivers
Pillay and Kutty, 2005).
The natural spawning season extends
from April to September in Taiwan (Tucker,
1998). Spawning probably occurs near the
sea surface (30~40 m in depth), and the female
produces millions of eggs that hatch within
24 h into yolk sac larvae (Landau, 1992); these
are essentially planktonic and their distribu-
tion mainly depends on water movements.
When larvae begin exogenous feeding, they
become more-active swimmers which makes
possible their migration from the spawning
grounds to coastal waters. Fry are primarily
selective planktivores and are mostly found
in aggregation areas in superficial water close
to shore. Metamorphosis occurs when the
fry have left the aggregation areas and then
they grow into juveniles, which are primarily

1
Department of Tropical Agriculture and International Cooperation, National Pingtung University of Science and
Technology, Pingtung, Taiwan 912, R.O.C.
2
Department of Aquaculture, National Pingtung University of Science and Technology, Pingtung, Taiwan 912,
R.O.C.
* Corresponding author. E-mail: mctseng@mail.npust.edu.tw
230 Franklin S. Martinez, Mei-Chen Tseng and Sin-Ping Yeh

Fresh water

Juvenile (5)

Sub adult
(6) Fry (4)
Adult stage (7) Larvae
(3)
Lagoon, lakes,
swamps
Yolk sac larvae Mangroves
Spawning Embryo (1) (2) swamps, estuaries
ground in the
Ocean

Fig. 1. Life history of milkfish represented by seven developmental stages from embryo to adults (modified from
Lee, 1995).

Thailand, Vietnam, the Philippines, and Fiji

Indonesia and India

Taiwan

Hawaii

J F M A M J J A S O N D
Fig. 2. Spawning season (months) of different milkfish population (Lee, 1995; Tucker, 1998).

benthic algal filter-feeders. At this point,
juveniles are found in large quantities in coastal
estuaries, mangrove areas, coastal lagoons,
and swamps and begin moving upriver into
lakes. Then juveniles develop into subadults
at different sizes (200~4500 g) and at different
ages (1~4 years). Most subadult fish leave
the inshore environment and return to the
ocean where they survive on a diet of plankton
and eventually spawn; but other milkfish
remain in fresh water (Lee, 1995).
Milkfish spawn in clear oceanic waters,
usually at less than 40 m in depth over sand
or coral about 30 km offshore during the
warm months of the year (Landau, 1992).
Despite this species being able to tolerate a
wide range of environmental conditions, there
are many factors which affect milkfish's
selection of spawning grounds; temperature
is one of the most important factors, with
limits reported to be from 15 to 40°C, but the
ideal temperature is between 20 and 33°C
with an optimum for spawning of 28°C (Landau,
1992; Lee, 1995). Others factors such as
currents and wind may also influence the
selection of spawning areas in order to ensure
the survival of eggs and larvae (Lee, 1995).
The natural spawning seasons differ
according to milkfish populations (Fig. 2); the
reproductive status can be determined
based on different criteria; but histological
examination of gonadal development is
considered the most accurate method of
determining spawning seasons (Lee, 1995).
Milkfish are able to spawn more than once
during the annual spawning season (Lee et
al., 1997). Prijono et al. (1988) demonstrated
that spawning occurred on nine occasions
within 4 months after stocking in a group of
wild brood stock (specimens with a weight
 Milkfish Culture in the Asian-Pacific Region 231

range of 2~5 kg) in Indonesia.

The genetic diversity of milkfish has
mainly been investigated in the Philippines
and some others Pacific Islands (Lee, 1995).
In order to study the genetic variation of
milkfish populations, Lee (1995) evaluated
adult specimens which were collected from 14
locations: the Philippines (Sulop, Zamboanga,
Cayagon de Oro, Argao, Ormoc, Hamtique,
Mercedes, and San Thomas), Equatorial Pacific
Islands (Palau, Tarawa, Fanning Island, and
Christmas Island), and the Hawaiian Islands
(Hawaii and Oahu). Every sample was
monitored for 20 enzymes and protein
systems representing the gene products of
38 gene loci by starch gel electrophoresis.
Cluster analysis was used to analyze the data
from the electrophoresis in order to estimate
the genetic associations among groups.
The results showed that the Philippine group
was closer to the Equatorial Pacific Island
group than to the Hawaiian Island group.
Moreover a series of studies was conducted
to evaluate variations in vertebral numbers of
milkfish fry, and at least eight different popula-
tions were identified across the Indo-Pacific
Ocean: India, Thailand, Philippines-Taiwan-
Indonesia, Tahiti, Kiribati, Tonga, Hawaii, and
Panama (Lee, 1995).
CULTURE METHODS
The milkfish is a marine inhabitant
commercially cultured in brackish-water ponds
and oceanic waters as well as in hyper-saline
lagoons (Lin et al., 2003). Milkfish can
tolerate salinities of 0~158 ppt (Lin et al.,
2001). Fry, juvenile, or later stages of develop-
ment can survive well in fresh water, which
indicates that they can be cultured in fresh-
water ponds or stocked in cages in fresh-
water lakes and reservoirs (Alava, 1998; Lin
et al., 2003). Marine or freshwater adapta-
tion by euryhaline teleosts is a complex process
involving a set of physiological responses
related to ionoregulatory requirements; never-
theless, the milkfish is considered to be an
efficient osmoregulator with a high capacity
for adaptation to freshwater production
systems (Lin et al., 2003). Apparently small
milkfish tend to adapt better to fresh than to
hyper-saline water and larger milkfish find
hyper-saline water less stressful than fresh
water (Ferraris et al., 1988).
Alava (1998) demonstrated that salinity
had significant effects on the growth and
feed conversion rate (FCR) of milkfish fry.
The highest growth and lowest FCR were
observed in fish reared in fresh water (Fig. 3).

Weight FCR

140 2
c
120
b
1.5
100 a
Weight (mg)

80
FCR

a 1
60
b
40 c 0.5
20

0 0
0 16 34
Salinity (ppt)
Fig. 3. Effects of salinity on growth and the feed conversion rate (FCR) of milkfish fry. Different letters indicate
a significant difference at p < 0.05 (modified from Alava 1998).
232 Franklin S. Martinez, Mei-Chen Tseng and Sin-Ping Yeh
According to this author, the maintenance of
ionic and osmotic equilibrium at lower salinities
(of 0~16 ppt), probably requires less energy
than in seawater at 34 ppt resulting in better
growth; this is probably related to the habitat
preference in the development of wild fry;
which normally terminate their pelagic phase
of life and begin moving to estuarine or fresh-
water environments at 18~21 days old.
Many commercial farms in the Philippines
and Taiwan now stock between 0.1 and 4.0
2
fish/m depending on the intensity of the
production systems. The movement from
extensive to intensive systems has been
achieved with the increasing use of fertilizers
and feed, and provision of extra systems
such as aeration and pumps (Sumagaysay-
Chavoso and San Diego-McGlone, 2003).
Table 1 describes the milkfish culture
methods, the stocking density, and the yield
production for the major milkfish producer
countries (the Philippines, Indonesia, and
Taiwan). Milkfish is commonly cultured in
different systems as described by Lee (1995).
- Shallow-water culture. Production ponds
have a water depth of 30~40 cm. In this
method, fry are stocked at a density of
1500/ha, and algae are provided as the
main source of natural food in fertilized
brackish-water ponds.
- Deep-water culture. Ponds have a water
depth of 200~300 cm, fry are stocked at a
density of 10,000/ha, and management is
similar to that of shallow-water culture, but
artificial feed is also offered at a daily
Table 1. Milkfish, aquacultures methods, and production in Indonesia, Taiwan, and the Philippines
(FitzGerald, 2004)
Country Culture method
Indonesia Extensive (shallow-water)
Taiwan Extensive
(shallow-water)
Semi-intensive
(deep-water)
Philippines Extensive
Pen
Cage
Note that the production varies within and between these countries, which can be explained by differences in
production efficiency in each country.
feeding rate of 2%~4% of biomass.
- Pens. In this system, fish are confined in
circular, square, or rectangular pens
surrounded by nets, and feeding manage-
ment is like that of deep-water culture, but
stocking density is higher than that used
with deep-water culture (30,000 fry/ha).
Wild seed collection
As milkfish seems to spawn in the sea
near coastlines, fry (10~15 mm in length)
periodically occur along sandy coasts and
estuaries (Bagarinao and Kumagai, 1987;
Garcia, 1988). Fry collection has been an
important industry in Indonesia, the Philippines,
and Taiwan (Bagarinao and Kumagai, 1987),
but the occurrences vary depending on the
spawning seasons according to each region
(Lee, 1995).
The most common equipment for fry
capture includes different types of deep nets;
these nets are located in areas where large
concentrations of fry occur. Villaluz (1988)
and Lee (1995) described various fishing
mechanisms used for capturing fry; which
are classified according to their function.
- Fry barrier or fences are fixed structures
that guide fry into a concentrated area
depending on favorable conditions of wind
and currents.
- Filters bags are mobile bag nets which
concentrate fry while they are passing in
the course of the water.
- Seine, scoop, or drags nets are also
Stocking density Production
(fish/ha) (kg/ha/year)
6000 300~1000
6000~7000 1800~2500
> 25,000 8000~12,000
1500~6000 800~4000
30,000~40,000 2000~10,000
35~100 fish/m3 13~17 kg/m3
 Milkfish Culture in the Asian-Pacific Region
portable nets which surround groups of fry
and conduct them into a small area.
Fry production through induced matura-
tion and spawning of brood stock
Even though artificial propagation has
progressed in the last two decades, a source
of wild fry is still required in some locations
(Leis and Reader, 1991; Lee et al., 1997).
Nowadays the production of fry is possible
due to the capture of subadults from the wild
and their rearing until they become sexually
mature. Adults naturally mature during the
spawning season when they reach 3 kg or
more at 4 and 5 years old for males and females,
respectively. Maturation can also be induced
through the use of exogenous hormones such
as luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone
(LHRH-a), fish pituitary gonadotropin (salmon
pituitary homogenate and carp pituitary
homogenate), human chorionic gonadotro-
pins (HCGs), and gonadal steroids (estradiol
17-β and 17 α- methyltestosterone), as well
as through environmental stimulation, such
as temperature and manipulating the photo-
period in order to increase the number of
daylight hours (Lee, 1995). Milkfish seem to
be a gonochoristic species. Determination of
sex is important for the successful breeding in
captivity; sex can be distinguished by external
Maturation of
broodstock
Spawning
(natural or induced)
Incubation of Larval rearing
eggs
Microalgal
culture
Fig. 4. Schematic representation of hatchery facilities needed to produce milkfish fry (FitzGerald, 2004).
233
characteristics such as the presence of three
minute opening pores in the urogenital region
in females, while the males only have two
main external openings (Garcia, 1988; Lee,
1995).
Once milkfish have maturated, in order to
accurately determine the time for spawning,
it is better to induce spawning in females by
the administration of exogenous hormones
(fish pituitary gonadotropins, HCGs, and LHRH-
a). Hormone therapy can be administered
through food, pellet implants, and intramus-
cular and intraperitoneal injections. Different
dosages have been studied; but 200 µg/kg
using a pellet implant or injection seems to
be a better dose in terms of fertilized spawn
and fertilization rate. Fish spawn 24~48 h
after treatment depending on the hormone
therapy. A mature female can spawn 2
million eggs/kg of body weight per year (Lee,
1995).
Lee et al. (1997) and FitzGerald (2004)
described two basic hatchery operation
methods for producing milkfish fry: intensive
and semi-intensive. In the intensive system
larvae are stocked at a relatively high density
of 20~30 larvae/l, and tanks are employed for
larval rearing with the addition of separately
cultured algae, rotifers, and Artemia at
different stages during the culture period (Fig.
4). In the semi-intensive system, a pond is
Transfer to grow-out
phase
Fry and juveniles
Rotifer Artemia
culture culture
Enrichment
234 Franklin S. Martinez, Mei-Chen Tseng and Sin-Ping Yeh
utilized, and natural growth of phytoplankton
and zooplankton is stimulated through fertiliza-
tion; in this system, larvae are stocked at a
lower density (5 larvae/l).
Both systems begin with fertilized eggs
(1.1~1.25 mm in diameter). Eggs need to be
incubated in saltwater (30~34 ppt) and a
range of temperatures of 26~30°C, and good
aeration is also required. In the intensive
system, eggs are directly stocked in the
larval rearing or incubator tanks at a density
of 1000 eggs/l, and then larvae are trans-
ferred to special areas to receive their starter
diet (exogenous feed). In Taiwan, hatchery
operators use the semi-intensive system,
while the intensive system is used in Hawaii,
the Philippines, and Indonesia to produce
milkfish fry (Lee, et al., 1997; FitzGerald,
2004).
At optimal temperatures, the eyes become
entirely pigmented and the mouth is open at
54 h after hatching; the yolk sac is almost
completely reabsorbed 120 h after hatching
(Bagarinao, 1986). Exogenous feed must
be provided before the yolk sac is completely
absorbed. Rotifers (Branchionus plicatilis)
are considered the standard first feeding
regimen at 10~20 rotifers/ml, but also micro-
algae and Artemia nauplii are used (Bagarinao,
1986; Lee, 1995). Normally 21-day-old milkfish
fry (14~16 mm in length) are harvested and
transferred to nursery ponds for 30~45 days
of rearing prior to grow-out culturing (Lee,
1995; Hilomen-Garcia, 1997).
NUTRITION AND FEED
In terms of feeding habits, milkfish are
considered herbivorous (Hertrampf and Piedad-
Pascual, 2000; Lim et al., 2002). This
Table 2. Essential amino acid requirements for juvenile milkfish (Lim et al., 2002)
Amino acid Requirement
(% of dietary protein)1
Arginine 5.2
Histidine 2.0
Isoleucine 4.0
Leucine 5.1
Lysine 4.0
1
For diets containing 40%~45% protein.
species is best suited for culture in the tropics
because of its fast growth, efficient use of
natural food, propensity to consume a variety
of supplemental feeds, resistance to diseases
and handling, and tolerance to a wide range
of environmental conditions (Lim et al., 2002).
In nature, milkfish are generally herbivorous,
but in some conditions can be considered
omnivorous. Lückstädt et al. (2001) and
Lückstädt and Reiti (2002) analyzed the
stomach contents of adult milkfish fed natural
food and reported that the stomach contents
consisted mainly of single-cell green and
blue-green algae, but also contained benthic
and planktonic organisms and crustacean
larvae. In captivity, various types of feed
can be used such as live feed for rearing
larvae and artificial or formulated feed for fry,
juveniles, and later stages of development
(Lee, 1995).
Like other marine fish species, milkfish
do not have absolute protein requirements, but
do require a balanced mixture of essential
amino acids (Table 2) (Lim et al., 2002).
Generally marine fish are not able to convert
shorter-chain fatty acid (linoleic acid, 18:3 n-3
and linolenic acid, 18:2 n-6) to longer-chain
fatty acids, so it is necessary to provide these
through the diet. Lipids and fatty acids play
significant roles due to their function in
maintaining cell membrane structures, stress
tolerance, and proper development and
functioning of neural and visual systems
(Borlongan, 1992; Alava, 1998; Faulk and
Holt, 2005). The polyunsaturated fatty acids,
specifically eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA, 20:5
n-3), arachidonic acid (ARA, 20:4 n-6), and
docosahexaenoic acid (DHA, 22:6 n-3), have
been shown to be essential in the diet of
marine fish larvae (Faulk and Holt, 2005).
Amino acid Requirement
(% of dietary protein) 1
Methionine 2.5
Phenylalanine 4.2
Threonine 4.5
Tryptophan 0.6
Valine 3.6
 Milkfish Culture in the Asian-Pacific Region 235

Essential fatty acid (EFA) deficiency symptoms
consist of poor growth, low feed efficiency,
anemia, and high mortality especially in
milkfish larvae (Fig. 5). Ascorbic acid is also
required in larval fish diets; scoliosis, twisted
gill filaments, and short operculae are some
of the signs of ascorbate deficiency (Gapasin
et al., 1998).
Milkfish accept a variety of diets such as
meal forms and sinking particles or floating
pellets. Using pellets improves the feeding
efficiency due to the physical characteristics
such as better stability which prevents them
from dissolving and nutrients separating in
the water. The most common pellet size
used for feeding fish at 400 to 500 g is
approximately 4~5 mm in diameter and 6~8
mm long (Lim et al., 2002). Newly hatched
fry use their yolk sac as a source of nutrients;
a brief explanation of first feeding was presented
above, so the information provided in this
part mostly concerns fry, juvenile, and adult
stages.
Diets for fry usually contain a high
percentage of crude protein, but this is
decreased as the fish grow. For example,
fry require a diet with 40% crude protein, and
then at the grow-out phase, milkfish are fed
herbivorous and artificial diets containing
23%~27% crude protein (Lim et al., 2002).
The crude protein contents as well as the
proportions of other ingredients used to
prepare artificial diets for fry, grow-out, and
broodstock stages are presented in Table 3.
Feed peas (Pisum sativum), an abundant
agricultural product, is a potential feed
ingredient used in fish diets. It is a high-
energy, medium-protein ingredient with a
protein content of 22%~24% and 14.3 kJ/g of
digestible energy (Borlongan et al., 2003). The
efficiency of feed peas as a feed ingredient
has been evaluated for milkfish (Borlongan et
al., 2003) as well as trout (Oreochromis
mykiss) (Hertrampf and Piedad-Pascual,
2000). However, they can also be used as
dietary protein source for other aquaculture
species.
Borlongan et al. (2003) found significant
differences in both survival and FCR after 12
weeks of feeding different diets. The highest
survival and lowest FCR were obtained in
milkfish fed the control diet (containing fish
meal, soybean meal, meat and bone meal,
and copra meal as the principal protein
sources) as well as D-2 and D-3 (containing
5% and 10% substitution of the total protein

Fig. 5. Percentage of incidence of opercular deformities among 40- day-old milkfish larvae. Control, larvae fed
Chlorella-cultured rotifers and newly hatched Artemia; HUFAs only, larvae fed rotifers and Artemia
enriched with high unsaturated fatty acids (HUFAs); HUFAs + C, larvae fed rotifers and Artemia
enriched with HUFAs + vitamin C. For each trial, different letters for the treatment means indicate a
significant difference (p < 0.05) (modified from Gapasin et al., 1998).
236 Franklin S. Martinez, Mei-Chen Tseng and Sin-Ping Yeh

Table 3. Feed formulae for milkfish in different stages of development (Lim et al., 2002)
Ingredient (%) Fry Grow-out Broodstock
(40% protein) (27% protein) (36% protein)
Fish-meal 30.0 10.0 23.0
Soybean meal 20.0 34.5 33.0
Shrimp meal 15.0
Wheat flour 25.45 15.0
Grains by product 48.0
Marine fish oil 8.0 2.0 2.5
Rice bran 21.0
Pellet binder 3.0 3.0
Vitamin mix 1.0 0.5 1.0
Dicalcium phosphate 1.5 1.0
Antioxidant 0.05
Trace mineral mix 0.5 0.5 0.5
Total 100.0 100.0 100.0

Survival (%) FCR

100 3
90 a
c b b
80 d 2.5
e e e
Survival rate (%)

70 2
60
c c c

FCR
50 1.5
40 b b b
30 1
a a
20 0.5
10
0 0
D-1 (0%) D-2 (5%) D-3 (10%) D-4 (15%) D-5 (20%) D-6 (25%)D-7 (30%) CMF
Diet (% of subtitution of total protein with pea meal)

Fig. 6. Response of milkfish juveniles to the various diets after 12 weeks of feeding. The control diet (D-1)
contained fishmeal, soybean meal, meat and bone meal, and copra meal as the principal protein
sources. Feed pea meal was progressively substituted at 0% (D-1), 5% (D-2), 10% (D-3), 15% (D-4),
20% (D-5), 25% (D-6), and 30% (D-7) of the total protein and was compared with commercial milkfish
feed (CMF). Different letters for the treatment means indicate a significant difference at p < 0.05
(modified from Borlongan et al., 2003).

with pea meal, respectively). However, it
was observed that milkfish fed diets with up
to 15% and 20% levels of feed pea meal had
better FCRs than those on the commercial
feed control. (Fig. 6)
As with other aquaculture species, the
feeding rate depends on the fish size and
environmental conditions like water tempera-
ture, dissolved oxygen, and the presence of
natural food. Normally feed is offered two or
three times daily and is distributed by hand or
automatic feeders according to the biomass
in the ponds or cages. Supplementary feed
can be offered at a rate (% of biomass) of
20% for fry and 9% for juveniles, and at 3%~
% of body weight for growth to harvest size
(Lim et al., 2002).
 Milkfish Culture in the Asian-Pacific Region
DISEASE PROBLEMS
Diseases are more frequent in cultured
animals than in natural populations; in captivity,
fish begin to compete with each other for space,
feed, and dissolved oxygen. Fish pathogens
are often present in the water, but healthy
fish can normally resist those present in culture
systems until stresses become too great
(Tucker, 1998). Diseases can be classified
into two types: contagious (caused by bacteria,
parasites, fungi, and viruses) and non-
contagious (caused by inadequate environ-
mental conditions).
Bacteria are secondary opportunistic
pathogens and under normal environmental
conditions cause no problems for farmed fish.
Bacteria become pathogenic only when the
balance of the host and environment is
altered by increasing stocking densities, by
inadequate nutrition, by deteriorating water
quality, and by rough handling and other
stressful factors (Seng and Colorni, 2002).
The major bacterial infections among warm
freshwater fishes are septicemia caused by
Aeromonas and Pseudomonas, streptococcal
diseases, enteric septicemia, and columnaris
disease, the latter caused by Flexibacter
columnaris (Lio-Po and Lim, 2002). Stress
reduces the resistance of fish to infections by
microbial organisms. Disease outbreaks in
milkfish are not an exception to this rule, and
have been attributed to bacterial, mycotic,
and parasitic causes; there are also handling
stress-related diseases and morphological
deformities in young milkfish larvae (Lee,
1995). Problems such as larval mass
mortalities and incidences of deformities are
still experienced. Morphological malforma-
tions have been observed in hatchery milkfish
juveniles. These kinds of abnormalities are
primarily a fissure on the branchiostegal
membrane (associated with a deformity due
to the partial or total absence of its supporting
branchiostegal rays) and a deformed oper-
culum (Hilomen-Garcia, 1997).
Hilomen-Garcia (1997) found that fry
captured in the wild did not develop similar
proportions of abnormalities when they were
reared in tanks. Slow growth and a high
237
mortality rate were associated with opercular
and branchiostegal abnormalities (Hilomen-
Garcia, 1997; Gapasin et al., 1998). Cruz-
Lacierda et al. (2004) reported that infesta-
tions by the parasitic dinoflagellate Amyloodinium
ocellatum in hatchery-reared milkfish caused
100% mortality in the Philippines. The same
authors additionally described how A. ocellatum
causes local erosion of fish skin and
degeneration of epithelial cells at the sites of
attachment of the parasite onto the body
surface. High infestations of this parasite on
fish may contribute to severe alterations of
fish gills, disruption of the host’s skin, and
feeding of the parasites on epithelial cells of
the host. In Table 4, the principal diseases in
milkfish production as well as symptoms and
possible control measures are summarized.
HARVESTING, MARKETING AND
PRODUCTION IN THE ASIA-
PACIFIC REGION
It is difficult to compare aquaculture
products with wild fishery products, due to
variations in terms of genetics, feed composi-
tion, and growth conditions which definitely
influence certain characteristics of the final
product such as texture, flavor, oil content,
etc. (Lucas and Southgate, 2003). The
quality of fish meat can be also affected by
the harvest procedures (Tucker, 1998). In
order to reduce the stress and injury to fish
when they are being handled, it is very
important to keep in mind some recom-
mendations suggested by Tucker (1998).
- Stop feeding the fish before handling or
harvest.
- Use non-abrasive handling materials to
catch fish.
- Prevent alarming fish excessively and
unnecessarily.
- Provide excellent water conditions while
fish are being handled.
Free amino acids (FAAs) are partly
responsible for particular tastes of seafood;
the predominant FAAs in white muscle of
milkfish are histidine, taurine, and glycine at
35.5, 12.8, and 12.0 µmole/g of wet weight,
respectively (Shiau et al., 2001). In a starva-
tion experiment, Shiau et al. (2001) demon-
238 Franklin S. Martinez, Mei-Chen Tseng and Sin-Ping Yeh

Table 4. Principal disease problems in milkfish under aquaculture conditions (Lee, 1995)
Type of Description Biological causes Physical factors Treatment and
disease prevention
Bacterial
infections
Red spot or - Red spot and ulcers on Vibrio anguillarum - Cold water - Vaccination
vibriosis the body (mainly on the Prevention: temperatures - Bacteriophage
abdominal region) Lower stocking density - Overcrowding - Antibiotics
- Hemorrhage of eyes, and provision of good - Poor water - Disinfectant bath
mouth, and inner water quality quality
surface of gills
- Pale gills
Fin rot or - Frayed fins Flexibacter columnaris - Changes in pH - Antibiotics
columnaris - Hemorrhagic wounds Prevention: and temperature, (oxytetracycline,
disease - Excess of white mucus Lower stocking density Low dissolved sulphadiazine)
on the skin and provision of good oxygen - Malachite green
- Missing scales water quality, plus - High ammonia - Copper sulfate
- Lesions in the mouth avoidance of folic acid and levels
inositol
Septicemia - Loss of scales Aeromonas hydrophila - Stressed fish - Antibiotic therapy
- Hemorrhages of the Prevention: under poor water (oxytetracycline)
gills, anus, mouth, and Lower stocking density conditions
fins and provision of good
- Skin ulcers water quality
- Accumulation of ascetic
fluid
Mycotic
Infections
Milky eye - White adipose lid over Fungal infection - Stress after Bath using:
infection the eyes handling - Potassium
- Fungal hyphae in Prevention: (sampling, permanganate
lesions Reduce fish handling as transport, - Malachite green
much as possible harvesting)
- Low water
temperature
Parasitic
Infections
Copepoda - Loss of weight Genus Lernae - Overcrowding Bath using:
- Gill damage Prevention: - Warm water - 3%~5% NaCl
- Inflammation and ulcers Drain and dry the bottom temperature - Sodium chloride
at the Point of of ponds
attachment

strated that the histidine concentration
decreased by approximately 46% after 60
days of starvation, compared to the milkfish
control group, which were fed normally during
the same period of time. The author also
demonstrated that the body weight decreased
as the fasting period increased from 0 to 60
days, and the hepatosomatic index dramatically
decreased after the first 10 days of starvation
(Fig. 7). Additionally starvation resulted in
important reductions in proteins and fat of
11% and 54%, respectively, in white muscle
 Milkfish Culture in the Asian-Pacific Region 239

Weight HIS
50 2
a
40 a
ab 1.5
bc
Weight (g)

30 b c

HSI (%)
c d 1
20 d
d
0.5
10

0 0
0 10 25 40 60
Period of starvation (days)
Fig. 7. Reduction in body weight and the hepatosomatic index (HIS) of milkfish during 60 days of starvation
(modified from Shiau et al., 2001).

Protein Crude fat

21 3
a a 2.5
20

b 2 Crude fat (%)

Protein (%)

19 a a b

c 1.5
ab
18
bc 1

17 c 0.5

16 0
0 10 25 40 60
Period of starvation (days)
Fig. 8. Reduction in the protein and crude fat composition in white muscle of milkfish during 60 days of starva-
tion (modified from Shiau et al., 2001).

of milkfish (Fig. 8).
Special care should be taken during milk-
fish manipulation due to consumer preferences,
particularly when fish is marketable in a fresh
condition. Milkfish harvesting techniques
depend on the rearing method and design of
the ponds. Juario (1988) and Pillay & Kutty
(2005) described the harvest methodology
related to the culture system.
- Completely draining the ponds is a method
that very few farmers use because fish
harvested in this manner may have a
240 Franklin S. Martinez, Mei-Chen Tseng and Sin-Ping Yeh

muddy taste or smell; it is difficult to in the fish is substantially reduced.

completely remove the mud that adheres
to the fish during harvest.
- In the Philippines, farmers use special
catching ponds; this method takes advantage
of the tendency of milkfish to swim against
the current. Water in the rearing pond is
partially drained during low tide. Then, at
high tide, water is allowed into the pond.
During this procedure, the fish will swim
into the catching pond through the gate,
and then when the majority of the fish are
in the catching pond, the gate is closed
and fish are then seined. A small number
of fish remain with this process, but these
are harvested after totally draining the pond.
With this system, the risk of a muddy flavor
- Other farmers usually employ gills or serine
nets; these nets are commonly used to
harvest fish reared in pens, but in the
process, serious injury can occur and some
scales could be lost, which can affect the
market price in most cases. Then the
ponds are drained to pick up the remaining
fish after netting.
Indonesia, the Philippines, and Taiwan
are the largest producers in the Asian-Pacific
region (Sugiyama et al., 2004). Total milkfish
production in Indonesia and the Philippines
remained relative stable (between 150,000
and 160,000 MT) during 1992 to 1998 and a
considerably increment (production over
200,000 MT) of milkfish production was

A Indonesia Philippines Taiwan

300

250
Thousands metric tons

200

150

100

50

B
450
400
Value (thousands US$)

350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004
Years
Fig. 9. Major milkfish producing countries: Indonesia, the Philippines, and Taiwan. (A) aquaculture production
and (B) values from 1990 to 2004 (FAO FishStat database, 2004).
 Milkfish Culture in the Asian-Pacific Region
achieved from 1998 to 2002 particularly in the
Philippines and Indonesia (FitzGerald, 2004).
Milkfish production for 2002 from the major
producers countries in the Asian-Pacific
region is presented in Fig. 9. In Taiwan,
milkfish is produced on about 10,000 ha
(Chiang et al., 2004), and the production of
this fish reached a peak of 77,921 MT in 2003
(Taiwan Fisheries Yearbook, 2004). Taiwan
has become the most technically advanced
and has reached the highest production/ha/
year (8~12 MT/ha) (Chiang et al, 2004)
compared with the Philippines (4~10 MT/ha)
and Indonesia (< 1 MT/ha).
FUTURE PERSPECTIVES
Currently milkfish is the most important
inland farm-raised fish cultured in Taiwan.
Maturation of the larval rearing technology in
1984 (Lin, 1985; Liao, 2005) and the tremendous
quantities of fry production not only provide
milkfish farmers of Taiwan with ample supplies,
but have also opened the export market to
other neighboring countries like the Philippines,
Indonesia, and Thailand (Chien et al. 1997).
The development of more-efficient culture
systems has resulted in higher milkfish
production, which has been quite reliable to
the present time. Wild milkfish are distributed
around the world. The dispersal history of
populations has still not yet been completely
studied. The origin of milkfish is still a
mysterious puzzle even today. For the
sustainable development of milkfish culture,
we must attach importance to the manage-
ment and conservation of wild populations.
Therefore, understanding the population
structure and evolutionary history of milkfish
is urgently needed research. Additionally,
as far as culturing problems are concerned
and avoiding disease outbreaks, we must
adequately control the quality of water and
supply optimal feedstuff. Simultaneously,
researchers ought to promote biotechnolo-
gical development to increase growth rates,
improve the tolerance of fish to low tempera-
tures, and raise the disease resistance of
milkfish.
241
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244 Franklin S. Martinez, Mei-Chen Tseng and Sin-Ping Yeh

虱目魚養殖之現狀與趨勢
Franklin S. Martinez1, Mei-Chen Tseng2* and Sin-Ping Yeh2

(2006 年 7 ㈪ 10 ㈰收件；2006 年 8 ㈪ 20 ㈰接受)

在這篇文章㆗，我們綜述現今虱目魚(Chanos chanos)的生物㈻研究，提供其生態生活
史，繁殖㈻，仔魚產量，養殖方法，遺傳㈻㆖的㈾訊和商業㆖之重要性。虱目魚是虱目魚
科㆗唯㆒的魚種，屬暖㈬性海㈬魚類，在亞洲-太平洋區域被廣泛的養殖，現在是東南亞㆞
區最重要的養殖魚種。對於㊞尼、菲律賓和台灣而言，虱目魚養殖佔㈲重要的經濟價值。
㉂ 2000 年開始，台灣每年總產量超過㆕㈩㈤萬公噸。然而，虱目魚產量面臨極限，最主要
的原因是仔魚供給㆖的限制。傳統㆖虱目魚產量是依靠野生魚苗的捕獲，但是虱目魚的種
魚㆟工孵化場，已經成功的完成了㆟工繁殖。目前虱目魚產量最主要來㉂於㆟工養殖，在
台灣成功和發達的㈽業㆗，虱目魚㆟工繁殖魚苗的外銷，在經濟㆖佔㈲重要的㆞位。

關鍵詞：虱目魚，生活史，生殖生物㈻，養殖方法。

1
國立屏東科技大學熱帶農業研究所
2
國立屏東科技大學水產養殖系
* 通訊作者