Bones

Defination: Bone is highly vascular, living, constantly changing

mineralized rigid form of connective tissue. Composed of cells &
Or, substance.
dense (calcified) intracellular

Bone is a specialized connective tissue composed of calcified

intercellular material, the bone matrix, and three cell types:

Osteocytes (Gr. osteon, bone + kytos, cell), which are found

in cavities (lacunae) between layers (lamellae) of bone
Mature osteoblast & not secrete
matrix matrix

Osteoblasts (osteon + Gr. blastos, germ), which synthesize

the organic components of (Bone
the matrix.
forming cell): Secrete osteoid -forms
matrix (organic), also begins mineralization.
Not divide.
Osteoclasts (osteon + Gr. klastos, broken), which are multi-
nucleated giant cells involved in the resorption and
remodeling of bone tissue.
Fused together, concentrated in
endosteum.
Osteoprogenitor cell : Immature cells differentiate to make
osteoblast. May divide. Derived from mesenchyme.

Bone lining cell : Quiescent osteoblast covering the bone

Function:
1. Form rigid framework of body (support & shape) –
skeleton
2. Serve as leaver – locomotion
3. Protect some viscera – protection
4. Contain bone marrow manufacture blood cell -
haemopoesis
5. Store house of Calcium & phosphorus

In Matrix only In Periosteum + Endosteum In Endosteum

only
 Some points

Endosteum :
1. Highly vascular memebrane lines the
medullary (internal) cavity of compact bone
2. Composed of single layer of flattened
osteoprogenitor cells & very small CT
Periosteum:
Defination: It is a fibrovascular cellular
membrane which covers the bone except
articular surfaces where it is covered by
articular cartilages
Consist of 2 layer:
1. Outer fibrous layer – Collagen fibers &
Fibroblast
2. Inner cellular layer – Fibroblast like
osteoprogenitor cell
*** Sharpey’s fiber : Bundles of periosteal
collagen fiber, penetrate bone matrix, binding
the periosteum to bone
Function:
1. Nutrition 2. Osteogenic
3. Protective 4. Limiting
1. Osteoblasts secrete type I
collagen, several glycoproteins, &
proteoglycans.
2. Osteocalcin and certain
glycoproteins, bind Ca2+ with high
affinity,
3. Osteoblasts also release
very small membrane-enclosed
matrix vesicles with which alkaline
phosphatase and other enzymes
are associated
4. These enzymes hydrolyze
PO4 ions from various
macromolecules, creating a high
concentration of these ions locally
5. The high ion concentrations
cause crystals of CaPO4 to form on
the matrix vesicles.
6. The crystals grow &
mineralize further with formation of
small growing masses of
hydroxyapatite [Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2]
EMBRYOLOGY OF LIMB BUD
Embryonic development of the limbs begins - from ovulation
At about 4 weeks - With the appearance of the arm buds and
the leg buds shortly
afterwards.
By around 5 weeks - the finger and toe rays become
differentiated.
By then primitive skeletal elements and pre-
muscle masses have begun to differentiate in the
limbs.
From about 6 weeks - the primitive cartilaginous bone-models
start to become vascularized and primary
ossification centres appear in the chondroid
anlage. By now spinal nerves would be growing
into the limbs.
At 7 or 8 weeks - cavitation occurs where the joints will
appear and during the next few weeks the
cartilaginous epiphyseal precursors become
vascularized.
Between 8 and 12 weeks - the primitive joints and synovium
become defined.
Bone formation in the cartilaginous model progresses along the
diaphysis but the epiphyseal ends remain unossified until after birth.
The entire sequence has been aptly summarized as
condensation → chondrification → ossification.

Soon after birth

Secondary ossification centres appear in the still cartilaginous
ends of the tubular bones, in all the endochondrial bones
(bones formed in cartilage).
By then each bone end is defined as an epiphysis, the still-growing
cartilage beyond
that as the physis and the shaft as the diaphysis.
Longitudinal growth continues until epiphysis is fully ossified & fused to
the diaphysis.
At the same time an increase in bone girth occurs by a different
process – appositional bone formation by generative cells in the
deepest layer of the periosteum.

After the end of bone growth no further increase in size occurs, but
bone and joint remodelling continues throughout life.
diarthrodial
threemain joints protection
functions: support, accommodate both compressive
and leverage and
tensile forces.
Bone cells
There are three types of bone cell: osteoblasts, osteocytes and osteoclasts.

Osteoblasts
 Derived from mesenchymal precursors in the bone marrow and
periosteum (the deep layer)
 Osteoblasts are concerned with bone formation and osteoclast activation.
 Bone morphogenetic proteins (growth factor) control differentiation of
osteoblast
 Mature osteoblasts form rows of small (20 μm) mononuclear cells along the
free surfaces of trabeculae and haversian systems where osteoid is laid
down prior to calcification.
 They are rich in alkaline phosphatase and are responsible for the
production of type
I collagen as well as the non-collagenous bone proteins and for the
mineralization of bone matrix
 Stimulated by parathyroid hormone (PTH),
 they play a critical role in the initiation and control of osteoclastic activity
 At the end of each bone remodelling cycle the osteoblasts either
o remain on the newly formed bone surface as quiescent lining cells
or
o they become embedded in the matrix as ‘resting’ osteocytes.
 During advanced ageing their numbers decrease

Osteocytes
 These cells can be regarded as spent osteoblasts; however, they are by no
means inactive.
 Lying in their bony lacunae, they communicate with each other and with
the surface lining cells by slender cytoplasmic processes.
 Their function is obscure: they may, under the influence of PTH, participate
in bone
 resorption (‘osteocytic osteolysis’) and calcium ion transport
 It has also been suggested that they are sensitive to mechanical stimuli
and communicate information and changes in stress and strain to the
active osteoblasts which can then modify their osteogenic activity
accordingly.
 Ultimately the ageing osteocytes are phagocytosed during osteoclastic
bone resorption and remodelling.

Osteoclasts
These large multinucleated cells are the principal mediators of bone resorption.
They develop from mononuclear precursors in the haemopoietic marrow (the
same lineage as macrophages) under the influence of local osteoblastic stromal
cells that generate an essential osteoclast differentiating factor –. receptor
activator of nuclear factor-ligand
(RANKL) – which binds with a specific receptor site (RANK) on the osteoclast
precursors.
Mature osteoclasts have a foamy appearance, due to the presence of numerous
vesicles in the cytoplasm.
In response to appropriate stimuli the osteoclast forms a sealed attachment to a
bone surface, where the cell membrane develops a ruffled border within which
bone resorption takes place.
This process, and the important interactions between RANKL and RANK,
Following resorption of the bone matrix, the osteoclasts are left in shallow
excavations – Howship’s lacunae– along free bone surfaces. By identifying these
excavations one can distinguish ‘resorption surfaces’ from the smooth ‘formation
surfaces’ or ‘resting surfaces’
in histological sections.

Immature bone – woven bone

Mature bone – lamellar bone
2 structural variant forms
Cortical bone
Cancellous bone