Journal of Archaeological Science (1999) 26, 923–933

Article No. jasc.1999.0401, available online at http://www.idealibrary.com on

The Organic Geochemistry of Jet: Pyrolysis-gas

Chromatography/Mass Spectrometry (Py-GCMS) Applied to
Identifying Jet and Similar Black Lithic
Materials—Preliminary Results
S. Watts* and A. M. Pollard
Department of Archaeological Sciences, University of Bradford, Bradford, U.K.

G. A. Wolff
Environmental Organic Chemistry and Geochemistry Group, Oceanography Laboratories, Department of Earth
Sciences, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, U.K.

Jet, cannel coal, lignite and torbanite are some of the materials that were used in the past to make black shiny
ornaments. Distinguishing between these different materials has proven difficult. They all originate from organic
sedimentary deposits, which can be classified according to the organic matter from which they were formed, the type
of deposit, and its geological maturity. Pyrolysis-gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (py-GCMS) is a commonly
used method for the analysis of complex macromolecules, such as the preserved organic matter found in organic-rich
sediments. Preliminary results of py-GCMS analyses of samples of jet and other workable black lithic materials are
reported here. Distinctive pyrolysis products were identified for each sample analysed, that reflect their different organic
precursors and depositional environment. The pyrolysis products of torbanite and cannel coal samples were dominated
by a series of normal hydrocarbons. Conversely, samples derived from wood precursors, such as lignite and jet
produced predominantly phenol, methylphenol and methoxyphenol. The lignite and Whitby jet samples could be
discriminated by the differences in the distribution of normal hydrocarbons produced on pyrolysis. Organo-sulphur
compounds, such as thiophenes, were predominant in the pyrolysis products of Kimmeridge oil shale.
 1999 Academic Press

Keywords: JET, CANNEL COAL, LIGNITE, TORBANITE, WHITBY, KIMMERIDGE, PYROLYSIS-GAS

CHROMATOGRAPHY/MASS SPECTROMETRY.

Introduction formed, and has been successfully applied to the

study of selected artefacts (Smith & Owens, 1983;

T
he problem of distinguishing between jet and
other black lithic materials found amongst
archaeological assemblages is one which has
been addressed by a number of different analytical
approaches (Watts & Pollard, 1996). Jet has a limited
availability, and therefore is often assumed to be a high
status, valuable commodity in comparison to other
more ubiquitous raw materials, such as cannel coal, oil
shale and lignite. This assumption can only be assessed
when the different black lithic materials are reliably
identified as jet or otherwise. The materials worked
originate from organic matter in sedimentary deposits,
and are rich in organic carbon which makes them soft
and easy to carve. Microscopic examination of pol-
ished sections from the artefacts provides detailed
information on the organic constituents of the
materials, and the type of deposit in which they were
*Current address: The Conservation Centre, National Museums and
Galleries on Merseyside, Whitechapel, Liverpool, U.K.
923
0305–4403/99/080923+11 $30.00/0
Teichmüller, 1992; Allason-Jones & Jones, 1994).
However, the relatively large sample size required for
organic petrology precludes its use for the routine
analysis of many of the small artefacts, such as beads,
which are common amongst archaeological assem-
blages of black shiny ornaments. An alternative
approach to the study of these materials has been to
analyse their inorganic elemental composition using
non-destructive techniques such as X-ray fluorescence
and X-radiography (Pollard, Bussell & Baird, 1981;
Hunter et al., 1993; Davis, 1993). This has enabled
whole artefact assemblages to be analysed, but since
the inorganic constituents of organic sediments are
variable, the artefacts can only be classified into broad
categories of material-type and these categories are not
always reliable (Watts, 1996).
This paper presents the results of preliminary
research into the use of pyrolysis-gas chromatography/
mass spectrometry (py-GCMS) to distinguish between
 1999 Academic Press
924 S. Watts et al.
jet and other workable black lithic materials. Whilst
analytical techniques, which provide information on
the chemistry of organic constituents in black lithic
materials, have been applied to the problem of identi-
fication (e.g., Sales et al., 1987; Lambert, Frye &
Jurkiewicz, 1992; Hunter et al., 1993), the results have
not been interpreted with reference to the geology and
geochemistry of the materials analysed. The work
outlined here forms part of a research project which
aims to characterize the black lithic materials geo-
chemically, and investigate how information on the
nature of the constituent organic matter and the
environment in which it was preserved can be used
to classify the materials found amongst archaeo-
logical assemblages, and provide information on their
geological origin (Watts, 1996).
Py-GCMS and Kerogen Typing
Much of the organic matter in organic-rich sediments
(and hence in the black materials worked to make
ornaments) is present in an insoluble macromolecular
form known as kerogen. Although the chemical struc-
ture of kerogen is extremely complex, it has been
shown to vary according to its precursor organic
matter and its depositional environment. Four broad
types of kerogen have been defined according to their
H/C and O/C atomic ratios (Durand, 1980; Tissot &
Welte, 1984; Killops & Killops, 1993). In immature
sediments the kerogen types have very different chemi-
cal compositions, but with increasing maturity they
begin to merge.
Type I
Type I kerogens initially have a high H/C atomic ratio
(1·5 or higher in immature sediments), and are rich in
aliphatic material derived from lipids, especially algal
remains. Typical examples are the Scottish torbanites,
which contain high concentrations of algal material
derived from lacustrine Botryococcus-type algae.
Type II
Type II kerogens are usually derived from marine
planktonic or plant lipid precursors, and have an
intermediate H/C atomic ratio (in the region of 1·2
to 1·6 for relatively immature sediments). They tend
to have higher concentrations of polyaromatic and
heteroatomic groups (especially sulphur heterocycles)
than type I kerogens. Generally they have abundant
medium-length aliphatic chains, and they are rich in
polycyclic alkanes and alkenes. Kerogens from many
of the Jurassic oil shales of Western Europe—e.g.,
Kimmeridge oil shale—fall into this category.
Types III and IV
Type III kerogens have low H/C atomic ratios
(approximately 1·0 or less) and relatively high O/C
atomic ratios when they are immature (up to 0·3). They
have high proportions of polyaromatic structures.
Aliphatic groups are not as concentrated as in types I
and II, and where present they have varying chain
lengths depending on their precursors (higher plant
cuticular waxes or cellular fats, for example). This type
of kerogen is generally derived from terrestrial plant
material and has many compositional similarities to
the organic matter in humic coals.
A fourth type of kerogen (type IV) which has a very
low H/C atomic ratio (less than 0·7) has also been
identified (Harwood, 1977; Tissot & Welte, 1984: 155),
and is thought to be formed from organic matter which
was highly oxidized prior to its deposition. Organic
sediments which contain predominantly type IV kero-
gen are not readily worked for making ornaments, and
thus need no further consideration here.
Py-GCMS is an important technique for kerogen
characterization, because it involves the thermal deg-
radation of the complex component macromolecules,
to produce characteristic mixtures of volatile pyrolysis
products (the technique is described in detail by Larter
& Horsfield, 1993). The question of the reproducibility
of py-GCMS analyses of organic sediments has been
discussed by several authors (e.g., Horsfield, 1984;
Larter & Horsfield, 1993). Although analytical pyroly-
sis techniques only analyse the portion of the sample
which is pyrolitically volatile, comparative studies
using 13C NMR have shown that the results obtained
from pyrolysis methods, particularly Curie-point and
filament systems, are generally representative of the
sample as a whole (Larter & Horsfield, 1993).
The aim of this preliminary investigation was to
obtain py-GCMS fingerprints from some examples of
the black lithic materials which were used in antiquity
for the manufacture of ornaments, in order to compare
the usefulness of py-GCMS with other techniques. The
results presented here provide general information on
the chemical structure of the different materials, which
can be related to their precursor and depositional
environments. It is therefore of interest to assess the
extent to which such information can be used to
discriminate not just between different classes of
material, but also between similar materials from
different geographical sources.
Experimental
As a pilot study, six geological samples from U.K.
sources of black lithic materials were analysed: lignite
from Tertiary deposits at Bovey Tracy, Devon; torban-
ite from Bathville, Scotland; cannel coal from the
Silkstone Seam at Kellingley colliery, South Yorkshire;
oil shale from the Kimmeridge Blackstone seam at
Kimmeridge Bay in Dorset; jet from the Jet Rock series
of bituminous shales at Whitby, North Yorkshire; and
also a sample of jet from within the Blackstone seam at
Kimmeridge, Dorset. Details of the provenance of
Table 1. Origin and source of geological samples
Sample
Lignite (L1)
Torbanite (T2)
Cannel coal (CC3A)
Kimmeridge oil shale (KS3)
Whitby jet (WJ1)
Kimmeridge jet (KJ1)
Source location Origin
Bovey Tracey, Devon, England Hunterian Museum
Bathville, Scotland Hunterian Museum (ref. no.
M4209)
Silkstone Seam, Kellingley Colliery, Simon Cochrane, former British
England Coal geologist at Kellingley
Colliery
Blackstone 200 m E of Clavell’s Collected by one of the authors
Hard, Kimmeridge bottom of seam (S.W.)
Whitby, Thorndale Shaft Seam A Collected by one of the authors
(S.W.)
Blackstone seam at Kimmeridge Collected by Dr R.V. Tyson,
University of
Newcastle-upon-Tyne
Geology Microscopic constituents
Tertiary Huminite
Carboniferous Alginite (Botryococcus-type) in mineral
matrix. Occasional vitrinite and inertinite
Lower Coal Measures, Micrinite groundmass, inertodetrinite,
Carboniferous alginite
Upper Jurassic Groundmass of finely divided mineral
matter intermixed with fluorescing
bituminite. Occasional vitrinite, inertinite
and liptinite,
Lower Jurassic Huminite with strong fluorescence from
impregnating bitumen
Upper Jurassic Huminite
The Organic Geochemistry of Jet 925
926 S. Watts et al.

Figure 1. (a)–(c).
 The Organic Geochemistry of Jet 927

Figure 1. (d)–(f).
Figure 1. Pyrolysis chromatograms (total ion current) of: (a) lignite, (b) torbanite, (c) cannel coal, (d) Kimmeridge oil shale, (e) Whitby jet, (f)
Kimmeridge jet. Peak numbers refer to compounds listed in Table 2. Pyrolysis products listed in Table 2 but not marked on these
chromatograms were either absent or only present in trace quantities. Normal hydrocarbons are not marked, since normal alkane series are
illustrated in Figure 2.
928 S. Watts et al.

Table 2. Identification of peaks labelled in Figure 1, together with their relative retention indices (RRI-DB1) and the
diagnostic fragment ions in their mass spectra

Peak number Compound RRI-DB1 Fragment ions m/z

1 benzene 641 78
2 thiophene 646 84, 58, 45
3 toluene 748 92, 91
4 methylthiophene 749 98, 97
5 m/p-xylene 851 106, 91
6 dimethylthiophene 851 112, 111, 97
7 o-xylene 872 106, 91
8 phenol 980 94, 66
9 methoxyphenol 1063 124, 109, 81
10 methylphenol 1068 108, 107
11 tetramethylbenzene 1128 134, 119
12 dimethylphenol 1160 122, 107
13 methylmethoxyphenol 1169 138, 123, 95
14 dimethylbenzofuran 1189 146, 145, 131
15 methylnaphthalene 1276 142, 141, 115
16 dimethylbenzothiophene 1378 162, 147, 128

these samples, and their microscopically observed
constituents are given in Table 1.
Analyses were carried out on whole rock samples,
which had previously been ground and homogenized in
a ball mill. The samples (2–3 mg) were pyrolysed using
a Horizon Instruments Curie-point pyrolysis unit at a
temperature of 610C for 2 s, after being compressed
onto wires using a hydraulic press (15 tonnes). The
pyrolysis unit was attached to a Hewlett Packard
5890-A Gas Chromatograph and the pyrolysis prod-
ucts were transferred directly to a capillary column
(DB1; 30 m0·25 mm i.d.; 0·25 mm film thickness).
The temperature of the interface was 230C. The GC
oven was cryogenically cooled to
40C. This tem-
perature was held for 1 min, then increased at a rate of
6C per min to 300C and held for 10 min. The
HP5890-A GC was interfaced to a VG TS-250 mass
spectrometer. The GC column was fed directly into the
EI source, the transfer line being held at 300C. Typical
operating conditions of the mass spectrometer were:
accelerating voltage 4 kV; photomultiplier 300 V;
source temperature 220C; emission current 300 mA.
The mass spectrometer was scanned from 30–300 at 1 s
decade
1. The data were collected on a VAX 2000
workstation, and processed using VG OPUS software.
The pyrolysis products were identified according to
their mass spectra and relative retention times, with
reference to published mass spectra for these com-
pounds (Faix, Meier & Fortmann, 1990). The pyrolysis
chromatograms (TIC) are illustrated in Figure 1, and
the compounds labelled are listed in Table 2, with
their relative retention indices (DB1) and diagnostic
fragment ions.
Results and Discussion
Lignite
The pyrolysis products of the lignite sample are
dominated by alkyl-substituted benzenes, phenols and
methoxyphenol (Figure 1(a), peak nos. 1, 3, 5, 7, 8, 9,
10, 13). These are typical of the products derived from
lignin (Faix et al., 1990), and are characteristic of coals
and kerogens which have a major input of higher plant,
woody material, such as vitrinite-rich coals and type III
kerogens (Philp et al., 1982; Larter, 1984; Nip, de
Leeuw & Schenck, 1987).
A range of normal aliphatic hydrocarbons with
chain length C8–C30 is also evident. These are more
clearly illustrated in the chromatogram for the frag-
ment ion m/z 85 (Figure 2(a)). The aliphatic hydro-
carbons show an odd carbon number predominance;
in addition, the higher molecular weight aliphatic
products are the more abundant. This distribution of
normal hydrocarbons is typical of immature sediments
which have a high content of terrestrial organic
material, and presumably reflects a contribution from
leaf-wax alkanes (Philp, 1988).
Torbanite
Pyrolysis products from the torbanite sample (Figure
1(b)) differ considerably from the lignite (Figures 1(a)
& 2(a)) being dominated by aliphatic hydrocarbons (cf.
Figure 2(b)). Furthermore, the distribution of the latter
is significantly different to that of the lignite: the
torbanite sample shows no odd-over-even predomi-
nance in the normal aliphatic hydrocarbons, and the
higher molecular weight alkanes and alkanes are not
the most abundant. There is very little contribution
from aromatic compounds (peak nos. 1, 3, 5, 7),
this being typical of the pyrolysis chromatograms
from type I algal kerogens which include torbanites
(Douglas, Hall & Solli, 1983; Larter, 1984).
Cannel coal
Py-GCMS results for the cannel coal (Figures 1(c) &
2(c)) are similar to those from the torbanite sample

described above. Microscopic analysis of the same
cannel coal sample showed it to contain significant
quantities of the Botryococcus-type algal remains,
which are predominant in Scottish torbanites. The
highly aliphatic nature of other liptinite macerals
which are common constituents of cannel coals has
been demonstrated, for example by Nip, de Leeuw &
Schenck (1987) who analysed modern samples of plant
cuticle and a sample of the maceral cutinite by py-GC
to illustrate the abundance of alkanes and alkenes in
the pyrolysis products. The pyrolysis chromatogram of
the cannel coal shows higher concentrations of methyl-
benzene and dimethylbenzenes (peak nos. 3, 5 and 7)
than are evident in the torbanite sample, which prob-
ably reflects a larger contribution from higher-plant
derived material to the cannel coal (Larter, 1984).
Kimmeridge oil shale
The pyrolysis chromatogram produced by the
Kimmeridge oil shale sample is characterized by a high
concentration of aromatic and organo-sulphur com-
pounds (Figure 1(d)). Thiophene (peak no. 2), alkylthio-
phenes (peak nos. 4 and 6), and alkylbenzothiophenes
(peak no. 16) are common species in marine type II
kerogens (Douglas, Hall & Solli, 1983), and these are
abundant in the pyrolysis products of the Kimmeridge
oil shale. This is attributed to the reaction of unsaturated
or other reactive sites with hydrogen sulphide during
early diagenesis (Sinninghe-Damsté et al., 1989). A series
of aliphatic hydrocarbons was also detected, and is more
clearly illustrated by the mass chromatogram of the
fragment ion m/z 85 (Figure 2(d)). The lower molecular
weight alkanes and alkenes are predominant, which is
consistent with other analyses of organic sediments with
a marine origin (Larter, 1984).
Whitby jet
Py-GCMS analysis of Whitby jet yielded pyrolysis
products which were rich in aromatics, particularly
phenols (Figure 1(e)). The most abundant product is
methylphenol (peak no. 10), and other abundant com-
pounds are dimethylphenol (peak no. 12) and methyl-
naphthalene (peak no. 15). These products, which are
also present in the lignite, reflect the origin of the jet
from a wood precursor. However, in the jet, an un-
resolved complex mixture (UCM) and an enrichment
of aliphatic hydrocarbons is also apparent. Further-
more, the chromatogram of the fragment ion m/z 85
(Figure 2(e)) for py-GCMS analysis of the Whitby jet
illustrates the different distribution of normal hydro-
carbons compared to those in the lignite sample
(cf. Figure 2(a)). There is no predominance of odd-
numbered chains, or of higher molecular weight hydro-
carbons. The results of GCMS analyses of the
biomarkers present in the solvent extractable hydro-
carbon fractions from Whitby and Kimmeridge jet
have been reported elsewhere (Watts, Pollard & Wolff,
The Organic Geochemistry of Jet 929
1997), and suggested that the hydrocarbons in
the Whitby jet originate from bitumen generated in
the surrounding sediment which has migrated into the
wood structure.
Kimmeridge jet
The pyrolysis products from py-GCMS analysis of the
Kimmeridge jet show an abundance of the phenolic
compounds which are characteristic of lignin, such as
from methylphenol (Figure 2(f)), peak no. 10), as was
the case for the Whitby jet (cf. Figure 2(e)). The
Kimmeridge jet pyrolysis products do not include
abundant aliphatic hydrocarbons, and the analysis of
the extractable biomarkers in this sample indicated
that the host sediment is less mature, and has not
generated significant quantities of bitumen (Watts,
Pollard & Wolff, 1997). Relative proportions of the
thiophenes and alkylthiophenes (peak nos. 2 and 4) are
higher in the pyrolysis products of Kimmeridge jet
than in the Whitby jet, as they were in the pyrolysis
products of Kimmeridge shale (Figure 2(d)).
Conclusions
The preliminary results presented here are limited to
single geological samples of each material type, and
much more work is needed to investigate the compo-
sitional variation within individual deposits, and to
increase the data set that can be used as reference
material for archaeological samples by analysing
samples from other geological sources. However, this
work clearly illustrates the potential of py-GCMS for
the characterization of jet and other workable black
lithic materials. Table 3 summarizes the information
obtained, and identifies the pyrolysis products which
are useful for characterizing these different materials
and discriminating between them.
The results provide information on the organic pre-
cursors of the different materials, and on their depo-
sitional environment and geological maturity; this is
comparable to the information obtained by the micro-
scopic examination of polished sections. Since the
sampling requirements are minimal (a few milligrams
or less), py-GCMS is more appropriate for the analysis
of small archaeological artefacts. This detailed infor-
mation on the geochemistry of the sediments from
which the materials originate shows that py-GCMS
is potentially a powerful technique for identifying
the different materials found amongst archaeological
assemblages. Furthermore, the differences between the
pyrolysis products of jet samples from Kimmeridge
and Whitby suggest that the technique has potential
for discriminating between different sources of jet. It is
now essential that this approach is extended to study
the organic geochemistry of other European sources of
jet. If py-GCMS can provide as much information on
the geochemistry of different sources of jet as these
preliminary results suggest, the question of how many
930 S. Watts et al.

Figure 2. (a)–(c).
 The Organic Geochemistry of Jet 931

Figure 2. (d)–(f).
Figure 2. Pyrolysis mass chromatogram (m/z 85) showing normal hydrocarbon series in: (a) lignite, (b) torbanite, (c) cannel coal, (d)
Kimmeridge oil shale, (e) Whitby jet, (f) Kimmeridge jet.
932 S. Watts et al.
Table 3. Summary of characteristic pyrolysis products for samples analysed
Sample type Characteristic pyrolysis products
Lignite Lignin-derived phenols and methoxyphenols
Torbanite Abundant normal hydrocarbons. Low contribution
from aromatics
Cannel coal Abundant normal hydrocarbons. Higher contribution
from aromatics
Kimmeridge oil shale Thiophenes
Whitby jet Lignin-derived phenols and methoxyphenols
Kimmeridge jet Lignin-derived phenols and methoxyphenols. Low con-
centration of normal hydrocarbons
of the black lithic artefacts found in the archaeological
record actually originated from Whitby in the U.K.
can finally be reliably addressed.
Acknowledgements
We are grateful to an anonymous referee who helped
to improve the manuscript and to the following people
and institutions for providing geological samples
for this project: Dr R. V. Tyson (Fossil Fuels and
Environmental Geochemistry: Newcastle Research
Group, University of Newcastle-upon-Tyne), Dr J.
Faithfull (Hunterian Museum, Glasgow), Dr R.
Clements (Department of Earth Sciences, University
of Leicester), and Mr S. Cochrane (formerly of
Kellingley Colliery, British Coal). S. W. acknowledges
the support of a studentship provided initially by the
Scientific and Engineering Research Council and then
by the Natural Environment Research Council (ref. no.
GT4/92/17/B).
References
Allason-Jones, L. & Jones, J. M. (1994). Jet and other materials in
Roman artefact studies. Archaeologia Aeliana 5 Ser. 22, 263–272.
Davis, M. (1993). The identification of various jet and jet-like
materials used in the Early Bronze Age in Scotland. The Conser-
vator 17, 11–17.
Douglas, A. G., Hall, P. B. & Solli, I. (1983). Comparative organic
geochemistry of some European oil shales. In (F. P. Miknis &
J. F. McKay, Eds) Geochemistry and Chemistry of Oil Shales.
ACS Symposium Series No. 230. Washington, D.C.: American
Chemical Society, pp. 59–84.
Durand, B. (Ed.) (1980). Kerogen. Insoluble Organic Matter from
Sedimentary Rocks Paris: Edition Technip, 499 pp.
Faix, O., Meier, D. & Fortmann, I. (1990). Thermal degradation
products of wood; a collection of electron-impact mass spectra of
monomeric lignin derived products. Holz als Roh- und Werkstoff
48, 351–354.
Harwood, R. J. (1977). Oil and gas generation by laboratory
pyrolysis of kerogen. American Association of Petroleum Geol-
ogists Bulletin 61, 2082–2102.
Horsfield, B. (1984). Pyrolysis studies and petroleum exploration. In
(J. Brooks & D. Welte, Eds) Advances in Petroleum Geochemistry
Vol. 1. London: Academic Press Inc., pp. 248–298.
Distribution of normal hydrocarbons
Odd-over-even predominance. Higher molecular
weight n-alkanes and n-alkenes more abundant
Highest concentration of carbon chain lengths C17–
C21; no odd-over-even predominance
Highest concentration of carbon chain lengths C21–
C25; no odd-over-even predominance
Lower molecular weight n-alkanes and n-alkenes more
abundant
Highest concentration of carbon chain lengths C12–
C18; no odd-over-even predominance
N/A (very low concentrations of normal hydrocarbons
produced)
Hunter, F. J., McDonnell, J. G., Pollard, A. M., Morris, C. R. &
Rowlands, C. C. (1993). The scientific identification of archaeo-
logical jet-like artefacts. Archaeometry 35, 69–89.
Killops, S. D. & Killops, V. J. (1993). An Introduction to Organic
Geochemistry. Harlow, Essex: Longman Scientific and Technical.
Lambert, J. B., Frye, J. S. & Jurkiewicz, A. (1992). The provenance
and coal rank of jet by carbon-13 nuclear magnetic resonance
spectroscopy. Archaeometry 34, 121–128.
Larter, S. R. (1984). Application of analytical pyrolysis techniques to
kerogen characterization and fossil fuel exploration/exploitation.
In (K. J. Voorhees, Ed.) Analytical Pyrolysis: Techniques and
Applications. London: Butterworths, pp. 212–275.
Larter, S. R. & Horsfield, B. (1993). Determination of structural
components of kerogens by the use of analytical pyrolysis
methods. In (M. H. Engel & S. A. Macko, Eds) Organic Geochem-
istry; Principles and Applications. New York: Plenum Press,
pp. 271–287.
Nip, M., de Leeuw, J. W. & Schenck, P. A. (1987). Structural
characterization of coals, coal macerals and their precursors by
pyrolysis-gas chromatography and pyrolysis-gas chromatography-
mass spectrometry. In (J. A. Moulijn, Ed.) Proceedings of the 1987
International Conference on Coal Science. Amsterdam: Elsevier
Science Publishers B.V., pp. 89–92.
Pollard, A. M., Bussell, G. D. & Baird, D. C. (1981). The analytical
investigation of Early Bronze Age jet and jet-like material from the
Devizes Museum. Archaeometry 23, 139–167.
Philp, R. P. (1988). Biological markers in fossil fuel production. In
(E. A. Beaumont & N. H. Foster, Eds) Geochemistry; Treatise of
Petroleum Geology. Oklahoma: The American Association of
Petroleum Geologists, pp. 337–390.
Philp, R. P., Russell, N. J., Gilbert, T. D. & Friedrich, J. M. (1982).
Characterization of Victorian soft brown coal wood by micro-
scopic techniques and Curie-point pyrolysis combined with gas
chromatography-mass spectrometry. Journal of Analytical and
Applied Pyrolysis 4, 143–161.
Sales, K. D., Oduwole, J., Convert, J. & Robins, G. V. (1987).
Identification of jet and related black materials with ESR spec-
troscopy. Archaeometry 29, 103–109.
Sinninghe-Damsté, J. S. Rijpstra, W. I. C., De Leeuw, J. W. &
Schenck, P. A. (1989). The occurrence and identification of series
of organic sulfur compounds in oils and sediment extracts: II.
Their presence in samples from hypersaline and non-hypersaline
palaeoenvironments and possible source, palaeoenvironmental
and maturity indicators. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 53,
1323–1341.
Smith, A. H. V. & Owens, B. (1983). The Caergwrle Bowl: its
composition, geological source and archaeological sig-
nificance—an addendum. Institute of Geological Sciences Report
83(1), 24–27.
Teichmüller, M. (1992). Organic petrology in the service of archae-
ology. International Journal of Coal Geology 20, 1–21.

Tissot, B. P. & Welte, D. H. (1984). Petroleum Formation and
Occurrence. 2nd edn. Berlin: Springer-Verlag.
Watts, S. (1996). The geochemical characterisation of jet and jet-like
objects in archaeology. Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, University of
Bradford, U. K.
Watts, S. & Pollard, A. M. (1996). Methods of analysis for the
identification of archaeological jet and jet-like materials. In (S.
The Organic Geochemistry of Jet 933
Demirci, A. M. O } zer & G. D. Summers, Eds) Archaeometry 94: the
Proceedings of the 29th International Archaeometry Conference,
Ankara 9–14 May 1994. Ankara: Tubitak, pp. 101–108.
Watts, S., Pollard, A. M. & Wolff, G. A. (1997). Kimmeridge jet: a
potential new source for British jet. Archaeometry 39, 125–143.