Amplifier

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520 Part 1 Semiconductor Devices and Basic Applications
EXERCISE PROBLEM
Ex 7.12: For the circuit in Figure 7.55, the transistor parameters are
K n = 0.8 mA/V2 , VT N = 2 V, λ = 0, C gs = 100 fF, and C gd = 20 fF. Determine
(a) the midband voltage gain, (b) the Miller capacitance, and (c) the upper 3 dB fre-
quency of the small-signal voltage gain. (Ans. (a) Av = −6.69, (b) C M = 167.6 fF,
(c) f 3dB = 1.32 GHz)
VDD = 10 V
RD = 4 kΩ
R1 = 234 kΩ
vo
CC2 → ∞
Ri = 10 kΩ
CC1 → ∞
RL =
20 kΩ
vi + R2 = 166 kΩ
–
RS =
CS → ∞
0.5 kΩ
Figure 7.55 Figure for Exercise Ex 7.12
Test Your Understanding

TYU 7.9 An n-channel MOSFET has parameters K n = 0.4 mA/V2, VT N = 1 V, and
λ = 0. (a) Determine the maximum source resistance such that the transconduc-
tance is reduced by no more than 20 percent from its ideal value when VG S = 3 V.
(b) Using the value of rs calculated in part (a), determine how much gm is reduced
from its ideal value when VG S = 5 V. (Ans. (a) rs = 156 ", (b) 33.3%)
TYU 7.10 An n-channel MOSFET has a unity-gain bandwidth of f T = 1.2 GHz. As-
sume overlap capacitances of C gsp = C gdp = 3 fF, and assume kn′ = 100 µA/V2 ,
W/L = 15, and VT N = 0.4 V. If the transistor is biased at I D Q = 100 µA, determine
C gs . (Assume C gd is equal to zero.) (Ans. C gs = 66.6 fF)
TYU 7.11 For a MOSFET, assume that gm = 1.2 mA/V. The basic gate capacitances
are C gs = 60 fF, C gd = 0, and the overlap capacitances are C gsp = C gdp . Determine
the minimum overlap capacitance for a unity-gain bandwidth of 2.5 GHz. (Ans.
C gsp = C gdp = 8.2 fF)
7.6 HIGH-FREQUENCY RESPONSE

OF TRANSISTOR CIRCUITS
Objective: • Determine the high-frequency response of basic transis-

tor circuit configurations including the cascode circuit.
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Chapter 7 Frequency Response 521
In the last sections, we developed the high-frequency equivalent circuits for the bipo-
lar and field-effect transistors. We also discussed the Miller effect, which occurs
when transistors are operating in a circuit configuration. In this section, we will ex-
pand our analysis of the high-frequency characteristics of transistor circuits.
Initially, we will look at the high-frequency response of the common-emitter and
common-source configurations. We will then examine common-base and common-
gate circuits, and a cascode circuit that is a combination of the common-emitter and
common-base circuits. Finally, we will analyze the high-frequency characteristics of
emitter-follower and source-follower circuits. In the following examples, we will use
the same basic bipolar transistor circuit so that a good comparison can be made be-
tween the three circuit configurations.
7.6.1 Common-Emitter and Common-Source Circuits
The transistor capacitances and the load capacitance in the common-emitter ampli-
fier shown in Figure 7.56 affect the high-frequency response of the circuit. Initially,
we will use a hand analysis to determine the effects of the transistor on the high-
frequency response. In this analysis, we will assume that CC and C E are short cir-
cuits, and C L is an open circuit. A computer analysis will then be used to determine
the effect of both the transistor and load capacitances.
The high-frequency small-signal equivalent circuit of the common-emitter
circuit is shown in Figure 7.57(a) in which C L is assumed to be an open circuit. We
replace the capacitor Cµ with the equivalent Miller capacitance C M as shown in
Figure 7.57(b). From our previous analysis of the Miller capacitance, we can write
C M = Cµ (1 + gm R L′ ) (7.107)
where the output resistance R L′ is ro ∥RC ∥R L .
The upper 3 dB frequency can be determined by using the time constant tech-
nique. We can write
1
fH = (7.108)
2πτ P
V+
RC
R1
vo
RS
RL CL
+ CC1
vi –
R2
RE CE
V–
Figure 7.56 Common-emitter amplifier

RS Cm RS
Vo Vo
+ +
+ RB = Vi +
Vi V rp Cp ro RC RL – RB Vp rp Cp CM R'L
– R1⎪⎪R2 p gmVp
– gmVp
–
(a) (b)
Figure 7.57 (a) High-frequency equivalent circuit of common-emitter amplifier; (b) high-
frequency equivalent circuit of common-emitter amplifier, including the Miller capacitance
where τ P = Req Ceq . In this case, the equivalent capacitance is Ceq = Cπ + C M , and
the equivalent resistance is the effective resistance seen by the capacitance, Req =
|AV | rπ ∥R B ∥R S . The upper corner frequency is therefore
|AV | M
1
fH = (7.109)
2π[rπ ∥R B ∥R S ](Cπ + C M )
We determine the midband voltage gain magnitude by assuming Cπ and C M are
fH f open circuits. We find that
! ! " #
Figure 7.58 Bode plot of the ! Vo ! R B ∥rπ
|Av | M = !! !! = gm R L′ (7.110)
high-frequency voltage gain Vi M R B ∥rπ + R S
magnitude for the common-
emitter amplifier The Bode plot of the high-frequency voltage gain magnitude is shown in Figure 7.58.
EXAMPLE 7.13
Objective: Determine the upper corner frequency and midband gain of a common-
emitter circuit.
For the circuit in Figure 7.56, the parameters are: V + = 5 V, V − = −5 V,
R S = 0.1 k#, R1 = 40 k#, R2 = 5.72 k#, R E = 0.5 k#, RC = 5 k#, and R L =
10 k#. The transistor parameters are: β = 150, VB E (on) = 0.7 V, V A = ∞, Cπ =
35 pF, and Cµ = 4 pF.
Solution: From a dc analysis, we find IC Q = 1.03 mA. The small-signal parameters
are therefore gm = 39.6 mA/V and rπ = 3.79 k#.
The Miller capacitance is then
C M = Cµ (1 + gm R L′ ) = Cµ [1 + gm (RC ∥R L )]
or
C M = (4)[1 + (39.6)(5∥10)] = 532 pF
and the upper 3 dB frequency is therefore
1
fH =
2π[rπ ∥R B ∥R S ](Cπ + C M )
1
= ⇒ 2.94 MHz
2π[3.79∥40∥5.72∥0.1](103 )(35 + 532)(10−12 )
Finally, the midband gain is

! "
′ R B ∥rπ
|Av | M = gm R L
R B ∥rπ + R S
! "
40∥5.72∥3.79
= (39.6)(5∥10) = 126
40∥5.72∥3.79 + 0.1
Comments: This example demonstrates the importance of the Miller effect. The
feedback capacitance Cµ is multiplied by a factor of 133 (from 4 pF to 532 pF), and
the resulting Miller capacitance C M is approximately 15 times larger than Cπ . The
actual corner frequency is therefore approximately 15 times smaller than it would be
if Cµ were neglected.
PSpice Verification: Figure 7.59 shows the results of a PSpice analysis of this
common-emitter circuit. The computer values are: Cπ = 35.5 pF and Cµ = 3.89 pF.
The curve marked “Cπ only” is the circuit frequency response if Cµ is neglected; the
curve marked “Cπ and Cµ only” is the response due to Cπ , Cµ , and the Miller effect.
These curves illustrate that the bandwidth of this circuit is drastically reduced by the
Miller effect.
The corner frequency is approximately 2.5 MHz and the midband gain is 125,
which agree very well with the hand analysis results.
|AV |
200
100
Cp only
CL = 150 pF
10
Cp and Cm CL = 5 pF
only
1
104 105 106 107 108 109 f (Hz)
Figure 7.59 PSpice analysis results for common-emitter amplifier
The curves marked “C L = 5 pF” and “C L = 150 pF” show the circuit response
if the transistor is ideal, with zero Cπ and Cµ capacitances and a load capacitance
connected to the output. These results show that, for C L = 5 pF, the circuit re-
sponse is dominated by the Cπ and Cµ capacitances of the transistor. However, if a
large load capacitance, such as C L = 150 pF, is connected to the output, the circuit
response is dominated by the C L capacitance.
EXERCISE PROBLEM
*Ex 7.13: The transistor in the circuit in Figure 7.60 has parameters β = 125,
VB E (on) = 0.7 V, V A = 200 V, Cπ = 24 pF, and Cµ = 3 pF. (a) Calculate the
Miller capacitance. (b) Determine the upper 3 dB frequency. (c) Determine the
small-signal midband voltage gain. (Ans. (a) C M = 155 pF, (b) f H = 1.21 MHz,
(c) |Av | = 37.3)
+5 V
RC = 2.3 kΩ
R1 = 20 kΩ
vo
CC1 → ∞ CC2 → ∞
RL = 5 kΩ
RS = 1 kΩ
vi +–
R2 =
20 kΩ RE = CE → ∞
5 kΩ
–5 V
The high-frequency response of the common-source circuit is similar to that of

the common-emitter circuit, and the discussion and conclusions are the same.
Capacitance Cπ is replaced by C gs , and Cµ is replaced by C gd . The high-frequency
small-signal equivalent circuit of the FET is then essentially identical to that of the
bipolar transistor.
7.6.2 Common-Base, Common-Gate,

and Cascode Circuits
As we have just seen, the bandwidth of the common-emitter and common-source cir-
cuits is reduced by the Miller effect. To increase the bandwidth, the Miller effect, or
the Cµ multiplication factor, must be minimized or eliminated. The common-base
and common-gate amplifier configurations achieve this result. We will analyze a
common-base circuit; the analysis is the same for the common-gate circuit.
Common-Base Circuit
Figure 7.61 shows a common-base circuit. The circuit configuration is the same as
the common-emitter circuit considered previously, except a bypass capacitor is
added to the base and the input is capacitively coupled to the emitter.
Figure 7.62(a) shows the high-frequency equivalent circuit, with the coupling
and bypass capacitors replaced by short circuits. Resistors R1 and R2 are then effec-
tively short circuited. Also, resistance ro is assumed to be infinite. Capacitance Cµ ,
which led to the multiplication effect, is no longer between the input and output ter-
minals. One side of capacitor Cµ is tied to signal ground.
Writing a KCL equation at the emitter, we find that
Vπ Vπ
Ie + gm Vπ + + =0 (7.111)
(1/sCπ ) rπ
Since Vπ = −Ve , Equation (7.111) becomes
Ie 1 1
= = + gm + sCπ (7.112)
Ve Zi rπ
V+
RC
R1
vO
RL CL
CC RS
CB
R2
RE + vi
–
V–
Figure 7.61 Common-base amplifier
Cm C
B
Vo
+
Vp rp Cp RC RL CL
– gmVp
E
Zi
RS
Ie
+
Ve rp
RS Vi + RE Ve = –Vp Cp
– 1+b
RE + Vi
– –
(a) (b)
Vo
gmVp Cm RC RL CL
(c)
Figure 7.62 (a) High-frequency common-base equivalent circuit, (b) equivalent input
circuit, and (c) equivalent output circuit
where Z i is the impedance looking into the emitter. Rearranging terms, we have
1 1 + rπ gm 1+β
= + sCπ = + sCπ (7.113)
Zi rπ rπ
The equivalent input portion of the circuit is shown in Figure 7.62(b).
Figure 7.62(c) shows the equivalent output portion of the circuit. Again, one side
of Cµ is tied to ground, which eliminates the feedback or Miller multiplication effect.
We then expect the upper 3 dB frequency to be larger than that observed in the
common-emitter configuration.
For the input portion of the circuit, the upper 3 dB frequency is given by
1
fHπ = (7.114(a))
2πτ pπ
where the time constant is
!" # $
rπ
τ Pπ = ∥R E ∥ R S · Cπ (7.114(b))
1+β
In the hand analysis, we assume that C L is an open circuit. Capacitance Cµ will
also produce an upper 3 dB frequency, given by
1
fHµ = (7.115(a))
2πτ Pµ
where the time constant is
τ Pµ = [RC ∥R L ] · Cµ (7.115(b))
If Cµ is much smaller than Cπ , we would expect the 3 dB frequency f H π due to
Cπ to dominate the high-frequency response. However, the factor rπ /(1 + β) in the
time constant τ Pπ is small; therefore, the two time constants may be the same order
of magnitude.
EXAMPLE 7.14
Objective: Determine the upper corner frequencies and midband gain of a common-
base circuit.
Consider the circuit shown in Figure 7.61 with circuit parameters V + = 5 V,
V = −5 V, R S = 0.1 k$, R1 = 40 k$, R2 = 5.72 k$, R E = 0.5 k$, RC = 5 k$,
−
and R L = 10 k$. (These are the same values as those used for the common-emitter
circuit in Example 7.13.) The transistor parameters are: β = 150, VB E (on) = 0.7 V,
V A = ∞, Cπ = 35 pF, and Cµ = 4 pF.
Solution: The dc analysis is the same as in Example 7.13; therefore, IC Q = 1.03 mA,
gm = 39.6 mA/V, and rπ = 3.79 k$. The time constant associated with Cπ is
!" # $
rπ
τ Pπ = ∥R E ∥ R S · Cπ
1+β
!" # $
3.79
= ∥(0.5)∥ (0.1) × 103 (35 × 10−12) ⇒ 0.675 ns
151
The upper 3 dB frequency corresponding to Cπ is therefore
1 1
fHπ = = ⇒ 236 MHz
2πτ Pπ 2π(0.675 × 10−9 )
The time constant associated with Cµ in the output portion of the circuit is
τ Pµ = [RC ∥R L ] · Cµ = [5∥10] × 103 (4 × 10−12 ) ⇒ 13.33 ns
The upper 3 dB frequency corresponding to Cµ is therefore
1 1
fHµ = = ⇒ 11.9 MHz
2πτ Pµ 2π(13.3 × 10−9 )
So in this case, f H µ is the dominant pole frequency.

The magnitude of the midband voltage gain is
⎡ $% & ⎤
$ rπ
RE $$
⎢ 1+β ⎥
|Av | M = gm (RC ∥R L ) ⎢⎣ $% & ⎥
⎦
$ rπ
RE $$ + RS
1+β
⎡ $% & ⎤
$ 3.79
0.5 $
$ 151
⎢ ⎥
= (39.6)(5∥10) ⎢ ⎣ $% & ⎥ = 25.5
⎦
$ 3.79
0.5 $
$ 151 + 0.1
Comment: The results of this example show that the bandwidth of the common-base
circuit is limited by the capacitance Cµ in the output portion of the circuit. The band-
width of this particular circuit is 12 MHz, which is approximately a factor of four
greater than the bandwidth of the common-emitter circuit in Example 7.14.
Computer Verification: Figure 7.63 shows the results of a PSpice analysis of the
common-base circuit. The computer values are Cπ = 35.5 pF and Cµ = 3.89 pF,
which are the same as those in Example 7.13. The curve marked “Cπ only” is the cir-
cuit frequency response if Cµ is neglected. The curve marked “Cπ and Cµ only” in-
cludes the effect of both Cπ and Cµ . As the hand analysis predicted, Cµ dominates
the circuit high-frequency response.
The corner frequency is approximately 13.5 MHz and the midband gain is 25.5,
both of which agree very well with the hand analysis results.
|AV |
40
10
Cp only
CL = 5 pF
Cp and Cm
CL = 150 pF only
1.0
0.1
104 105 106 107 108 109 f (Hz)
Figure 7.63 PSpice analysis results for common-base circuit
The curves marked “C L = 5 pF” and “C L = 150 pF” are the circuit response if
the transistor is ideal and only a load capacitance is included. These results again
show that if a load capacitance of C L = 150 pF were connected to the output, the cir-
cuit response would be dominated by this capacitance. However, if a 5 pF load
capacitor were connected to the output, the circuit response would be a function of
both the C L and Cµ capacitances, since the two response characteristics are almost
identical.
EXERCISE PROBLEM
*Ex 7.14: Consider the common-base circuit in Figure 7.64. The transistor para-
meters are β = 100, VB E (on) = 0.7 V, V A = ∞, Cπ = 24 pF, and Cµ = 3 pF. (a)
Determine the upper 3 dB frequencies corresponding to the input and output por-
tions of the equivalent circuit. (b) Calculate the small-signal midband voltage
gain. (Ans. (a) f H π = 223 MHz, f H µ = 58.3 MHz, (b) Av = 0.869)
CC1 → ∞ CC2 → ∞
vo
RS = 1 kΩ
+ RE = RC =
vi – 10 kΩ 10 kΩ RL =
– RB = + 1 kΩ
CB → ∞
10 V 100 kΩ 10 V
+ –
Cascode Circuit
The cascode circuit, as shown in Figure 7.65, combines the advantages of the common-
emitter and common-base circuits. The input signal is applied to the common-emitter
circuit (Q1), and the output signal from the common emitter is fed into the common-
base circuit (Q2). The input impedance to the common-emitter circuit (Q1) is rela-
tively large, and the load resistance seen by Q1 is the input impedance to the emitter
of Q2 and is fairly small. The low output resistance seen by Q1 reduces the Miller
multiplication factor on Cµ1 and therefore extends the bandwidth of the circuit.
Figure 7.66(a) shows the high-frequency small-signal equivalent circuit. The
coupling and bypass capacitors are equivalent to short circuits, and resistance ro for
Q2 is assumed to be infinite.
V+
RC
R1
vO
CC2
RL CL
Q2
CB
R2
RS CC1
Q1
vi +
–
R3
RE CE
V–
Figure 7.65 Cascode circuit

The input impedance to the emitter of Q2 is Z ie2 . From Equation (7.113) in our
previous analysis, we have
! "#! "
rπ2 # # 1
Z ie2 = (7.116)
1 + β # sCπ2
The input portion of the small-signal equivalent circuit can be transformed to that
shown in Figure 7.66(b). The input impedance Z ie2 is again shown.
The input portion of the circuit shown in Figure 7.66(b) can be transformed to
that given in Figure 7.66(c), which shows the Miller capacitance. The Miller capaci-
tance C M1 is included in the input, and capacitance Cµ1 is included in the output
portion of the Q1 model. The possibility of including Cµ in the output circuit was
discussed previously in Section 7.4.4.
In the center of this equivalent circuit, ro1 is in parallel with rµ2 /(1 + β). Since
ro1 is usually large, it can be approximated as an open circuit. The Miller capacitance
is then
$ ! "%
rπ2
C M1 = Cµ1 1 + gm1 (7.117)
1+β
B2 Cm 2 C2
Vo
+
Vp 2 rp 2 RC RL CL
Zie2
B1 Cm 1 – Cp 2 gm2Vp 2
RS C1
E2
RB1 = + Cp 1
Vi + Vp 1 rp 1 ro1
– R2⎪⎪R3
– gm1Vp 1
E1
(a)
Z
Cm 1 ie2
RS
+ –
rp 2
Vi +– RB1 Vp 1 rp 1
Cp 1
ro1 Vp 2 Cp 2
1+b
– gm1Vp 1 +
(b)
RS
+ –
+ rp 2
Vi RB1 Vp 1 rp 1 ro1 Vp 2 Cp 2
– 1+b
– Cp 1 CM1 gm1Vp 1 Cm1
+
(c)
Figure 7.66 (a) High-frequency equivalent circuit of cascode configuration, (b) rearranged
high-frequency equivalent circuit, and (c) variation of the high-frequency circuit, including
the Miller capacitance
Transistors Q1 and Q2 are biased with essentially the same current; therefore,
rπ1 ∼
= rπ2 and gm1 ∼= gm2
Then
gm1rπ2 = β
which yields
C M1 ∼= 2 Cµ1 (7.118)
Equation (7.118) shows that this cascode circuit greatly reduces the Miller multipli-
cation factor.
The time constant related to Cπ2 involves resistance rπ2 /(1 + β). Since this re-
sistance is small, the time constant is small, and the corner frequency related to Cπ2
is very large. We can therefore neglect the effects of Cµ1 and Cπ2 in the center por-
tion of the circuit.
The time constant for the input portion of the circuit is
τ Pπ = [R S ∥R B1 ∥rπ1 ](Cπ1 + C M1 ) (7.119(a))
where C M1 = 2Cµ1 . The corresponding 3 dB frequency is
1
fHπ = (7.119(b))
2πτ Pπ
Assuming C L acts as an open circuit, the time constant of the output portion of
the circuit, from Figure 7.66, is
τ Pµ = [RC ∥R L ](Cµ2 ) (7.120(a))
and the corresponding corner frequency is
1
fHµ = (7.120(b))
2πτ Pµ
To determine the midband voltage gain we assume that all capacitances in the
circuit in Figure 7.66(c) are open circuits. The output voltage is then
Vo = −gm2 Vπ2 (RC ∥R L ) (7.121)
and
! "# $%
" rπ2
Vπ2 = gm1 Vπ1 ro1 "
" 1+β (7.122)
We can neglect the effect of ro1 compared to rπ2 /(1 + β). Also, since gm1rπ2 = β,
Equation (7.122) becomes
Vπ2 ∼
= Vπ1 (7.123)
and, from the input portion of the circuit,
R B1 ∥rπ1
Vπ1 = × Vi (7.124)
R B1 ∥rπ1 + R S
Finally, combining equations, we find the midband voltage gain is
! %
Vo R B1 ∥rπ1
Av M = = −gm2 (RC ∥R L ) (7.125)
Vi R B1 ∥rπ1 + R S
If we compare Equation (7.125) to Equation (7.110) for the common-emitter circuit,

we see that the expression for the midband gain of the cascode circuit is identical to
that of the common-emitter circuit. The cascode circuit achieves a relatively large
voltage gain, while extending the bandwidth.
EXAMPLE 7.15
Objective: Determine the 3 dB frequencies and midband gain of a cascode circuit.
For the circuit in Figure 7.65, the parameters are: V + = 10 V, V − = −10 V,
R S = 0.1 k!, R1 = 42.5 k!, R2 = 20.5 k!, R3 = 28.3 k!, R E = 5.4 k!, RC =
5 k!, R L = 10 k!, and C L = 0. The transistor parameters are: β = 150, VB E (on) =
0.7 V, V A = ∞, Cπ = 35 pF, and Cµ = 4 pF.
Solution: Since β is large for each transistor, the quiescent collector current is es-
sentially the same in each transistor and is IC Q = 1.02 mA. The small-signal para-
meters are: rπ1 = rπ2 ≡ rπ = 3.82 k! and gm1 = gm2 ≡ gm = 39.2 mA/V.
From Equation (7.119(a)), the time constant related to the input portion of the
circuit is
τ Pπ = [R S ∥R B1 ∥rπ1 ](Cπ1 + C M1 )
Since R B1 = R2 ∥R3 and C M1 = 2Cµ1 , then
τ Pπ = [(0.1)∥20.5∥28.3∥3.82] × 103 [35 + 2(4)] × 10−12 ⇒ 4.16 ns
The corresponding 3 dB frequency is
1 1
fHπ = = ⇒ 38.3 MHz
2πτ Pπ 2π(4.16 × 10−9 )
From Equation (7.120(a)), the time constant of the output portion of the circuit is
τ Pµ = [RC ∥R L ]Cµ2 = [5∥10] × 103 (4 × 10−12 ) ⇒ 13.3 ns
and the corresponding 3 dB frequency is
1 1
fHµ = = ⇒ 12 MHz
2πτ Pµ 2π(13.3 × 10−9 )
From Equation (7.125), the midband voltage gain is
! "
R B1 ∥rπ1
|Av | M = gm2 (RC ∥R L )
R B1 ∥rπ1 + R S
! "
(20.5∥28.3∥3.82)
= (39.2)(5∥10) = 126
(20.5∥28.3∥3.82) + (0.1)
Comment: As was the case for the common-base circuit, the 3 dB frequency for the
cascode circuit is determined by capacitance Cµ in the output stage. The bandwidth
of the cascode circuit is 12 Mz, compared to approximately 3 MHz for the common-
emitter circuit. The midband voltage gains for the two circuits are essentially the
same.
cascode circuit. From the hand analysis, the two corner frequencies are 12 Mz and
38.3 MHz. Since these frequencies are fairly close, we expect the actual response to
show the effects of both capacitances. This hypothesis is verified and demonstrated
|AV |
200
100
Cp only
10 CL = 150 pF Cp and Cm CL = 5 pF
only
1
104 105 106 107 108 109 f (Hz)
Figure 7.67 PSpice analysis results for cascode circuit
in the computer analysis results. The curves marked “Cπ only” and “Cπ and Cµ
only” are fairly close together, and their slopes are steeper than −6 dB/octave, which
shows that more than one capacitor is involved in the response. At a frequency of
12 MHz, the response curve is 3 dB below the maximum asymptotic gain, and the
midband gain is 120. These values closely agree with the hand analysis results.
The curves marked “C L = 5 pF” and “C L = 150 pF” show the circuit response
if the transistor is ideal and only a load capacitance is included.
EXERCISE PROBLEM
*Ex 7.15: The cascode circuit in Figure 7.65 has parameters V + = 12 V, V − = 0,
R1 = 58.8 k", R2 = 33.3 k", R3 = 7.92 k", RC = 7.5 k", R S = 1 k", R E =
0.5 k", and R L = 2 k". The transistor parameters are: β = 100, VB E (on) =
0.7 V, V A = ∞, Cπ = 24 pF, and Cµ = 3 pF. Let C L be an open circuit. (a) De-
termine the 3 dB frequencies corresponding to the input and output portions of the
equivalent circuit. (b) Calculate the small-signal midband voltage gain. (c) Corre-
late the results from parts (a) and (b) with a computer analysis. (Ans. (a) f H π =
7.15 MHz, f H µ = 33.6 MHz, (b) |Av | = 22.5)
7.6.3 Emitter- and Source-Follower Circuits
In this section, we analyze the high-frequency response of the emitter follower. We

will analyze the same basic circuit configuration that we have considered previously.
The results and discussions also apply to the source follower.
Figure 7.68 shows an emitter-follower circuit with the output signal at the
emitter capacitively coupled to a load. Figure 7.69(a) shows the high-frequency
small-signal equivalent circuit, with the coupling capacitors acting effectively as
short circuits.
We will rearrange the circuit so that we can gain a better insight into the circuit
behavior. We see that Cµ is tied to ground potential and also that ro is in parallel with
R E and R L . We may define
R L′ = R E ∥R L ∥ro
In this analysis we neglect the effect of C L . Figure 7.69(b) shows a rearrangement of
the circuit.
V+
R1
RS CC1
CC2
vi +–
vo
R2
RE RL CL
V–
Figure 7.68 Emitter-follower circuit
Zb'
RS B Cm C RS Vb
Ib' +
RB = +
Vi + Vi +– RB Cm rp Cp
– R1⎪⎪R2 Vp rp Cp ro Vp
gmVp –
–
E Ib'
Vo Vo
RE RL CL RL'
gmVp
(a) (b)
Zb'
RS Vb
Vi + RB Cm Cp
– rp (1 + gmRL' )
1 + gmRL'
RL'
(c)
Figure 7.69 (a) High-frequency equivalent circuit of emitter follower, (b) rearranged high-
frequency equivalent circuit, and (c) high-frequency equivalent circuit with effective input
base impedance
We can find the impedance Z b′ looking into the base without capacitance Cµ .
The current Ib′ entering the parallel combination of rπ and Cπ is the same as that
coming out of the combination. The output voltage is then
Vo = (Ib′ + gm Vπ )R L′ (7.126)
Voltage Vπ is given by
Ib′
Vπ = (7.127)
yπ
where
yπ = (1/rπ ) + sCπ
Voltage Vb is
Vb = Vπ + Vo
Therefore,
Vb Vπ + Vo
Z b′ = ′ = (7.128)
Ib Ib′
Combining Equations (7.126), (7.127), and (7.128), we obtain
1 gm R L′
Z b′ = + R L′ + (7.129(a))
yπ yπ
or
1
Z b′ = (1 + gm R L′ ) + R L′ (7.129(b))
yπ
Substituting the expression for yπ , we find
1
Z b′ = × (1 + gm R L′ ) + R L′ (7.130(a))
1
+ sCπ
rπ
This can then be written as
1
Z b′ = + R L′ (7.130(b))
1 sCπ
+
rπ (1 + gm R L′ ) (1 + gm R L′ )
Impedance Z b′ is shown in the equivalent circuit in Figure 7.69(c). Equa-

tion (7.130(b)) shows that the effect of capacitance Cπ is reduced in the emitter-
follower configuration.
Since the emitter-follower circuit has a zero and two poles, a detailed analysis of
the circuit is very tedious. From Equations (7.126) and (7.127), we have
Vo = Vπ (yπ + gm )R L′ (7.131)
which yields a zero when yπ + gm = 0. Using the definition of yπ , the zero occurs at
1
fo = ! " (7.132)
rπ
2πCπ
1+β
Since rπ /(1 + β) is small, frequency f o is usually very high.
If we make a simplifying assumption, we can determine an approximate value

of one pole. In many applications, the impedance of rπ (1 + gm R L′ ) in parallel with
Cπ /(1 + gm R L′ ) is large compared to R L′ . If we neglect R L′ , then the time constant is
! "
′ Cπ
τ P = [R S ∥R B ∥(1 + gm R L )rπ ] Cµ + (7.133(a))
1 + gm R L′
and the 3 dB frequency (or pole) is
1
fH = (7.133(b))
2πτ P
EXAMPLE 7.16
Objective: Determine the frequency of a zero and a pole in the high-frequency
response of an emitter follower.
Consider the emitter-follower circuit in Figure 7.68 with parameters V + = 5 V,
V = −5 V, R S = 0.1 k#, R1 = 40 k#, R2 = 5.72 k#, R E = 0.5 k#, and R L =
−
10 k#. The transistor parameters are: β = 150, VB E (on) = 0.7 V, V A = ∞, Cπ =

35 pF, and Cµ = 4 pF.
Solution: As in previous examples, the dc analysis yields IC Q = 1.02 mA. There-

fore, gm = 39.2 mA/V and rπ = 3.82 k#.
From Equation (7.132), the zero occurs at
1 1
fo = ! "= ! " ⇒ 180 MHz
rπ 3.82 × 103
2πCπ 2π(35 × 10−12 )
1+β 151
To determine the time constant for the high-frequency pole calculation, we
know that
1 + gm R L′ = 1 + gm (R E ∥R L ) = 1 + (39.2)(0.5∥10) = 19.7
and
R B = R1 ∥R2 = 40∥5.72 = 5 k#
The time constant is therefore
! "
Cπ
τ P = [R S ∥R B ∥(1 + gm R L′ )rπ ]
Cµ +
1 + gm R L′
! "
3 35
= [(0.1)∥5∥(19.7)(3.82)] × 10 4 + × 10−12 ⇒ 0.566 ns
19.7
The 3 dB frequency (or pole) is then
1 1
fH = = ⇒ 281 MHz
2πτ P 2π(0.566 × 10−9 )
Comment: The frequencies for the zero and the pole are very high and are not far
apart. This makes the calculations suspect. However, since the frequencies are high,
the emitter follower is a wide-bandwidth circuit.
|AV |
Cp only
1
Cp and Cm
only
CL = 150 pF
0.1
0.01
104 105 106 107 108 109 f (Hz)
Figure 7.70 PSpice analysis results for emitter follower
emitter follower. From the hand analysis, the 3 dB frequency is on the order of
281 MHz. However, the computer results show the 3 dB frequency to be approxi-
mately 400 MHz. We must keep in mind that at these high frequencies, distributed
parameter effects may need to be considered in the transistor to more accurately
predict the frequency response.
Also shown in the figure is the frequency response due to a 150 pF load capac-
itance. Comparing this result to the common-emitter circuit, for example, we see that
the bandwidth of the emitter-follower circuit is approximately two orders of magni-
tude larger.
7.6.4 High-Frequency Amplifier Design
Our analysis shows that the frequency response, or the high-frequency cutoff point of
an amplifier, depends on the transistor used, the circuit parameters, and the amplifier
configuration.
We also saw that a computer simulation is easier than a hand analysis, particu-
larly for the emitter-follower circuit. However, the parameters of the actual transistor
used in the circuit must be used in the simulation if it is to predict the circuit fre-
quency response accurately. Also, at high frequencies, additional parasitic capaci-
tances, such as the collector–substrate capacitance, may need to be included. This
was not done in our examples. Finally, in high-frequency amplifiers, the parasitic
capacitances of the interconnect lines between the devices in an IC may also be a
factor in the overall circuit response.
Test Your Understanding

*TYU 7.12 For the circuit in Figure 7.71, the transistor parameters are: K n =
1 mA/V2, VT N = 0.8 V, λ = 0, C gs = 2 pF, and C gd = 0.2 pF. Determine: (a) the
Miller capacitance, (b) the upper 3 dB frequency, and (c) the midband voltage gain.
(d) Correlate the results from parts (b) and (c) with a computer analysis. (Ans.
(a) C M = 1.62 pF, (b) f H = 3.38 MHz, (c) |Av | = 4.60)
*TYU 7.13 For the circuit in Figure 7.72, the transistor parameters are: VT N = 1 V,
K n = 1 mA/V2, λ = 0, C gd = 0.4 pF, and C gs = 5 pF. Perform a computer
simulation to determine the upper 3 dB frequency and the midband small-signal
voltage gain. (Ans. f H = 64.5 MHz, |Av | = 0.127)
+5 V
RD = 5 kΩ CC1 → ∞ CC2 → ∞
R1 = 150 kΩ
vo
CC1 → ∞ Ri = 10 kΩ
+ IG = RD = RL =
vi –
Ri = 20 kΩ 1 mA 4 kΩ 2 kΩ
vi +
–
R2 = –5 V +5 V
50 kΩ RS = CS → ∞ RG = 100 kΩ CG → ∞
2 kΩ
–5 V
Figure 7.71 Figure for Exercise TYU 7.12 Figure 7.72 Figure for Exercise TYU 7.13
7.7 DESIGN APPLICATION: A TWO-STAGE

AMPLIFIER WITH COUPLING CAPACITORS
Objective: • Design a two-stage BJT amplifier with coupling capaci-

tors such that the 3 dB frequencies associated with each stage are
equal.
Specifications: The first two stages of a multistage BJT amplifier are to be capaci-
tively coupled and the 3 dB frequency of each stage is to be 20 Hz.
Design Approach: The circuit configuration to be designed is shown in Figure 7.73.

This circuit represents the first two stages of a discrete multistage amplifier.
Choices: Assume the BJTs have parameters VB E (on) = 0.7 V, β = 200, and
V A = ∞.
VCC = 5 V
RC1 = RC2
R1 = 3.5 kΩ R1 =
55 kΩ 55 kΩ
CC1
Ri CC2 Ri
+ R2 = R2 =
vi – 31 kΩ RE1 = 31 kΩ RE 2 =
1 kΩ 1 kΩ
Figure 7.73 Two-stage BJT amplifier with coupling capacitors for design application
Solution (DC Analysis): We find, for each stage,

RT H = R1 ∥R2 = 55∥31 = 19.83 k!
and
! " ! "
R2 31
VT H = VCC = (5) = 1.802 V
R1 + R2 31 + 55
Now
VT H − VB E (on) 1.802 − 0.7
IB Q = = ⇒ 4.99 µA
RT H + (1 + β)R E 19.83 + (201)(1)
so that
IC Q = 0.998 mA
Solution (AC Analysis): The small-signal diffusion resistance is

βVT (200)(0.026)
rπ = = = 5.21 k!
IC Q 0.988
The input resistance looking into each base terminal is
Ri = rπ + (1 + β)R E = 5.21 + (201)(1) = 206.2 k!
Solution (AC Design): The small-signal equivalent circuit is shown in Figure 7.74.
The time constant of the first stage is
τ A = (R1 ∥R2 ∥Ri )CC1
CC1 CC2
gmVp
Vi + R1⎪⎪R2 Ri RC1 R1⎪⎪R2 Ri
–
RE1
Figure 7.74 Small-signal equivalent circuit of two-stage BJT amplifier with coupling
capacitors for design application
and the time constant of the second stage is

τ B = (RC1 + R1 ∥R2 ∥Ri )CC2
If the 3 dB frequency of each stage is to be 20 Hz, then
1 1
τ A = τB = = = 7.958 × 10−3 s
2π f 3-dB 2π(20)
The coupling capacitor of the first stage must be
τA 7.958 × 10−3
CC1 = = ⇒ 0.44 µF
R1 ∥R2 ∥Ri (55∥31∥206.2) × 103
and the coupling capacitor of the second stage must be

τB 7.958 × 10−3
CC2 = = ⇒ 0.386 µF
RC1 + R1 ∥R2 ∥Ri (2.5 + 55∥31∥206.2) × 103
Comment: This circuit design using two coupling capacitors is a brute-force
approach to a two-stage amplifier design and would not be used in an IC design.
Since the 3 dB frequency for each capacitor is 20 Hz, this circuit is referred to as
a two-pole high-pass filter.
7.8 SUMMARY
• In this chapter, the frequency response of transistor circuits was discussed. The ef-
fects due to circuit capacitors, such as coupling, bypass, and load capacitors, were
determined. In addition, expanded equivalent circuits of BJTs and MOSFETs
were analyzed to determine the frequency response of the transistors.
• A time-constant technique was developed so that Bode plots can be constructed
without the need of deriving complex transfer functions. The high and low cor-
ner frequencies, or 3 dB frequencies, can be determined directly from the time
constants.
• Coupling and bypass capacitors affect the low-frequency characteristics of a cir-
cuit, while load capacitors affect the high-frequency characteristics of a circuit.
• The capacitances included in the small-signal equivalent circuits of both the
bipolar and MOS transistors result in reduced transistor gain at high frequencies.
The cutoff frequency is a figure of merit for the transistor and is defined as the
frequency at which the magnitude of the current gain is unity.
• The Miller effect is a multiplication of the base–collector or gate–drain capaci-
tance due to feedback between the output and input of the transistor. The band-
width of the amplifier is reduced by this affect.
• The common-emitter (common-source) amplifier, in general, shows the greatest
reduction in bandwidth due to the Miller effect. The common-base (common-
gate) amplifier has a larger bandwidth because of a smaller multiplication factor.
The cascode configuration, a combination of a common emitter and common
base, combines the advantages of high gain and wide bandwith.
• As an application, a two-stage BJT amplifier was designed to meet specified
3 dB frequencies.
CHECKPOINT
After studying this chapter, the reader should have the ability to:
✓ Construct the Bode plots of the gain magnitude and phase from a transfer func-
tion written in terms of the complex frequency s.
✓ Construct the Bode plots of the gain magnitude and phase of electronic amplifier
circuits, taking into account circuit capacitors, using the time constant technique.
✓ Determine the short-circuit current gain versus frequency of a BJT and deter-
mine the Miller capacitance of a BJT circuit using the expanded hybrid-π equiv-
alent circuit.
✓ Determine the unity-gain bandwidth of an FET and determine the Miller capac-
itance of an FET circuit using the expanded small-signal equivalent circuit.
✓ Describe the relative frequency responses of the three basic amplifier configura-
tions and the cascode amplifier.

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520 Part 1 Semiconductor Devices and Basic Applications

Figure 7.55 Figure for Exercise Ex 7.12

Test Your Understanding

7.6 HIGH-FREQUENCY RESPONSE

Objective: • Determine the high-frequency response of basic transis-

Chapter 7 Frequency Response 521

7.6.1 Common-Emitter and Common-Source Circuits

Figure 7.56 Common-emitter amplifier

522 Part 1 Semiconductor Devices and Basic Applications

Chapter 7 Frequency Response 523

Finally, the midband gain is

Figure 7.59 PSpice analysis results for common-emitter amplifier

524 Part 1 Semiconductor Devices and Basic Applications

Figure 7.60 Figure for Exercise Ex 7.13

The high-frequency response of the common-source circuit is similar to that of

7.6.2 Common-Base, Common-Gate,

Chapter 7 Frequency Response 525

Figure 7.61 Common-base amplifier

526 Part 1 Semiconductor Devices and Basic Applications

Chapter 7 Frequency Response 527

So in this case, f H µ is the dominant pole frequency.

Figure 7.63 PSpice analysis results for common-base circuit

528 Part 1 Semiconductor Devices and Basic Applications

Figure 7.64 Figure for Exercise Ex 7.14

Figure 7.65 Cascode circuit

Chapter 7 Frequency Response 529

530 Part 1 Semiconductor Devices and Basic Applications

Chapter 7 Frequency Response 531

If we compare Equation (7.125) to Equation (7.110) for the common-emitter circuit,

532 Part 1 Semiconductor Devices and Basic Applications

Figure 7.67 PSpice analysis results for cascode circuit

7.6.3 Emitter- and Source-Follower Circuits

In this section, we analyze the high-frequency response of the emitter follower. We

Chapter 7 Frequency Response 533

Figure 7.68 Emitter-follower circuit

534 Part 1 Semiconductor Devices and Basic Applications

Impedance Z b′ is shown in the equivalent circuit in Figure 7.69(c). Equa-

Chapter 7 Frequency Response 535

If we make a simplifying assumption, we can determine an approximate value

10 k#. The transistor parameters are: β = 150, VB E (on) = 0.7 V, V A = ∞, Cπ =

Solution: As in previous examples, the dc analysis yields IC Q = 1.02 mA. There-

536 Part 1 Semiconductor Devices and Basic Applications

Figure 7.70 PSpice analysis results for emitter follower

7.6.4 High-Frequency Amplifier Design

Test Your Understanding

Chapter 7 Frequency Response 537

7.7 DESIGN APPLICATION: A TWO-STAGE

Objective: • Design a two-stage BJT amplifier with coupling capaci-

Design Approach: The circuit configuration to be designed is shown in Figure 7.73.

538 Part 1 Semiconductor Devices and Basic Applications

Solution (DC Analysis): We find, for each stage,

Solution (AC Analysis): The small-signal diffusion resistance is

and the time constant of the second stage is

Chapter 7 Frequency Response 539

and the coupling capacitor of the second stage must be

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