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This article is about the geometric figure. For other uses, point on the curve. As such, it is a generalization of a cir-
see Ellipse (disambiguation). cle, which is a special type of an ellipse that has both focal
“Elliptical” redirects here. For the exercise machine, see points at the same location. The shape of an ellipse (how
Elliptical trainer. 'elongated' it is) is represented by its eccentricity, which
In mathematics, an ellipse is a curve on a plane surround- for an ellipse can be any number from 0 (the limiting case
of a circle) to arbitrarily close to but less than 1.
Ellipses are the closed type of conic section: a plane
curve that results from the intersection of a cone by a
plane. (See figure to the right.) Ellipses have many sim-
ilarities with the other two forms of conic sections: the
parabolas and the hyperbolas, both of which are open and
unbounded. The cross section of a cylinder is an ellipse if
it is sufficiently far from parallel to the axis of the cylin-
der.
Analytically, an ellipse can also be defined as the set of
points such that the ratio of the distance of each point
on the curve from a given point (called a focus or focal
point) to the distance from that same point on the curve
to a given line (called the directrix) is a constant, called
the eccentricity of the ellipse.
Ellipses are common in physics, astronomy and engi-
neering. For example, the orbits of the planets are el-
lipses with the Sun at one of the focal points. The same
An ellipse obtained as the intersection of a cone with an inclined is true for moons orbiting planets and all other systems
plane. having two astronomical bodies. The shape of planets
and stars are often well described by ellipsoids. Ellipses
also arise as images of a circle under parallel projection
and the bounded cases of perspective projection, which
are simply intersections of the projective cone with the
plane of projection. It is also the simplest Lissajous fig-
ure, formed when the horizontal and vertical motions are
sinusoids with the same frequency. A similar effect leads
to elliptical polarization of light in optics.
The name, ἔλλειψις (élleipsis, “omission”), was given by
Apollonius of Perga in his Conics, emphasizing the con-
nection of the curve with “application of areas”.
1 Elements of an ellipse
See also: Features of conic sections
The rings of Saturn are circular, but when seen partially edge
Ellipses have two mutually perpendicular axes about
on, as in this image, they appear to be noncircular ellipses. In
which the ellipse is symmetric. These axes intersect at
addition, the planet itself is an ellipsoid, flatter at the poles than
the equator. Picture by ESO the center of the ellipse due to this symmetry. The larger
of these two axes, which corresponds to the largest dis-
ing two focal points such that a straight line drawn from tance between antipodal points on the ellipse, is called
one of the focal points to any point on the curve and then the major axis. (On the figure to the right it is repre-
back to the other focal point has the same length for every sented by the line segment between the point labeled −a
1
2 2 DRAWING ELLIPSES
2 Drawing ellipses
and the point labeled a.) The smaller of these two axes,
and the smallest distance across the ellipse, is called the 2.1 Pins-and-string method
minor axis.[1] (On the figure to the right it is represented
by the line segment between the point labeled −b to the
point labeled b.)
The semi-major axis (denoted by a in the figure) and
the semi-minor axis (denoted by b in the figure) are one
half of the major and minor axes, respectively. These
are sometimes called (especially in technical fields) the
major and minor semi-axes,[2][3] the major and mi-
nor semiaxes,[4][5] or major radius and minor ra-
dius.[6][7][8][9]
The four points where these axes cross the ellipse are the
vertices and are marked as a, −a, b, and −b. In addition
to being at the largest and smallest distance from the cen-
ter, these points are where the curvature of the ellipse is
maximum and minimum.[10]
Drawing an ellipse with two pins, a loop, and a pen.
The two foci (plural of focus and the term focal points
is also used) of an ellipse are two special points F1 and The characterization of an ellipse as the locus of points
F2 on the ellipse’s major axis that are equidistant from the so that sum of the distances to the foci is constant leads
center point. The sum of the distances from any point P to a method of drawing one using two drawing pins, a
on the ellipse to those two foci is constant and equal to length of string, and a pencil.[11] In this method, pins are
the major axis (PF1 + PF2 = 2a). (On the figure to the pushed into the paper at two points which will become
right this corresponds to the sum of the two green lines the ellipse’s foci. A string tied at each end to the two pins
equaling the length of the major axis that goes from −a and the tip of a pen is used to pull the loop taut so as
to a.) to form a triangle. The tip of the pen will then trace an
The distance to the focal point from the center of the el- ellipse if it is moved while keeping the string taut. Using
lipse is sometimes called the linear eccentricity, f, of two pegs and a rope, this procedure is traditionally used
the ellipse. Here it is denoted by f, but it is often denoted by gardeners to outline an elliptical flower bed; thus it is
by c. Due to the Pythagorean theorem and the definition called the gardener’s ellipse.[12]
of the ellipse explained in the previous paragraph: f 2 =
a2 −b2 .
2.2 Trammel method
A second equivalent method of constructing an ellipse us-
ing a directrix is shown on the plot as the three blue lines. An ellipse can also be drawn using a ruler, a set square,
(See the Directrix section of this article for more infor- and a pencil:
mation about this method). The dashed blue line is the
directrix of the ellipse shown. Draw two perpendicular lines M,N on the pa-
The eccentricity of an ellipse, usually denoted by ε or per; these will be the major (M) and minor
e, is the ratio of the distance between the two foci, to the (N) axes of the ellipse. Mark three points A,
length of the major axis or e = 2f/2a = f/a. For an ellipse B, C on the ruler. A->C being the length of
the eccentricity is between 0 and 1 (0 < e < 1). When the the semi-major axis and B->C the length of
eccentricity is 0 the foci coincide with the center point the semi-minor axis. With one hand, move the
3
3.1.4 Eccentricity
y = b sin θ.
The eccentricity of the ellipse (commonly denoted as ei-
Then by plotting x and y values for all angles of θ between ther e or ε ) is
0 and 2π results in an ellipse (e.g. at θ = 0, x = a, y = 0
and at θ = π/2, y = b, x = 0). √
√ ( )2
Squaring both equations gives: a2 − b2 b
e=ε= = 1− = f /a
a2 a
y2 3.1.5 Directrix
= sin2 θ.
b2
Adding these two equations together gives:
0<e<1
x2 y2
+ = cos2 θ + sin2 θ.
a2 b2 C f a d
Applying the Pythagorean identity to the right hand side
gives:
D
x2 y2 P e = PF÷PD
+ = 1.
a2 b2
This means any noncircular ellipse is a compressed (or
stretched) circle. If a circle is treated like an ellipse, then
Each focus F of the ellipse is associated with a line paral-
the area of the ellipse would be proportional to the lengthlel to the minor axis called a directrix. Refer to the illus-
of either axis (i.e. doubling the length of an axis in a tration on the right, in which the ellipse is centered at the
circular ellipse would create an ellipse with double the origin. The distance from any point P on the ellipse to
area of the original circle). the focus F is a constant fraction of that point’s perpen-
dicular distance to the directrix, resulting in the equality
3.1.3 Focus e = PF/PD. The ratio of these two distances is the eccen-
tricity of the ellipse. This property (which can be proved
The distance from the center C to either focus is f = ae, using the Dandelin spheres) can be taken as another def-
which can be expressed in terms of the major and minor inition of the ellipse.
radii: Besides the well-known ratio e = f/a, where f is the dis-
tance from the center to the focus and a is the distance
from the center to a vertex (most sharply curved point
√
f = a −b .2 2 of the ellipse), it is also true that e = a/d, where d is the
distance from the center to the directrix.
The sum of the distances from any point P = P(x,y) on
the ellipse to those two foci is constant and equal to the
major axis (proof): 3.1.6 Circular directrix
b
Aellipse = Acircle = πab.
a
The area formula can also be proven in terms of polar co-
ordinates using the coordinate transformation T(r, θ) =
(ra cos θ, rb sin θ).
Any point inside the ellipse with x-intercept a and y-
intercept b can be defined in terms of r and θ , where
0 ⩽ r ⩽ 1 and 0 ⩽ θ ⩽ 2π .
To define the area differential in such coordinates we
use the Jacobian matrix of the coordinate transformation
times dr dθ :
( ∂T ∂T
)
dAellipse = det dr dθ
( ∂r ∂θ
)
a cos θ −ra sin θ
= det dr dθ
An ellipse (in red) as a special case of the hypotrochoid with R b sin θ rb cos θ
= 2r. = abr dr dθ.
Aellipse = πab
C = 4aE(e)
where a and b are the semi-major and semi-minor axes where again a is the length of the semi-major axis and e is
(1 ⁄2 of the ellipse’s major and minor axes), respectively. the eccentricity and where the function E is the complete
An ellipse defined implicitly by Ax2 + Bxy + Cy 2 = 1 elliptic integral of the second kind (the arc length of an
has area √4AC−B 2π
2
. ellipse, in general, has no closed-form solution in terms of
elementary functions and the elliptic integrals were mo-
The area formula πab is intuitive: start with a circle of tivated by this problem). This may be evaluated directly
radius b (so its area is πb2 ) and stretch it by a factor a/b using the Carlson symmetric form.[14] This gives a suc-
to make an ellipse. This intuitively justifies the area by the cinct and rapidly converging method for evaluating the
same factor: πb2 (a/b) = πab. However, a more rigorous circumference.[15]
proof requires integration as follows:
2 2 The exact infinite series is:
For the ellipse in standard form, xa2 + yb2 = 1 , and hence
√
y = ± a b a−b
2 2 2 x2
2 , with horizontal intercepts at ± a, the [ ( )2 ( )2 4 ( )2 6 ]
area Aellipse can be computed as twice the integral of the C = 2πa 1 − 1 e2 − 1 · 3 e
−
1·3·5 e
− ···
positive square root: 2 2·4 3 2·4·6 5
6 3 MATHEMATICAL DEFINITIONS AND PROPERTIES
and
3.2.1 Affine space
( )
3h An ellipse is also the result of projecting a circle, sphere,
C ≈ π (a + b) 1 + √ . or ellipse in a three dimensional affine space onto a plane
10 + 4 − 3h
(flat), by parallel lines. This is a special case of conical
The errors in these approximations, which were “obtained (perspective) projection of any of those geometric ob-
empirically”, are of order h3 and h5 , respectively. jects in the affine space from a point O onto a plane P,
More generally, the arc length of a portion of the circum- when the point O lies in the plane at infinity of the affine
ference, as a function of the angle subtended, is given by space. In the setting of pappian projective planes, the
an incomplete elliptic integral. image of an ellipse by any affine map (a projective map
which leaves the line at infinity invariant) is an ellipse,
See also: Meridian arc § Meridian distance on the and, more generally, the image of an ellipse by any pro-
ellipsoid jective map M such that the line M −1 (Ω) does not touch
or cross the ellipse is an ellipse.
The inverse function, the angle subtended as a function of
the arc length, is given by the elliptic functions.
3.3 In analytic geometry
3.1.10 Chords 3.3.1 General ellipse
The midpoints of a set of parallel chords of an ellipse are In analytic geometry, the ellipse is defined as the set
collinear.[19]:p.147 of points (X, Y ) of the Cartesian plane that, in non-
degenerate cases, satisfy the implicit equation[21][22]
Latus rectum The chords of an ellipse which are
perpendicular to the major axis and pass through one of
its foci are called the latera recta of the ellipse. The length AX 2 + BXY + CY 2 + DX + EY + F = 0
of each latus rectum is 2b2 /a.
provided B 2 − 4AC < 0.
( 2 2
)− 32 To distinguish the degenerate cases from the non-
Curvature The curvature is a21b2 xa4 + yb4 . A degenerate case, let ∆ be the determinant
local normal to the ellipse bisects the angle ∠F1 P F2
shown in the figure above. This is evident graphically
in the parallelogram method of construction, and can be A B/2 D/2
proven analytically, for example by using the parametric B/2 C E/2
form in canonical position, as given below. D/2 E/2 F
3.4 In trigonometry 7
that is,
(x − Xc )2 (y − Yc )2
( ) a2
+
b2
=1
B2 BED CD2 AE 2
∆ = AC − F+ − −
4 4 4 4 Moreover, any canonical ellipse can be obtained by scal-
ing the unit circle of R2 , defined by the equation
Then the ellipse is a non-degenerate real ellipse if and
only if C∆ < 0. If C∆ > 0, we have an imaginary ellipse,
and if ∆ = 0, we have a point ellipse.[23]:p.63
X2 + Y 2 = 1
The general equation’s coefficients can be obtained from
known semi-major axis a , semi-minor axis b , center co- by factors a and b along the two axes.
ordinates (xc , yc ) and rotation angle Θ using the follow- For an ellipse in canonical form, we have
ing formulae:
√ √
2 2 2 2 Y = ±b 1 − (X/a)2 = ± (a2 − X 2 )(1 − e2 )
A = a (sinΘ) + b (cosΘ)
The distances from a point (X, Y ) on the ellipse to the
B = 2(b2 − a2 )sinΘcosΘ
left and right foci are a + eX and a − eX , respectively.
C = a2 (cosΘ)2 + b2 (sinΘ)2
D = −2Axc − Byc
3.4 In trigonometry
E = −Bxc − 2Cyc
F = Ax2c + Bxc yc + Cyc2 − a2 b2 3.4.1 General parametric form
These expressions can be derived from the canonical An ellipse in general position can be expressed
equation (see next section) by substituting the coordinates parametrically as the path of a point (X(t), Y (t)) , where
with expressions for rotation and translation of the coor-
dinate system:
X(t) = Xc + a cos t cos φ − b sin t sin φ
x2can 2
ycan Y (t) = Yc + a cos t sin φ + b sin t cos φ
+ =1
a2 b2
as the parameter t varies from 0 to 2π. Here (Xc , Yc ) is
xcan = (x − xc )cosΘ + (y − yc )sinΘ the center of the ellipse, and φ is the angle between the
ycan = −(x − xc )sinΘ + (y − yc )cosΘ X -axis and the major axis of the ellipse.
Let a > b . Through change of coordinates (a rotation of For an ellipse in canonical position (center at origin, ma-
axes and a translation) the general ellipse can be described jor axis along the X-axis), the equation simplifies to
by the canonical implicit equation
X(t) = a cos t
x2 y2
+ =1 Y (t) = b sin t
a2 b2
Here (x, y) are the point coordinates in the canonical Note that the parameter t (called the eccentric anomaly
system, whose origin is the center (Xc , Yc ) of the el- in astronomy) is not the angle of (X(t), Y (t)) with the
lipse, whose x -axis is the unit vector (Xa , Ya ) coincid- X-axis.
ing with the major axis, and whose y -axis is the per- For a given point on an ellipse, formulae connecting the
pendicular vector (−Ya , Xa ) coinciding with the minor tangential angle ϕ , the polar angle from the ellipse center
axis. That is, x = Xa (X − Xc ) + Ya (Y − Yc ) and θ , and the parametric angle t [24] are:[25][26][27][28]
y = −Ya (X − Xc ) + Xa (Y − Yc ) .
In this system, the center is the origin (0, 0) and the foci
a tan θ tan θ
are (−ea, 0) and (+ea, 0) . − cot ϕ = tan t = = ,
b (1 − g) 2 1 − e2
Any ellipse can be obtained by rotation and translation of
a canonical ellipse with the proper semi-diameters. The b √ − tan θ a
− tan t = cot ϕ = (1 − e2 ) cot ϕ = (1−g) cot ϕ = √ =−
expression of an ellipse centered at (Xc , Yc ) is a (1 − e2 ) b
8 3 MATHEMATICAL DEFINITIONS AND PROPERTIES
A F1 θ C F2 B
d1 d2
a(1 − e2 )
r(θ) =
Parametric equation for the ellipse (red) in canonical position. 1 ± e cos θ
The eccentric anomaly t is the angle of the blue line with the X-
axis. where the sign in the denominator is negative if the refer-
ence direction θ = 0 points towards the center (as illus-
P trated on the right), and positive if that direction points
away from the center.
When a ray of light originating from one focus reflects off Semi-latus rectum.
the inner surface of an ellipse, it always passes through the
other focus.
prolate spheroid), this property will hold for all rays out of
the source. Alternatively, a cylindrical mirror with ellip-
P (θ) + Q(θ)
r(θ) = tical cross-section can be used to focus light from a linear
R(θ) fluorescent lamp along a line of the paper; such mirrors
where are used in some document scanners.
Sound waves are reflected in a similar way, so in a large
elliptical room a person standing at one focus can hear a
[( 2 ) ( 2 ) ]
P (θ) = r0 b − a cos (θ + θ0 − 2φ) + a + b cos (θ
2 2 person
− θ0standing
) at the other focus remarkably well. The
effect is even more evident under a vaulted roof shaped
√ √ as a section of a prolate spheroid. Such a room is called a
Q(θ) = 2ab R(θ) − 2r02 sin2 (θ − θ0 )
whisper chamber. The same effect can be demonstrated
( 2 )
R(θ) = b − a cos(2θ − 2φ) + a + b
2 2 2 with two reflectors shaped like the end caps of such a
spheroid, placed facing each other at the proper distance.
Examples are the National Statuary Hall at the United
3.4.7 Angular eccentricity States Capitol (where John Quincy Adams is said to have
used this property for eavesdropping on political matters);
The angular eccentricity α is the angle whose sine is the the Mormon Tabernacle at Temple Square in Salt Lake
eccentricity e; that is, City, Utah; at an exhibit on sound at the Museum of Sci-
ence and Industry in Chicago; in front of the University
(√ ) of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign Foellinger Auditorium;
( )
b a − b and also at a side chamber of the Palace of Charles V, in
α = sin−1 (e) = cos−1 = 2 tan−1 ; the Alhambra.
a a+b
An ellipse in the plane has five degrees of freedom (the Main article: Elliptic orbit
same as a general conic section), defining its position, ori-
entation, shape, and scale. In comparison, circles have In the 17th century, Johannes Kepler discovered that the
only three degrees of freedom (position and scale), while orbits along which the planets travel around the Sun are
parabolae have four. Said another way, the set of all ellipses with the Sun at one focus, in his first law of plan-
ellipses in the plane, with any natural metric (such as etary motion. Later, Isaac Newton explained this as a
the Hausdorff distance) is a five-dimensional manifold. corollary of his law of universal gravitation.
These degrees can be identified with, for example, the
More generally, in the gravitational two-body problem, if
coefficients A,B,C,D,E of the implicit equation, or with
the two bodies are bound to each other (i.e., the total en-
the coefficients X , Y , φ, a, b of the general parametric
ergy is negative), their orbits are similar ellipses with the
form.
common barycenter being one of the foci of each ellipse.
The other focus of either ellipse has no known physical
significance. Interestingly, the orbit of either body in the
4 Ellipses in physics reference frame of the other is also an ellipse, with the
other body at one focus.
4.1 Elliptical reflectors and acoustics Keplerian elliptical orbits are the result of any radially
directed attraction force whose strength is inversely pro-
If the water’s surface is disturbed at one focus of an el- portional to the square of the distance. Thus, in principle,
liptical water tank, the circular waves created by that dis- the motion of two oppositely charged particles in empty
turbance, after being reflected by the walls, will converge space would also be an ellipse. (However, this conclu-
simultaneously to a single point — the second focus. This sion ignores losses due to electromagnetic radiation and
is a consequence of the total travel length being the same quantum effects, which become significant when the par-
along any wall-bouncing path between the two foci. ticles are moving at high speed.)
Similarly, if a light source is placed at one focus of an For elliptical orbits, useful relations involving the eccen-
elliptic mirror, all light rays on the plane of the ellipse tricity e are:
are reflected to the second focus. Since no other smooth
curve has such a property, it can be used as an alterna-
tive definition of an ellipse. (In the special case of a cir- ra − rp ra − rp
cle with a source at its center all light would be reflected e= =
ra + rp 2a
back to the center.) If the ellipse is rotated along its ma-
jor axis to produce an ellipsoidal mirror (specifically, a ra = (1 + e)a
10 6 ELLIPSES IN COMPUTER GRAPHICS
rp = (1 − e)a Elliptical bicycle gears make it easier for the chain to slide
off the cog when changing gears.[29]
where
An example gear application would be a device that winds
• ra is the radius at apoapsis (the farthest distance) thread onto a conical bobbin on a spinning machine. The
bobbin would need to wind faster when the thread is near
• rp is the radius at periapsis (the closest distance) the apex than when it is near the base.[30]
• a is the length of the semi-major axis
4.6 Optics
Also, in terms of ra and rp , the semi-major axis a is their
arithmetic mean, the semi-minor axis b is their geometric • In a material that is optically anisotropic
mean, and the semi-latus rectum l is their harmonic mean. (birefringent), the refractive index depends on
In other words, the direction of the light. The dependency can be
described by an index ellipsoid. (If the material is
optically isotropic, this ellipsoid is a sphere.)
ra + rp
a= • In lamp-pumped solid-state lasers, elliptical
2
√ cylinder-shaped reflectors have been used to direct
b = 2 ra · rp light from the pump lamp (coaxial with one ellipse
2 2ra rp focal axis) to the active medium rod (coaxial with
l= 1 1 = the second focal axis).[31]
ra + rp
ra + rp
• In laser-plasma produced EUV light sources used in
microchip lithography, EUV light is generated by
4.3 Harmonic oscillators plasma positioned in the primary focus of an ellip-
soid mirror and is collected in the secondary focus
The general solution for a harmonic oscillator in two or
at the input of the lithography machine.[32]
more dimensions is also an ellipse. Such is the case, for
instance, of a long pendulum that is free to move in two
dimensions; of a mass attached to a fixed point by a per-
fectly elastic spring; or of any object that moves under in- 5 Ellipses in statistics and finance
fluence of an attractive force that is directly proportional
to its distance from a fixed attractor. Unlike Keplerian In statistics, a bivariate random vector (X, Y) is jointly el-
orbits, however, these “harmonic orbits” have the center liptically distributed if its iso-density contours — loci of
of attraction at the geometric center of the ellipse, and equal values of the density function — are ellipses. The
have fairly simple equations of motion. concept extends to an arbitrary number of elements of the
random vector, in which case in general the iso-density
contours are ellipsoids. A special case is the multivariate
4.4 Phase visualization normal distribution. The elliptical distributions are im-
portant in finance because if rates of return on assets are
In electronics, the relative phase of two sinusoidal sig- jointly elliptically distributed then all portfolios can be
nals can be compared by feeding them to the vertical and characterized completely by their mean and variance —
horizontal inputs of an oscilloscope. If the display is an that is, any two portfolios with identical mean and vari-
ellipse, rather than a straight line, the two signals are out ance of portfolio return have identical distributions of
of phase. portfolio return.[33][34]
• Geodesics on an ellipsoid
Composite Bézier curves may also be used to draw an el-
lipse to sufficient accuracy, since any ellipse may be con- • Great ellipse
strued as an affine transformation of a circle. The spline
methods used to draw a circle may be used to draw an el- • Hyperbola
lipse, since the constituent Bézier curves will behave ap-
propriately under such transformations. • Kepler’s laws of planetary motion
• Parabola
Rytz’s construction can be used to find the minor and ma-
jor axes and their angle of an ellipse from conjugate di- • Proofs involving the ellipse
ameters (which can be seen as three points of a paral-
lelogram). The method uses the conjugate diameters of • Rytz’s construction, a method for finding the ellipse
an ellipse to map the ellipse to an unit circle under affine axes from conjugate diameters or a parallelogram
transformation and calculate the ellipse parameters from
• Spheroid, the ellipsoid obtained by rotating an el-
that.
lipse about its major or minor axis
[3] Lankford, John (1997). History of Astronomy: An Ency- [18] Ramanujan, Srinivasa, (1914). “Modular Equations and
clopedia. Taylor & Francis. p. 194. ISBN 978-0-8153- Approximations to π". Quart. J. Pure App. Math. 45:
0322-0. 350–372.
[4] Prasolov, Viktor Vasilʹevich; Tikhomirov, Vladimir [19] Chakerian, G. D. “A Distorted View of Geometry.” Ch.
Mikhaĭlovich (2001). Geometry. American Mathemati- 7 in Mathematical Plums (R. Honsberger, editor). Wash-
cal Society. p. 80. ISBN 978-0-8218-2038-4. ington, DC: Mathematical Association of America, 1979.
[5] Fenna, Donald (2007). Cartographic Science: A Com- [20] Meserve 1983, p. 159
pendium of Map Projections, With Derivations. CRC [21] Larson, Ron; Hostetler, Robert P.; Falvo, David C.
Press. p. 24. ISBN 978-0-8493-8169-0. (2006). “Chapter 10”. Precalculus with Limits. Cengage
Learning. p. 767. ISBN 0-618-66089-5.
[6] AutoCAD release 13 command reference. Autodesk, Inc.
1994. p. 216. [22] Young, Cynthia Y. (2010). “Chapter 9”. Precalculus.
John Wiley and Sons. p. 831. ISBN 0-471-75684-9.
[7] Salomon, David (2006). Curves And Surfaces for Com-
puter Graphics. Birkhäuser. p. 365. ISBN 978-0-387- [23] Lawrence, J. Dennis, A Catalog of Special Plane Curves,
24196-8. Dover Publ., 1972.
[8] Kreith, Frank; Goswami, D. Yogi (2005). The CRC [24] If the ellipse is illustrated as a meridional one for the earth,
Handbook Of Mechanical Engineering. CRC Press. pp. the tangential angle is equal to geodetic latitude, the angle
11–8. ISBN 978-0-8493-0866-6. Circles and Ellipses θ is the geocentric latitude, and parametric angle t is a
(11.3.2) parametric (or reduced) latitude of auxiliary circle
[10] Gibson, C. G. (2001), Elementary Geometry of Differen- [27] Auxiliary circle and various ellipse formulas
tiable Curves: An Undergraduate Introduction, Cambridge
[28] Meeus, J. (1991). “Ch. 10: The Earth’s Globe”. As-
University Press, p. 127, ISBN 9780521011075.
tronomical Algorithms. Willmann-Bell. p. 78. ISBN 0-
[11] Besant 1907, p. 57 943396-35-2.
11 References
• Besant, W.H. (1907). “Chapter III. The Ellipse”.
Conic Sections. London: George Bell and Sons. p.
50.
12 External links
• Video: How to draw Ellipse on YouTube
13.2 Images
• File:Archimedes_Trammel.gif Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ee/Archimedes_Trammel.gif License: CC
BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Alastair Rae
• File:Commons-logo.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: ? Contributors: ? Original
artist: ?
• File:Conicas1.PNG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/12/Conicas1.PNG License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contribu-
tors: pt.wikipedia Original artist: Marcelo Reis
• File:Drawing_an_ellipse_via_two_tacks_a_loop_and_a_pen.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/22/
Drawing_an_ellipse_via_two_tacks_a_loop_and_a_pen.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work (Original text: I created this
work entirely by myself.) Original artist: Dino at English Wikipedia
• File:Ellipse_Polar.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ef/Ellipse_Polar.svg License: Public domain Contrib-
utors: Own work Original artist: Inductiveload
• File:Ellipse_Polar_center.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/8/82/Ellipse_Polar_center.svg License: Public domain
Contributors:
This is modified version of Ellipse_Polar.svg (which is under public domain).
Original artist:
zinka
• File:Ellipse_Properties_of_Directrix.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/62/Ellipse_Properties_of_
Directrix.svg License: Public domain Contributors:
• Ellipse_Properties.svg Original artist: Ellipse_Properties.svg: Inductiveload
13.3 Content license 15