DEFINING CHARACTERISTICS

,
HISTORY, AND EVOLUTION OF
HUMANISTIC PSYCHOTHERAPIES
DAVID J. CAIN

The origin of humanistic psychotherapies might be dated to December
11, 1940. On that day Carl Rogers, then 38, gave a speech titled “Newer
Concepts in Psychotherapy” to the Psi Chi chapter of the University of
Minnesota. Rogers was especially critical of many of the psychotherapy
methods used at the time: advice giving, suggestion, persuasion, exhortation,
and interpretation. He identified the “newer” approach he advocated as
follows:
The aim of this newer therapy is not to solve one particular problem,
but to assist the individual to grow, so he can cope with the present
problem. . . . It relies much more heavily on the individual drive toward
growth, health and adjustment. . . . This newer therapy places greater
stress on the emotional elements . . . than upon the intellectual aspects.
. . . [It] places greater stress upon the immediate situation than upon
the individual’s past. . . . Finally this approach lays stress upon the
therapeutic relationship itself as a growth experience. (see
Kirschenbaum, 1979, p. 113)
The speech created a furor of excitement, praise, criticism, and puzzle-
ment. Rogers would later come to identify the date of the Minnesota speech
as the birth of client-centered therapy. What first seemed to be a critique
of the long-standing methods of the past, along with some proposed advances,
would, in fact, form the basis of a new school of thought. It is, arguably,
the first attempt to identify the rudiments of many of the common elements
that would be shared by humanistic approaches developed in the 1940s
and beyond.
This chapter presents a brief history of the major schools of humanistic
psychotherapy and identifies the primary concepts and characteristics shared

3

by humanistic approaches. It does not attempt to present a history of human-
istic psychology in general, although mention is made of the major concepts
that have affected the development of the family of humanistic psychothera-
pies. Although there are some important differences in the “humanistic
family”of psychotherapies, this chapter emphasizes the most common shared
characteristics while noting substantive variations.
Decisions about whose contributions should be emphasized were diffi-
cult. Every attempt was made to provide a balanced and representative
presentation of all major humanistic therapeutic approaches. In general,
three criteria were used in determining whose contributions would be empha-
sized: (a) the originality of the person’s contribution, (b) the magnitude
and pervasiveness of impact on the field of humanistic psychotherapies, and
(c) the span of the leader’s contribution. Because of Carl Rogers’s profound
and pervasive influence on the major schools of humanistic psychotherapy
and on the field of psychotherapy in general, a significant portion of this
chapter addresses the influence of his seminal ideas. First, I attempt to identify
the shared characteristics of the humanistic family that most distinguish it
from other approaches to psychotherapy.

DEFINING CHARACTERISTICS OF
HUMANISTIC PSYCHOTHERAPIES

View of the Person

Humanistic therapists view the person as self-actuali2ing, endowed with
an inherent tendency to develop his or her potential. Similarly, people
are seen as resourceful, as having the capacity or potential to tap their
internal experiences and external resources in a manner that leads to pro-
ductive learning, growth, and effective behavior. There is an implicit opti-
mism in the humanistic therapist’s view of the person’s capacity for con-
structive change. Combs (1999), speaking of people’s fundamental drive
toward fulfillment or health, stated, “clients can, will and must move
toward health, if the way seems open to them to do so’’ (p. 14). Although
humanistic therapists, especially the existentialists, do not deny the ex-
tremes of psychopathology that exist in people or their dark and destruc-
tive aspects, they are inclined to maintain their belief that their clients
can be enabled to identify and develop their resources. People, as well as
all forms of life, are viewed as resilient and tenacious in manifesting their
natural inclination to survive and grow, even under the most adverse
circumstances.
Humanistic therapists view people as self-aware and free to choose how
they will live and responsible for the choices they make. Although a variety

4 DAVIDJ. CAIN

of factors make people’s choices difficult and sometimes risky, in most
instances they experience choice and agency as within their capacity. One
of the main endeavors of humanistic therapists is to strengthen clients’
belief that they can be the authors of their lives. People are also viewed as
limited, to some degree, by their genetic and physical constitution, culture
and life circumstances, and catastrophic events.
The person is viewed holistically, as an indivisible, interrelated organism
who cannot be reduced to the sum of his or her parts. All individuals are
embodied beings and, consequently, cannot be understood apart from their
physical and emotional selves. Similarly, people are contextual beings who
are best understood in their relationship to others and their environment
in their immediate life space.
Each person is viewed as a unique entity, unlike any other person who
has existed or will exist. Consequently, each client is understood in the
context of his or her unique experiences and characteristics and responded
to in a personalized manner.
People have a need to make sense of their experiences and find meaning
in their lives. This premise is the basis for humanistic therapists’ focus on
clarifying the personal meaning of their clients’ experiences and their search
for purpose. Similarly, people create or construct their realities from their
immediate experiences, recollections of their past, culture, and values. Their
capacity for creativity enables them to evolve throughout the life span and
become more complex and differentiated beings who can conceive of them-
selves and their worlds in new ways.
Humanistic therapists also view people as primarily social beings who
have a powerful need to belong, to have a place in their families and social
groups and feel valued. As Harry Stack Sullivan (1892-1949) emphasized,
all behaviors, including psychopathology, are essentially interpersonal in
nature. One of the most fundamental aspects of humanistic psychotherapy
is its view that the therapist-client relationship is the fundamental source
of constructive change in the client. People promote growth in others by
the manner of their relating.

Values

A fundamental value of humanistic therapists is their belief that people
have the right, desire, and ability to determine what is best for them and
how they will achieve it. Embedded in humanistic therapies is a commitment
to democratic principles in negotiating differences and solving problems
when people are in conflict. Humanistic therapists are, therefore, strongly
inclined to engage in behaviors that are collaborative and provide optimal
freedom for their clients. Conversely, they are disinclined to use methods
that are directive, persuasive, or covert.

DEFINING CHARACTERISTICS 5

Another primary value of humanistic therapists is their appreciation for
a diversity of perspectives on “reality.” There is no assumption of an ultimate
or consensual reality but rather a belief that the same experiences can be
interpreted in multiple ways. Reality is not a given; it is constructed from the
raw data of experiences, tempered by one’s collective experiences in interac-
tion with a specific context at a particular moment by a person in a specific
mental state. Similarly, humanistic therapists believe that there are many
viable world views, belief systems, and lifestyles that people may embrace that
enable them to live satisfying, functional, and useful lives. Consequently, psy-
chotherapy must be individualized to fit with the personal goals, preferences,
and values of an evolving client. Conversely, manualized or highly specific
treatments for abstract psychological disorders as defined by the fourth edition
of the Diagnostic and Statis tical Manual ofMental Disorders (American Psychiat-
ric Association, 1994) or other diagnostic systems are eschewed.

Actualizing Tendency

The foundational premise on which humanistic therapies are built is
that people have an inherent actualizing tendency, a powerful impulse to
maintain the self and develop its potential. Rogers’s related concept of a
formative tendency suggests that there is an inevitable directional course
in people and all forms of life toward increased complexity, differentiation,
evolution, completion, and wholeness. Maslow ( 1970) challenged psychol-
ogy to reconsider its view of the person and to consider the magnificence
of what people can be. By studying and describing self-actualizing people,
Maslow showed us that it is indeed possible for people to reach extraordinary
levels of development and evolution. He took the position that, given free
choice, children will tend to choose what is good for their growth and
experience satisfaction, pleasure, or delight in doing so. In other words, a
growth tendency is self-maintaining and self-propelling because it is naturally
satisfying to the person and enhances a sense of well-being. This belief in
the actualizing tendency is fundamental to humanistic therapists because
their efforts are focused on developing a relational climate that enables
their clients to tap into and develop this enormous life source for survival and
growth. Their faith in the client’s potential results in humanistic therapists’
disinclination to be directive but rather to act in ways that free clients to
find their own directions, solve their own problems, and evolve in ways
that are congruent to them.

Relational Emphasis

Every culture emphasizes that the way people treat each other has a
critical relevance to their well-being and ability to function in life. Sixty years

6 DAVID 1. CAIN

of practice and research in humanistic therapies have established the validity
of the powerful growth-inducing power of a therapeutic relationship. The
primary goal of humanistic therapists, therefore, is the creation of optimal
therapeutic conditions for their clients. As Rogers ( 1980) eloquently stated,
“Individualshave within themselves vast resourcesfor self-understanding,and
for altering their self concepts, basic attitudes, and self-directed behavior;
these resources can be tapped if a definable climate of facilitative psychologi-
cal attitudes can be provided” (p. 115). The “definable climate” includes the
therapist’s genuineness, authenticity, transparency, or congruence and ap-
propriate self-disclosure;acceptance, nonjudgmental caring, liking, prizing,
affirmation, respect, unconditionalpositive regard, or nonpossessive warmth;
a genuine desire to understand the client’s experience and accurate empathic
communication of that experience. Other relational qualities and attitudes
embraced by humanistic therapists include a collaborative relationship char-
acterized by trust, safety, and support; receptivity to the client’s and one’s
own experience and adaptivity; contact and engagement, I-thou encounter;
therapist presence and immersion or indwelling in the client’s experience;
a therapeutic alliance, bond, authentic dialogue, and meeting; and optimism
regarding the client’s capacity for constructive change. With an ongoing
relationship as its base, humanistic therapists strive to create optimal inter-
personal and intrapersonal learning environments, believing that clients
will identify what they need to learn and “learn how to learn.”

Phenomenology

The field of phenomenology has had a profound influence on humanis-
tic psychotherapy. Spiegelberg ( 1970) elegantly and succinctly defined phe-
nomenology as “the direct investigation of and description of phenomena as
consciously experienced, without theories about their causal explanation
and as free as possible from unexamined preconceptions and presuppositions”
(p. 810). Humanistic psychotherapists, especially the existentialists, have
their phenomenological roots in the philosophical concepts and methods of
German philosophers Edmund Husserl ( 1859-1938) and Martin Heidegger
( 1889-1976). Husserl, considered to be the founder of phenomenology, set
out to develop a philosophical method that laid aside presuppositions in an
endeavor to describe phenomena (the structures of consciousness) by focus-
ing on “the things themselves” without concern about their causes. He
developed the phenomenological method in an attempt to clarify the role
of conscious experiencing in the creation of meaning and to develop a more
adequate knowledge of reality. Husserl believed the task of phenomenology
was to study essences or the qualities that define something.
Heidegger’s primary concern was ontology, or the study of being or
existence. He used the phenomenological method to discover what he

DEFINING CHARACTERISTICS 7

the client’s experience. the therapist endeavors to describe in an atheoretical manner the subjective world of the client. to grasp what it is like to be the client. The therapist’s desire to understand the client accurately is crucial. previ- ous knowledge or information. anything that may interfere with their ability to attend to clients’ immediate experience. theoretical leanings. guilt) and to address essential questions about the experience of being human (e. personal biases. judgments.g. openness.g. Heidegger focused on interpreting the meaning of phenomena “in themselves” and in finding their hidden truths. therapists’ capacity to respond to the client with sensitive and accurate empathy enables clients to reflect further on their experience and refine their understanding of it. Toward this end. therapists bracket. Such description is likely to be concrete as opposed to abstract and as faithful as possible to the client’s description of events. and views. anxiety. hypotheses.. It is clear that the goal of the phenomenological method in the thera- peutic enterprise is to illuminate the client’s lived world. as described by Spinelli (1989) has three basic steps that might be applied to the therapeutic endeavor. experiences. feelings. Here. The phenomenological method. This requires considerable discipline and restraint on the part of the therapist because the therapist. Instead each aspect of the client’s experience is viewed as if it is potentially as significant as other aspects. the therapist makes a conscious effort to suspend all beliefs and preconceptions. expectations. Furthermore. Step 2: Description of Experience The therapist’s next goal is to describe. the therapist refrains from assuming that any experi- ence disclosed by the client is more primary or important than any other. Step 1 : Epoche In epoche. authenticity. but not explain. and disciplined naivete as he or she endeavors to grasp the client’s lived world. beliefs. is naturally inclined to make sense of or attribute meaning to the client’s experience.. like the client.CAIN . Step 3: E q d z a t i o n In this endeavor. and assumptions in a spirit of minimizing interpretation of the client’s experience. Thus the therapist refrains from assuming or acting as if some of the client’s experiences are central while others are peripheral. I discuss these steps below. recollections. The therapist appreciates that there are always multiple perspectives on reality and that 8 DAVID 1.believed to be fundamental categories of human existence (e. The therapist receives the client with curiosity. meaning). or set aside.

As early as the 194Os. As is probably clear. empathy is a vital tool in grasping the nature and meaning of client experience. core beliefs. and needs. the act of carefully attending to others in a nonjudgmental manner with a desire to understand is a powerful experience that typically results in their feeling valued and supported (see also Watson. cause-effect . because it is more inclusive and capable of apprehending a greater complexity. this volume.the client is the expert on his or her life and the final source for determining the accuracy of the therapist’s understanding. and is more scientific than the natural science model. We endorse the human science model of science . Empathy enables clients to focus on and decipher the unclear aspects of their feeling states. because it is more comprehensive.nomothet ic. capable of embracing various forms of research and knowledge in a manner that allows complementarity in an integrated overall framework. Accurate empathy enables therapist and client to grasp the cognitive aspect of the experience. Socially. humanistic psychologists and psychotherapists tend to prefer ideographic. and personal meanings. The human science approach requires not less but more rigor. hypothesis. the DEFINING CHARACTERISTICS 9 . (P. natural science approaches. As stated in the American Psychological Association (APA) Division 32 Task Force for the Development of Guidelines for the Provision of Humanistic Psychosocial Services ( 1997). Rather they embrace multiple ways of knowing and recognize the strengths and limitations of natural and human science approaches to further their understanding of the therapeutic process and outcome. Because emotions can be understood as impulses to act. Therapist empathy is a response that has a multidimensional impact on the client. although they do not reject the contributions of positivistic . In light of the phenomenological orientation of humanistic therapists. human science methods to comprehending the person. particularly the client’s views. deep- ening. T h e Self A fundamental concept and focus of humanistic theory and therapy is the self-the “I” or “me” of one’s existence.testing. desires. . 85) Empathy Therapist empathy is a critical factor in accurately illuminating. and enriching the client’s experience. chapter 14). Empathy may be conceived as the therapist’s desire and endeavor to understand what it is like to be the client and to communicate accurately that experience to the client. statistically based. phenomenological. . illuminating emotional experience helps clients get clear about their motivations.

humanistic therapists “focus on the emotional and experien- tial dimensions of human functioning when it facilitates dialogue which 10 DAVID J. As many humanistic therapists have observed. discord and dysfunction are likely. and to one’s physical world constitutes the essence of our daily lives. take us to the appropriate place in a decision-making space. When there is discrepancy between these experiences. chapter 15). . humanistic therapists have embraced the importance of the adaptive nature of emotion in effective decision making and effective functioning. The belief that behavior changes as the self-concept is altered has enormous influence in the therapeu- tic endeavor because it alerts therapists and focuses their attention on clients’ immediate and ongoing sense of self and the role it plays in mediating their perceptions and behavior. a state of optimal functioning is likely. Rather than view emotion primarily as something that interferes with functioning. The concept of congruence is closely related to the self of humanistic theories because it implies a correspondence between the self-concept and experience and between self and ideal self. As humans. a neurologist and author of Descurtes’ Error. one’s self plays a critical role in one’s view of and manner of relating to others. 235). Consequently. As Mahoney ( 1991 ) suggested. p. CAIN . self-definition. and view of self. where we may put the instruments of logic to good use” (Damasio. strive to help their clients become aware of their incongruencies and to assist them to find ways to move toward integration and wholeness (see also Purkey & Stanley. “All psychotherapies are psychotherapies of the self” (p. and the development of self-knowledge are the primary concerns of the humanistic therapist. behavior. xiii). 1994. Emotion One of the most distinguishing features of humanistic therapies is their emphasis on the importance of emotion. Antonio Damasio. therefore. Consequently. when people are integrated or whole in all aspects of their experiences. stability. Self-exploration. Threat to the self often results in our tendency to preserve and defend it. to others.self-concept was recognized as a pervasive and influential aspect of the client’s experience. it takes courage to be oneself. One’s relationship to oneself. we all strive and struggle to discover who we are and to form an identity that provides direction. Humanistic therapists and researchers have been at the forefront in expanding our understanding of the critical role played by emotion in human behavior. provides evidence that “certain aspects of the process of emotion and feeling are indispensable for rationality [and] . and worth. reconstrual of the self. this volume. There is probably nothing that occupies our mind more than our “self” and the imagined or actual view others have of us. Conversely. to discover and live from one’s core. . Humanistic therapists.

see also Greenberg. which emphasizes that people create their own personal universes. this volume..” and integrated. The process of creating meaning in the client has been informed by constructivist theorists and therapists whose approach is fundamentally humanistic. clients develop a more centered self and a system of beliefs and values from which to operate. “The living organism . O n the basis of this premise. Views of the person as “part functions. As meanings and purposes become clear. Meaning Meaning is not a given but is constructed from the raw data of experi- ence. People are troubled by that which seems to elude their comprehension and search for a form of understanding that enables them to comprehend their behaviors and lives. 1).” such as cognition versus affect or mind versus body. chapter 16). the goal of therapy is the restructuring of meaning in the client. and personal history. the human organism is conceived as a constantly interconnected. Often the course and purposes of clients’ lives is implicit but not clear. Korman. Epting & Leitner. “Humanistic” constructivists (e.. . . When functioning optimally. and groundedness. perspectives. . Kelly’s (1955) concept of constructive altemtivism takes the view that “the events we face today are subject to as great a variety of constructions as our wits will enable us to contrive” (p. & Paivio. 1997. Discovering that there are comprehensible threads of meaning to their lives enables clients to gain a sense of clarity. a dynamic whole. direction.g. The person is viewed as a gestalt. Mind and body are inseparable. clients have the experience of feeling “whole. 1992) have grounded their ideas in George Kelly’s ( 1905-1967) personal construct theory. indivisible whole. Making sense of experience seems to be a fundamental need of all individuals. are concepts used by psychologists for descriptive and analytical purposes rather than descriptions of real components of the person. p. 95. values. will always do the best it can to actualize its potentials . There is an implicit optimism in constructivism because the therapist takes the position that clients have the capacity to create new meanings and new possibilities for living. A holistic view of a person eschews the simplifying and distorting tendencies associated with categorization and reductionism.” “all-of-a-piece. including one’s culture. Holism As mentioned earlier. . and it will do so as a unit along all dimensions of its functioning” DEFINING CHARACTERISTICS 11 .takes clients to deeper levels of feeling and thinking” (Bohart et al. Humanistic therapists strive to enable their clients to grasp the larger meanings and patterns of their lives.

Therefore.(Tageson. the choosing and the consequences cannot be avoided. Probably one of the most frequent acknowledgments humanistic therapists make about their clients’ experiences is simply. choice.humanistic therapists accept its presence and strive to enable their clients to make constructive use of it for learning or to manage it more effectivelywhen it interfereswith functioning. Freedom-Choice-Responsibilit y Humanistic therapists view people as essentially free to choose the manner and course of their living and their attitude toward events. Therefore. There is an inherent optimism in this realization (i. Whatever one’s choices. As French writer and philosopher Jean-Paul Same (1905-1980) has commented. Anxiety Anxiety is an inevitable part of living and therefore must be a concern for humanistic therapists. “You’re afraid. I could alter my life) but also the possibility for the existential guilt of missed opportunities and the existential anxiety of uncertainty.. As Seeman has articulated (see this volume. and the resulting responsibility for our choices are intertwined.p. As clients are enabled to realize that they are constantly choosing. they are also responsible for their choices. They recognize that other paths are available to them. the existential questions of “How are you living?”and “Are you becoming 12 DAVID J . Thus. chapter 21). as opposed to simply being carried along by or reacting to their experiences.” As Roll0 May (1981) pointed out. freedom. 35). CAIN . We must all grapple with the dread that our lives are finite and that we cannot predict when or how they will end. they become empowered. the human organism can be viewed most accurately as composed of interrelated systems. Each choice we make inevitably means that another choice could not be made. If we can create our life in its current form. Each of us must constantly deal with the uncertain- ties of living and the reality that we have limited control over some aspects of our lives. attending to the various manifesta- tions of client anxiety as well as assessing its meanings is a critical endeavor of humanistic therapies. it may also be viewed as a warning system that alerts us to real or feared dangers to the self. we are our choices. Although anxiety is often experienced as threatening and unpleasant. Rather than viewing anxiety as simply something that is distressingand dysfunctional. At the same time that people are free to choose. freedom and anxiety are two sides of the same coin. Humanistic therapists view existential anxiety as a potential source of growth in that it may heighten self-reflection and motivation. then we can also create it in another form. 1982.e. This realization heightens our concern about how we are living.

especially fear and guilt. Carl Rogers readily acknowledged that Otto Rank and his followers. (d) creativity and will in develop- ment of the self. and (f) fear of living (life fear) and fear of losing one’s individuality and becoming helpless (death fear). 92). especially those of Otto Rank. I address the impact of these precursors on the development of contemporary humanistic psycho- therapies. Rogers commented about Taft’s approach: “Its major value may be . p. who identified her approach as relationship therapy. Paul Goodman. Jessie Taft. Otto Rank’s Influence Otto Rank (1884-1939) was Freud’s closest disciple and served as secretary of the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society. pp. with its relational and existential emphasis.the person you wish to be?” are often integral aspects of humanistic psycho- therapy. In fact. The Dynamics of Therapy in a Controlled Relationship (1933). Rogers invited Rank to make a presentation at the Child Study Department in Rochester in 1936. including (a) an emphasis on conscious experience and emotion. but he broke away from Freud and psychoanalysis in 1926. 92-93). Carl Whitaker. choice. In 1937. (b) the here-and-now. . and the existential analysts. Many of his ideas anticipated future developments in psychotherapy. and Irvin Yalom. 1979. influenced many of the people who would become founders and leaders in the field of humanistic psychotherapies. . Frederick Allen. Rollo May. 1979. Rank‘s will therapy. had an influence on his thinking. Taft’s book. Alfred Adler. p. 1963. 380). (c) awareness. PRECURSORS OF HUMANISTIC THERAPIES Humanistic psychotherapies have their roots in therapeutic systems dating to the early 1900s. the fresh viewpoint of non-interference and reliance upon the individual’s own tendency toward growth which it has emphasized” (see Kirschenbaum. and self-direction. Rogers was most influenced by Rank‘s student. Rank viewed the basic goal for the client as “the acceptance of the self with its individual ego and its volitional and emotional autonomy” (see Ford & Urban. was identified by Rogers as “a small masterpiece of writing and thinking” (see Kirschenbaum. Rogers was also drawn to Rank‘s emphasis on the therapist’s supportive and acceptant stance toward the client and DEFINING CHARACTERISTICS 13 . including Carl Rogers. Jessie Taft and Frederick Allen. responsibility. (e) the “real” relationship as the core of therapy as opposed to the transferential relationship. In the following sections.

1973. . Rank‘s interest in the developing sense of individual identity led to a change of focus in the interaction between patient and therapist. Polster & Polster. not accepting itself as an individual” (p. I came to believe in the individual’scapacity. author of Rank‘s biography. He asserted that the primary struggle in life is for personal individuation. and that neurosis is due precisely to the fact that the patient cannot will constructively” and that “the neurotic type . 297). cannot endure himself” (pp. . . suffers from the fact that he cannot accept himself. 1973. considered Rank to be an existentialist and noted that his therapy “envisioned a mutual relationship” whose aim was to “unify 14 DAVID]. . “Two of Rank‘s directions have special importance for the evolution of Gestalt therapy. . They also stated. They commented. Acts of Will: The Life and Works of Otto Rank. the individual creates his own personality by creative willing. .the value placed on client self-insight. a personality denying its own will. “Rank holds that . (E. 52-53). . . Those two aspects of the core idea haven’t changed since that time. p. Erving and Miriam Polster acknowledged the influence of Rank on Gestalt therapy. Rogers reflected on the influence of Rank and his students as follows: I became infected with Rankian ideas and began to realize the possibili- ties of the individual being self-directing. Many years later. . p. . 14). p. 314) Yalom (1980) quoted Rank on the importance of will as follows: “The task of the therapist is to function in such a way that the will of the patient shall not be broken but strengthened” (p. CAlN . This struggle is waged in the individual’s efforts to integrate his polar fears of separation and union”(E.This certainly fit in with the earlier ideas I had absorbed from Kilpatrick and John Dewey. the problem of individuality is a will problem and a consciousness problem. I value the dignity and rights of the individual sufficiently that I do not want to impose my way upon him. and what Rank termed creative will in psychother- apy. The neurotic character represents not an illness but a developmental phase of the individu- ality problem. . Lieberman (1989. Polster & Polster. 1979. Acknowledgement of the human aspects of this interaction make him one of the major influences toward a humanistic orientation in psycho- therapy-an important inheritance for Gestalt therapy. May (1939) commented. 314). May was also impressed with Rank‘s belief that the aim of psychotherapy is self-development. . (see Kirschenbaum. 95) Rollo May was impressed with Rank‘s emphasis on the importance of freedom and responsibility. . Moustakas (1995) viewed the denial of one’s individuality as a cause of maladjustment and cited Rank as follows: “Psychologically.

Rollo May. p. who studied with Adler in Vienna in the summers of 1932 and 1933. and largely self-determining. 1939). attitudes. and Abraham Maslow. 176). Freedom: Adler viewed people as free. Carl Rogers. . philosophically. and psychologically. 2.” May credited Adler for his strong emphasis on empathy as the means by which the counselor comes to know and identify with the other. to “act and feel as if we were someone else” (May. In a chapter titled “Empathy-Key to the Counseling Process. . For Adler. .and free the crippled will . and therapeutic response that would later be embraced by them. He rejected polarities such as mind-body and conscious- unconscious. concerning the worth of a human being” (May. and others. and subjective. For Adler. 3. Subjectivity: As Ansbacher and Ansbacher (1956) noted. It is surprising that Adler has not had more direct influence on the development of humanistic therapies because he anticipated many of the ideas. a distinct personality capable of making life a creative enterprise” (pp. Ad- ler’s psychology was personalistic. He later quoted Adler on the issue of judging others as follows: “Let us never allow ourselves to make any m a l judgments . and to develop a self. frequently cited Adler’s ideas in The Art of Counseling (May. . 1939. p. believing that all functions or subsystems of the person are in the service of the whole person. Meddard Boss. 4. These two therapeutic endeavors-the desire to understand and nonjudgmental acceptance-constitute two key building blocks on which all humanistic therapies are built. Meaning emphasis: Adler believed that meaning was given to life by the individual and that the meanings the individual chooses will strongly influence the course of life. choosing. perception was largely determined by subjective values and interests. Adler viewed experienceas the immediate subject matter of psychology. His view of the person was that of an indivisible unity. Alfred Adler’s Indirect Influence Alfred Adler’s (1870-1937) ideas made an impact on several of the founding fathers of humanistic psychology: Rollo May. ideographic. as well as Viktor Frankl. 79). 404-405). These common characteristics include the following: 1. Holism: Adler’s psychology viewed living beings as connected wholes-biologically. 1939. DEFINING CHARACTERISTICS 15 . He saw people as free to choose their life goals and free to determine whether or not they choose to contribute to the well-being of others.

one’s style of life largely reflected the purposes and meanings attributed to it. “Does it work?” Rogers’s approach to his clinical work was based on careful systematic observation as opposed to trial and error. He was nonjudgmental. In his view. or even the removal of the child from his or her home if this was thought to be therapeutic. empathy. becoming its director in 1929 at the age of 27. 7. CAlN . he attempted to grasp the client’s world through empathy and stated. people strive to overcome their inferiorities to achieve perfec- tion and superiority. a nonj udgmental attitude. Phenomenology and empathy: Psychopathology is viewed as a product of distorted perceptions and failure to learn. Rogers was a pragmatist. and encouragement. and he emphasized subjective understanding. As he found himself faced with large numbers of troubled children and parents. It might mean changing parental attitudes and behaviors. Rogers commented. During the Rochester period from 1928 to 1939. One was environmental therapy. which might include the modification of the child’s school or living environment. Rogers worked at the Child Study Department of the Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children. Not content to rely on his subjective impressions. “We must be able to see with his eyes and listen with his ears” (see Ansbacher & Ansbacher. New York. patient. Existentialism: Adler believed that people strive to overcome or transcend themselves and life’s limitations. Development of the self was not seen as sufficient for actualization of one’s potential but required social interest. 1956. “Most children. Although Adler did not use the term phenomenology. his guiding question was. A number of clinical experiences influenced Rogers’s thinking. he carefully evaluated the effect of his work. intellectual and social needs. and kind. have within themselves sufficient drive toward health to respond and make a comfortable adjustment to life” 16 DAVID 1. 6. a genuine concern for one’s fellow human beings. if given a reasonably normal environment which meets their own emotional. 5. p. MAJOR APPROACHES TO HUMANISTIC PSYCHOTHERAPIES Client-Centered Psychotherapy The roots of client-centered therapy reach back to the late 1920s when Carl Rogers spent his formative years as a clinical psychologist in Rochester. 14). Emphasis on therapeutic relationship: Adler was an excellent role model of compassion toward humankind and his clients.

1979.p. At the end of the first chapter. As Seeman (1965) stated.experiment- ing with and refining the concepts and methods that would emerge as one of the most influential and controversial of therapeutic approaches. . and congruence. He was adamant in his belief that the therapist should not advise the client. Rogers’s experiences with children and parents led him to begin to realize that It is the client who knows what hurts. 1215). Rogers established a practicum in counseling and psychotherapy in 1940 for graduate trainees. a classic textbook on basic therapeutic issues. (see Kirschenbaum. Rogers and his students were innovators in the early 1940s. a number of his proposals seemed to focus on what Rogers thought the therapist should not do or be. As Kirschenbaum ( 1979) noted. 75). 18). some of the basic elements that would form the foundation for what would be later known as client-centered therapy. permissiwe relationship which allows the client to gain an understanding of himself to a degree which enables him to take psitiwe steps in the light of his new orientation” (p. methods. The Clinical Treatment of the Problem Child (1939). Rogers wrote Counselingand Psychotherapy: Newer Concepts in Practice (1942). I would do better to rely upon the client for the direction of movement in the process. . and the process of change. .(see Kirschenbaum. perhaps the most important assumption on which client-centered therapy is built. Rogers identified in his first book. 89) Rogers left Rochester and went to Ohio State University in 1939 as a full professor in the psychology department. It appears that an important belief emerging in Rogers was the notion that individual growth was more likely to occur in a certain kind of environment. This was a radical shift away from the interpretive and directive methods that were commonly used at the time. Rogers (1942) stated the basic hypothesis of his developing approach as follows: “Effectiwe counseling consists of a definitely structured. which was apparently the first such supervised training offered in a university setting. In his early stages of developing a “new” approach. p. . which continues to this day” (p. Toward the end of his Rochester years. . 1979. What Rogers called the “drive toward health” certainly has the sound of the actualizing tendency. While at Ohio State. what problems are crucial. It began to occur to me that unless I had a need to demonstrate my own cleverness and learning. these elements would form the basis for what Rogers would later identify as the therapist’s qualities of empathic understanding. “The enduring process which Rogers set in motion in 1942 was a reexamination of the nature of therapy . what directions to go. unconditional positive regard. the therapy relationship. The descriptive terms directiwe and client were introduced to underscore the therapist’s belief that the direction and locus of control in therapy were clearly centered in the person seeking help. DEFINING CHARACTERZSTICS 17 .

the first audio readings of a therapy session were made on 78-rpm discs. which may be tested and explored” (pp. In 1940. Although today we take for granted the usefulness of reviewing audio. Early in Counselingand Psychotherapy. It was a relationship characterized by disciplined restraint and nonintrusiveness. . The therapist as an individual stayed out of the relationship. The research tradition established by Rogers and his students during this period has carried forward to the present to ensure the continued development and efficacy of client- centered therapy. Another shift was toward the feelings expressed by the client as opposed to the client’s thoughts. and what are the values by which the situation is to be judged” (p. Rogers was a pioneer in carrying out and publishing research studies in counseling. p. CAIN . 18 DAVID]. Rogers was the first to demystify psychotherapy by bringing it out into the open for study. Rogers ( 1942) objected to these approaches because “they assume that the counselor is the one most competent to decide what are to be the goals of the individual. Instead the therapist attempted to be a careful and understandinglistener. T o a large extent. The therapist’s attitudes of respect for and belief in the client’s capacity for self- directed growth resulted in the therapist developing a dramatically different kind of relationship with the client.interpret behavior. The therapeutic approach developed by Rogers in the early 1940s had many distinctive characteristics. was the first phonographically recorded verbatim transcript of an entire course of psycho- therapy ever published.and videotapes for training purposes. the accuracy and effectiveness of the therapist’s reflection and clarification of feelings were clearly the primary focus during this phase of development. The case of Herbert Bryan. These “live” and transcribed recordings provided case studies for training purposes as well as research studies. Rogers and his students were the first to study the counseling process in depth. . 27). a number of which continue to be basic to the practice of client-centered therapy and other humanistic approaches. the therapist’s task was technical in emphasis. or attempt to direct or persuade the client to pursue a particular course of action. 1979. 16-17). Rogers made a major shift in emphasis in therapy by focusing on the person of the client rather than on the problem expressed. 1942). Although the therapist’s acceptance of the client was viewed as critical. Rogers (1942) stated that the book “endeavors to formulate a definite and understandable series of hypotheses . which constitutes the last 176 pages of Counseling and Psychotherapy (Rogers. Rogers believed that counselor- cenrered therapy “may serve only to make the counselee more dependent. Finally. It is probably fair to say that Rogers was primarily responsible for initiating research in the field of psychotherapy. 116) and more resistant to the counselor. with the assistance of Bernie Covner. less able to solve new problems of adjustment” (see Kirschenbaum.

presented by the American Psychological Association in 1956. education. was awarded the first Distinguished Scientific Contribution Award. In 1954. industry. Rogers commented about his Chi- cago years: I believe I learned more and contributed more during the twelve years at the Center (1945-1957) than in any other period. approximately 200 studies were conducted on client-centered therapy and its applications to children. I think it safe to say that anyone who worked for as much as a year in that climate regards his time there as one of the most significant experiences in his life. Rogers added congruence to empathic understanding and unconditional positive regard as an important condition for therapeutic DEFINING CHARACTERISTICS 19 . Applications of the client-centered approach to play therapy. In this period. which was coedited by Rogers and Rosalind Dymond (see Rogers & Dymond. In Twelve Therapists (Burton. There he continued to develop client- centered theory and practice while conducting research on its effectiveness. . . Based primarily on his research contributions in psychother- apy. Rogers. and counselor train- ing were advanced. There was enormous freedom for creativity. 54) In 1951. Between 1943 and 1957. It was a period in which our basic views about the helping relationship came to fruition. Joseph Matarrazzo placed Rogers’s research efforts in perspective in 1965 when he wrote: “His approach to the interview stimulated research more than the works of any single writer on the interview before or since” and that Psychotherapy and Personality Change was “probably the single most important research publication on interviewing (as found in psychotherapy) of the decade” (see Kirschenbaum. In 1956. . as well as the capacity of the client for constructive change. Rogers received considerable credit and praise for the research efforts he stimulated at the Counseling Center. . Client-Centered Psychotherapy. the results of a group of studies were published in Psychotherapy and Personality Change.Carl Rogers left Ohio State to create and direct the Counseling Center at the University of Chicago. It was a germinal period for research hypotheses and theoretical formulations. In 1945. teaching. 1979. . Rogers’s third major book. . The studies that Rogers referred to as a “pioneeringventure” were moderately supportive of client-centered hypotheses. p. . and leadership. Rogers and client-centered therapists focused on creating a relationship that would release the client’s natural tendency for self-actualization and growth. (p. 219). was published. groups. group therapy. leadership and administration. Spence and Wolfgang Kohler. as opposed to technique. . . 1972). 1954). Rogers further emphasized the attitudes of the therapist as primary. Increasing emphasis was placed on understanding the client’s phenomenal world and its meaning. along with Kenneth W.

The results of the study showed no significant differences between the therapy group and the control group. interpersonal relations. Also in 1956. was published in 1961. 6. It stated the following: 1. Rogers published “A Theory of Therapy. whom we shall term the client. The second person. first published in 1957. is in a state of incongruence. In 1959. the research evidence for client-centered therapy was modest. The first. the process of growth. In the spring of 1957. 2. 3. Soon after its publication. The therapist experiences an empathic understanding of the client’s internal frame of reference and endeavors to communi- cate this experience to the client. Rogers’s fifth and most influential book. he began to develop an ambitious research project on the treatment of individuals with schizophrenia. Some of his more provocative and incisive ideas on psychotherapy. being vulnerable or anxious. is congruent or integrated in the relationship. The therapist experiences unconditional positive regard for the client. and the fully functioning person are contained in this book. Two persons are in psychological contact. On Becoming a Person. Rogers and many of his colleagues were curious to see if his hypothesis about the necessary and sufficient conditions of personality change applied to people with serious mental illnesses. Personality and Interpersonal Relationships” in Sigmund Koch’s Psychology: A Study of a Science. It contains many of Rogers’s best-known and most influential papers. 4.” This formulation. creativity.change. C A W . In 1957. 5. education research. Rogers accepted a position at the University of Wisconsin. Although much was learned about psychotherapy with people with schizophrenia. Rogers developed his formulation of what he would call “The Necessary and Sufficient Conditions of Therapeutic Personality Change. philosophy of science. Rogers’s ( 1957) formulation stimulated an enormous amount of research and debate in the field of psychotherapy and quite possibly more than any other hypothesis advanced by any school of psychotherapy. although there was a correlation between high levels of the therapist conditions of congruence and empathy and successful outcome. there was an enormous outpouring of 20 DAVlD J. family life. This 72-page formal statement of his theory continues to stand as the most complete statement of Rogers’s position.represented the culmina- tion of many years of development in Rogers’s thinking and remains virtually unchanged to this day. whom we term the therapist. The communication to the client of the therapist’s empathic understanding and unconditional positive regard is to a mini- mal degree achieved.

touching and appreciative responses from professionals and laypersons from every walk of life. By receiving this reward. Rogers received the first Distinguished Professional Contribution Award from the American Psychological Associa- tion.” and Look magazine referred to him as “an elder statesman of encounter groups. even writing a brief commentary in the first issue (Rogers. research. of the decision making to the entire community. Carl Rogers was not able to pursue further the strongest commitments of his last years: to contribute whatever he could to the prevention of nuclear war and the accomplishment of world peace. A Way of Being was published in 1980. the Person-Centered Review. he became the first psychologist in history to receive both APA’s Scientific Contribution Award and Distinguished Professional Contribution Award. which would be offered all over the world for the next several years. For the first time. and critiques and to cotnmunicate with other person-centered scholars and practitioners worldwide. however. fearing that his approach would become formalized and dogmatic. was first published under my editorship. Rogers became increasingly inter- ested in broader social issues. In the summer of 1963.” In 1970. or journals. starting in 1964. Carl Rogers was identified as the most influential psychotherapist. to explore the implications of the person-centered approach for building communities in groups ranging from 75 to 800 people. Rogers would use the phrase person-centered to describe these workshops. For several years. along with several of their colleagues. It is a diverse collection of papers representing the evolution of Rogers’s thought in the 1970s. 1982). Unfortunately. he viewed the journal as a means to present new ideas and innovative methods. In a survey of clinical and counseling psychologists published in 1982 in the American Psychologist (Smith. In the last 15 or so years of his life. 1986). Beginning in 1974. Rogers supported and welcomed the journal. Rogers involved himself in the encounter group movement and became a national leader in the field. As those workshops evolved. Many of the papers were very personal statements of Rogers’s growth and changing views.Curl Rogers on Encounter Groups was published and clearly associated Rogers with encounter groups with both professionals and the general public. Up to this point Rogers had discouraged the creation of client-centered training programs. In 1986. Carl Rogers and his wife Natalie Rogers. especially peace. By 1986. initiated a series of large-group workshops. organizations. Rogers and the staff of facilitators provided less and less structure. The magazine Psychology Today identified him as a “grand master. In 1972. instead leaving most. sometimes 2-3 weeks in length. if not all. an academic journal. O n DEFZNZNG CHARACTERlSTICS 21 .Rogers resigned from the University of Wiscon- sin and moved to California.

at 85. self- assertion. the day of his fall and hospitalization (he broke his hip).Rice and Greenberg (1984). Hart and Tomlinson (1970). guilt. as always. and. Combs (1989). Gordon (1955). 1987. who was a leading exponent of German existentialism. A few weeks later. was nominated by Congressman Jim Bates for the 1987 Nobel Peace Prize. CAIN . Binswanger developed a form of psychotherapy called Daseinanalyse (analysis of being or existence). on February 4. 1987.Wexler and Rice (1974). Ludwig Binswanger ( 1881-1966) is considered by Havens (1973) to be the foremost spokesman for existential psychiatry and by many as the founder of existential analysis.”which implies a self-awareness in which one asserts oneself through choice.Tausch (1990). and struggle. He was influenced by Heidegger’s concept of “being-in-the-world”and by Buber’s concepts of the “I-thou” relationship and the dialogical nature of human existence. He distinguished between two states of being: Dasein and Existenz. He was a strong subjectivist who asserted that personal experience is the only source of information about reality. whereas Existens referred to the richness of authentic being. and loneliness. Like other European existential philosophers. Le- vant and Shlien (1984). He had been relatively healthy and active until his death.a psychiatrist and philos- opher. The Swiss psychiatrist. infinite possibility. He empha- sized the importance of transcending life’s struggles by “being oneself.Rombauts.Lietaer.” Furthermore. Carl Rogers would die as he had hoped to-with his boots on. death. looking forward. Dasein referred to ordinary.Jaspers. which had as its purpose the analysis of a person’s 22 DAVID/. everyday life.Patterson (2000). and Van Balen (1990). including the experiences of freedom. Gendlin (1996). and decision. Some of the most prominent contributors include Barrett-Lennard (1998).January 20. Existential Psychotherapies The Early Existential Influence: The Forefathers One of the most prominent forefathers of the existential thrust in psychology and psychotherapy was Karl Jaspers (1883-1969). and he believed that one must find ways to transcend these dilemmas. was greatly influenced by the works of Nietzsche and Kierkegaard. He developed and advocated a descriptivephenomenology and stressed the importance of an “inward under- standing” and a “living into the patients’ experiences.Jaspers believed that one can discover one’s authentic self only through encounter and reflection with another’s authentic self. Seeman (1983). Carl Rogers. and Zimring and Raskin (1992). A number of other people have made substantial contributions to the development of client-centered therapy. Jaspers saw that people are continually confronted with the realities of suffering. Bozarth (1998).

and (c) Eigenwelt. others. integrated existentialism with psychoanalysis in his book Psychounuly- sis and Duseinunulysis (1963). Another basic theme he voiced was the finiteness of life and the consequent responsibility individuals have to make the most of their lives. 2000). DEFINING CHARACTERISTICS 23 . being-in-the-world signified that people are not isolated entities but beings who are always in relation to others and the physical world around them. Conversely. Binswanger strove to enable them to grasp the meaning of their behavior. 377). Boss identi- fied universal themes that people inevitably face in their lives. Binswanger advocated for equality in the relationship and for authentic encounter: “a being-together withone another” (see Ehrenwald. one’s own world. Meddard Boss (1903-1990). He believed that a loving I-thou relationship characterized by mutuality. Binswanger saw the loss of relatedness and isolation as factors that made a person vulnerable to psychopathology (Frie. and discover a manner of living authentically in relationship to the world. including one’s relationship with oneself and one’s personal perspective regarding the meaning of things in relation to self. and immediacy. Strongly influenced by Heidigger. With a focus on his clients’ views of their world and immediate experi- ence. Many contemporary existential ther- apists describe themselves as existential-humanistic. As a therapist. indicating that although their strongest roots are in existentialism. pointing out that choosing one course inevitably requires the rejection of other possibilities and may result in guilt over the lost opportunities.p. the interpersonal worlds we inhabit in our daily contacts with others. a Swiss psychiatrist who was analyzed by Freud. including the physical world we inhabit and our bodily states. Modern Existential Conrributions and Views Contemporary views of existential psychotherapy share considerable common ground with their forefathers. as opposed to therapist technique. find direction. promoted expanded awareness and growth in the client. 1991. Some existential- humanistic therapists also retain some connection with psychoanalysis. the natural world. they have incorporated many aspects of North American humanistic psychotherapies. and themselves. For Binswanger (1975). He stressed that people must coexist in and share the world with others and that they do so with varying degrees of openness and clarity. He articulated the relationship between choice and guilt. (b) Mitwelt. openness. Boss believed that a person’s basic mood state influenced his or her view of the world in that it affected the focus and content of awareness. Binswanger identified the three dimensions of a person’s world view: (a) Umwelt.ability to give meaning to his or her existence.

existentialism addressed the big questions and issues of life.g. . conflict is a primary issue in existential therapy in that there is an inevitable conflict between the person and the givens of existence. Thus. Rollo May. advocates the search for meaning and purpose. 114). remove the obstacles to their freedom. Paul Tillich. introduced existential psychother- apy to the United States in the book Existence: A New Dimension in Psychology and Psychiatry. Clients are chal- lenged to wrestle with the basic question of how they are living. increase their sense of choice. As noted earlier.mostly to the existential-analytic forerunners described above. knowing him in his own reality. 8). Rollo May (1909-1994) is considered the founder of existential psy- chology and psychotherapy in the United States. . with an emphasis on the I-thou encounter and therapeutic dialogue. and learn to live more fully. CAIN . This 24 DAVID j . He stressed that the existential movement in psychiatry and psycholcgy “arose precisely out of a passion to be . May embraced the complexities and paradoxes that inevitably arise when one grapples with the human condition. but exis- tential therapists are more likely to engage in interpretation and challenge their clients to examine their lives. objective. confront the associated anxiety. It places a high premium on the quality of the therapeutic relationship as a healing agent. May (1958) offered an early definition of existentialism as “the en- deavor to understand man by cutting below the cleavage between subject and object” (p. 19). one that faces the reality of death. Existen- tial therapy embraces an attitude toward living. 1958. or are we seeing merely a projection of our own theories about him?” (p. In 1958. that we are seeing the patient as he really is. p.. more empirical” and that “tradi- tional scientific methods not only did not do justice to the data but actually tended to hide rather than reveal what was going on in the patient” (May. existential psychotherapy had its roots in Europe in the works of a number of psychiatrists and psychoanalysts who were dissatisfied with the impersonal. face the givens of their existence. authentically. He said of his teacher and friend. . Existential psychotherapy focuses on important life themes and issues. and reductionistic elements of psychoanalysis practiced in the early 1900s. Like other humanistic therapies. 3). Other prac- titioners (e. along with Ernest Angel and Henri Ellenberger. often challenging limited and limiting views of the person. 11) and “an endeavor to grasp reality’’ (p. and engage their will. 1987. that he “brought doubt to the faithful and faith to the doubters” (May. and recognizes the freedom to choose and the ensuing responsibility for one’s choices. In the first chapter of Existence. For him. Existential therapists strive to enable clients to assess how their freedom is impaired. Irvin Yalom and Ernest0 Spinelli) simply refer to themselves as existential therapists. it is discovery oriented. . p. and responsibly. May (1958) issued the following challenge: “Can we be sure .

he is. A central theme of May’s thinking is that people are both free and limited. engage their sense of humor. which is based on the belief that a person’s most fundamental goal is to understand the meaning of his or her existence. . Frankl (1967) noted: “Man is not free of conditions. and always remains. a psychiatrist who was born in Vienna. he described the essence of logotherapy. Frankl (1963) commented that logotherapy “focuses on the future . originally published in 1946 as From Concentration Camp to Existentialism. the purpose of which is to enable clients to detach from their fears. (2) an emphasis on freedom and limitation . DEFINING CHARACTERlSTICS 25 . But. . free to take a stand toward these conditions. It is a technique widely used in various forms of brief therapy and challenged the notions that lasting change can only come about through lengthy treatment and that the therapist must know and address the etiology of a symptom to relieve it. and (5) a stress on experiential awareness (or one’s whole bodily under- standing) prior to insight. Frankl stressed the importance of our values and that these values “pull” us and represent that which we strive for as personal commitments. even his despair. he always retains the freedom to choose his attitudes towards them” (p. especially the desire for a meaningful existence. “in logotherapy the patient is actually confronted with and reoriented toward the meaning of his life. 152-153). Regarding one’s freedom.” and he added. on the meanings to be fulfilled by the patient in his future” (pp. . “the striving to find a meaning in one’s life is the primarily motivational force in man” (p. versus behavioral or childhood conflicts as the fundamental context to be addressed. “A man’s concern. In Man’s Search for Meaning. 352) Viktor Frankl (1905-1997). (4)a stress on experiential contact (including that facilitated by the therapeutic relationship) to promote optimal healing. . He wrote. . . was profoundly influenced by his experiences in German concentration camps during World War 11. ( 3 ) a stress on techniques that fit the person rather than the practitioner . 3). 163). In this book. .was May’s endeavor: to raise doubt where there was certainty and to restore hope and faith where there was cynicism. (p. . which has sold over 9 million copies in 23 languages. 153). . Addressing the spiritual dimensions of human existence. Frankl developed the technique of paradoxical intention. . He emphasized a person’s freedom to choose and to find meaning in even the most restrictive and inhumane circumstances. and deflate their anticipatory anxiety. over the worthwhileness of life is a spiritual distress but by no means a mental diseuse” (p. Frankl (1963) stated. decision and commitment. Schneider (1999) noted that as a therapist May’s approach was charac- terized by the following: (1) A focus on freeing the client within the natural and self-imposed limits of living.

energizes and guides searching” (p. 73). Laing (1928-1989). Bugental advocates against making the client an object of study or for the therapist to try to provide life for the client. Laing was one of the pioneers in exploring the meaning of the psychotic experience and probably the most radical and unorthodox of the existential therapists as he constantly pushed the envelope of therapeutic treatment. Central to his therapy is a powerful faith in a “life force” a tenaciousness in all of life that enables it to survive in extremely adverse conditions and manifest its potential. Laing was creative in searching for ways to reach clients where they were “stuck. he engages his clients in identifying and exploring important life concem. D. Bugental has long been a prac- titioner and advocate of long-term intensive psychotherapy.” His capacity for what he referred to as therapeutic suspension. 1). He espe- cially made strong contact with his client’s face as a means of attuning himself to (“at-onement” as he called it) the “feel” or “tone” of the person before him and their interrelationship. Bugental believes that attention to clients’ historical past tends to make them objects of study rather than consciously experiencing beings whose lives are continually flowing. The therapist’s job is to assist clients in clearing the way for their life force to open possibilities for authentic being. Bugental’s goal is to “intensify and expand” the client’s subjectivity and consequent awareness. Bugental is viewed by many as one of existential-humanistic psychology’s most prominent spokespersons. a suspending of both belief and disbelief along with a disciplined naivete. Rejecting historical determin- ism. it is about how you live with yourself right now” (p. Instead he emphasizes the importance of enlisting the client in mobilizing the life force. Bugental ( 1999) defined concern as what matters in one’s life and as the “processthat arouses. a British psychiatrist. Laing had an extraordinary ability to be present with and make contact with even the most disturbed and recalcitrant of persons. lived experience. Consequently. Bugental ( 1999) contended that experiencing-centered therapy “is not about what you think. R. “What is alive is what is now” (p. xi). James F. He was receptive to and encouraging of clients’ expression of immediate. Bugental’s ( 1999) rationale for this present focus is that “Increased awareness of ourselves 26 DAVID j . In his most recent thoughts about psychotherapy. C A N . unfolding. What wus or m y be-thoughts and feelings about the past and future-are occurring in the present moment. is probably best known for establishing a therapeutic community for individuals with severe mental illnesses and for The Divided Self: An Existential Study in Sanity and Madness (1969). T. and advocates that therapists focus their attention on the immediate subjective experiencing of the client instead of information about the client. and evolving. enabled him to discover fresh and unanticipated meanings and resources in his clients. Bugental (1999) stated his fundamental conviction.

in-depth explication of the existential approach to psychotherapy. open out those constraints. implicit and inten- tional. . Each of these ultimate concerns plays a critical role in client’s pathology and in the therapeutic process. Vulnerability to and fear of death some- times lead clients to create myths that they are special and. with a consequent change in our understandingof psycho- therapy. existential therapy emphasizes “conflict that flows from the individual’s confrontation with the givens of existence” (p.in the living moment means increased effectiveness of self-direction and increased satisfaction in living” (p. p. and (d) meaninglessness. 54). explicit and causative to a focus on the subjective. . (c) isolation. For Yalom (1980). In this way. then. 1999.a text that is considered by many to be the most comprehensive. authentically. This recognition demands some shift in our image of the human. seeing vital aspects of one’s life in fresh ways. seeks t o . . . is the opening of perceptual boundaries. in turn. an endeavor that requires clients to be fully present to themselves. p. Clients experience distress because they feel limited in critical aspects of their lives.disclose the underlying constraints and then . for Bugental. . therefore. 8). 1999. and meaningfully. . In his view. that a major goal of the therapist is to assist the client in identifying and removing constraints in their self and world constructs. Bugental views the client’s symptoms or complaints as constraints. 60) Irvin Yalom is the author of Existential Psychotherapy (1980). Clients’ concerns are likely to be resolved when new choices in views and behavior become evident. As we embrace this truth. . Death represents one of life’s inescapable truths that life fades and that we all fear the fading and ultimately the loss of life. (p. (b) freedom. calls for a move from emphasis on the objective. Yalom ( 1980)defined existential psychotherapy as a “dynamic approach to therapy which focuses on concerns that are rooted in the individual’s existence’’ (p. we open the possibility to reprioritize our lives and live more fully. “Psychotherapy. . not DEFINING CHARACTERISTICS 27 . The moving force of therapeutic change. It follows. the client finds possibilities where none seemed to exist before” (Bugental. “this cycling of exploration-discovery-exploration is the search process” and is the driving force toward positive life transformation (Bugental. Bugental (1999) summarized his position as follows: Human beings are most truly subjective presences and processes. rather than objective things solely manipulated by forces beyond their con- scious knowing. 24). For him. 5 ) . He identified these “givens” or ultimate concerns with which we must all grapple as (a) death. . Bugental believes that a primary task of existential therapy is searching. 54). That.

less of anxiety than of peak experiences and oceanic oneness. His four editions of The Theory and Practice of Group Therapy are considered by many to be the standard in the field (e. Existential therapy addresses what the client can and cannot get from others and that the ultimate source of healing is in relationship. 1995). Moustakas demonstrated the importance of the child therapist’s creative use of self as a healing component of therapy with children. a compilation of existential psychotherapy cases. and powerless- ness. . were pioneers in what would later be known as humanistic ap- proaches to child psychotherapy. CAIN . including death. . (p. with its European roots. A vital endeavor of existential therapy is for clients to recognize and accept responsibility for their lives and engage their wills in turning choice into action and commitment. speak less of limits and contingency than of development of potential. . less of meaning than self- realization. less of apartness and basic isolation than of I-Thou and encounter. The United States (and the humanistic psychology it spawned) bathed in a Zeitgeist of expansiveness. Meaninglessnessis viewed by Yalom. on the other hand. and existential psychology. limitless horizons and pragmatism. less of acceptance than of awareness. and articulated the differences in emphases: The existential tradition in Europe has always emphasized human limita- tions and the tragic dimensions of existence. dread. . was a national bestseller for several months. The humanistic psychologists. His book. Maddi. The European focus is on limits. “I have chosen to risk my own self in the hopes of 28 DAVID J. He. hoe’s Executioner (1989). Frankl.. Therefore. 19) Yalom is best known for his unparalleled contribution to the field of group psychotherapy. Clark Moustakas is best known for his contributions to the development of child therapy. . Freedom to choose the course of one’s life also implies responsibility for one’s choices.subject to death. A primary task of existential therapists is to enable their clients to engage fully in their own lives while also looking for purposes beyond themselves. with its North American roots. A universal dilemma faced by all people is that while meaning and purpose seem essential to living. and others as a significant substrate of many forms of psychopathology. along with Frederick Allen (1942) and Virginia Axline (1947). Yalom. there is no inherent meaning in life. His interpersonal approach to group therapy integrates many aspects of existential therapy. Yalom (1980) presented a useful contrast between humanistic psychol- ogy. each person must struggle to find personal meaning in his or her goals and manner of living. A vital aspect of his therapeutic attitude is captured in his poignant statement. on facing and taking into oneself the anxiety of uncertainty and nonbeing. or clients create and maintain a belief in an ultimate rescuer who will save them from life’s hardships. optimism. Isolation or separateness refers to the experience of separation and aloneness that are sources of anxiety.g. .

Spinelli (1997). this volume. chapter 8).May (1969). In recent years. Other significant contributors to existentialpsychotherapy include Bin- swanger (1979. Perk met Jan Smuts. a process of entertaining possibilities. whose book Holism and Evolution influenced his creation of Gestalt therapy. and Strasser and Strasser (1997). he established the South African Institute for Psychoanalysis in 1935. and Otto Fenichel. and relaxed environment that encouragesfreedom of expression in the client. and concept of self-actualization affected his thinking. (d) imaginative variation. (e) synthesis. and existentialismwould all influence Perls’s developmentof Gestalt therapy. the development of a supportive. holistic approach. After moving to South Africa in 1934 with his wife Laura because of the rise of Nazism. Hunger and Aggression (Perls. which blended holistic concepts with psychoanalysis. During his 12 years in South Africa. safe. phenomenology.knowing the glory of a voice that speaks for the first time” (Moustakas. Lewin’s field theory.Schneider and May ( 1995). i). Boss (1963). an integrative process of bringing together experience and meanings. Karen Homey. (c) phenomenological reduction. and directions that might provide fresh frames of reference and meanings that enhance the self and carry forward the client’s manner of living. a process of discovering the client’s central issue or problem. Other influential analysts under which he trained include Helene Deutsch. In Ego. who influenced Perls to focus on his clients’ bodily experiencing as it related to their immediate living and problems. In 1946. Perls DEFINING CHARACTERISTICS 29 . a process in which the therapist intentionally puts aside preconceptions and attempts to take in the client and his or her experience as freshly as possible. Moustakas has articulated an existential phenom- enological model of psychotherapy composed of the following processes: (a) initial engagement. The philosopher Sigmund Friedlander affected Perls’s thinking with his writings on polarities and the importance of balance between them in personal functioning. 1975. perspectives. and (f) plan of action. His training analyst in the early 1930s was Wilhelm Reich.Deurzen-Smith (1988). transforming personal discovery into effective action. the core theme that troubles the person. (b) epoch.p. Perls moved to New York City. Perls trained as a psychoanalyst at the Vienna and Berlin Institutes of Psychoanalysis. 1947). Gestalt Therapy Frederick and Laura Perls Frederick Perls (1893-1970) worked as an assistant to Kurt Goldstein. whose Gestalt psychology perspective. Mousta- kas and other existential therapists view therapy as a form of being-with the client in which a present therapist strives to engage in an authentic encounter (see also Walsh 6r McElwain.

Gestalt Therapy laid the foundation for the basic theory and practice of Gestalt therapy and remains a basic reference for its students. Laura Perk emphasized contact and support in the therapeutic relationship. much of the influence on Gestalt psychology of existentialism and phenomenology should be credited to her. Hefferline. perception was viewed as an active and creative process. dialogue and phenome- nological focusing over free association and interpretation. was a cofounder of Gestalt therapy and wrote several chapters of Ego. chiefly influenced by Perls. Yontef (1993) assessed the early phase of the development of Gestalt therapy as follows: In contrast to psychoanalysis. the assumption being that what emerges often represents a need or something that is troubling the person. a different model of Gestalt therapy emerged. In contrast to her husband. to understand an individu- al’s behavior.articulated the goal of psychotherapy as “waking the organism to a fuller life. Another concept adopted from Gestalt psychology was that of figure (that which stands out) and ground (that which constitutes the background). Perls would later establish several Gestalt training institutes of Gestalt therapy in the United States and Canada. Although she wrote relatively little. Frederick Perk reacted adversely to the dogmatism and constraint of classical psychoanalysis. CAW . and process theory over Newtonian and Aristotelian dichotomies” (Yontef. Hunger and Aggression (Perls. field theory over mechanistic theory. and creativity. In the “anything goes” era of the 1960s. Like many of the founders of humanistic therapies. Perls drew from Gestalt psychology the notion that people naturally tend to perceive whole patterns as opposed to bits and pieces and that the whole is not equivalent to the sum of its parts. the early form of Gestalt therapy practiced in the late 1940s and 1950s emphasized “reality contact over transference. but he also elicited feelings of distaste. He often elicited feelings of admiration and awe for his brilliance. 1947). Perls was a gifted therapist who often had a powerful and constructive impact on those with whom he worked. 30 DAVIDJ. It was written by Perls. 1993. one must understand the person’s subjective perceptions of reality. Laura Posner Perls (1905-1990). active presence over blank screen. Consequently. who was trained in psychology. charisma. Significant influences on her thinking included existential theologians Martin Buber and Paul Tillich. Furthermore. Gestalt Therapy (195 1) was published. who placed a high premium on client awareness. there was an anti-intellectual tone to the human growth movement. and Goodman who. pp. Gestalt therapists engage their clients to focus their awareness on what emerges from the background as figure for them. along with Laura Perls. The Gestalt therapist’s emphasis on enhancing the client’s awareness was then a critical step in understanding the client’s immediate experience. established the New York Institute for Gestalt Therapy in 1952. 9-10).” A few years later. During the 1960s.

dramatic. The experience of contact involves a feeling of connection with others. We do not talk of instant joy .Corey (1996) commented that Perls “was viewed variously as insightful. Contact boundaries distin- guish between one person and another. Gestalt therapy developed this theatrical and highly catharsis oriented approach. and insensitive. .. Distinctive Characteristics and Contributions of Gestalt Therapy Gestalt therapists have made substantial contributions to the theory and practice of humanistic psychotherapies. and develop human potential. Authentic encounter between client and therapist is at the heart of the therapeutic process. the practice of Gestalt therapy has softened and shifted its emphases toward the quality of the therapist-client relationship. . or the external world while maintaining a sense of separation. Since Perls’s death in 1970. DEFINING CHARACTERISTICS 31 . Another change in the 1970s and beyond was a deemphasis in technique (e. . . Slogans such as “lose your mind. we are working to promote the growth process . dramatic. between people and objects. The growth process . witty. In Gestalt therapy. 2). As Yontef (1993) recalled. provocative. especially field theory and phenomenol- ogy. Perk (1969) apparently recognized the damage that had been done to Gestalt therapy by its flamboyant practitioners and wrote: “A gimmick should be used only in the extreme case. [or] instant cure. . an expansion of therapeutic styles. simplistic. therapist orchestrated. oneself. quick-changeorientation was in marked contrast with the long term therapy of the early Gestalt therapists and . His therapeutic style tended to be confrontational. contact refers to what the client is in touch with. .This turn-on. . and between aspects of one’s self. (p. 223). The flamboyant style of “Fritz” Perls became the model of Gestalt therapy-for better or for worse. . with the actual practice of skillful Gestalt therapists during the 1960s. empty chair) that had been overidentified with what Gestalt therapy was. the focal point of the client’s awareness. . gimmicky. demanding and inspira- tional” (p. abrasive. The therapist relates with presence and immediacy. come to your senses” characterized the mentality of many Gestalt therapists during this period. dialogue. manipulative. with others. 11) Toward the end of his life. hostile. and development of theory. Some of the most prominent contributions include the following: 1. .g. intense. . takes time” (p. . bright. .promising quick change. It was arrogant. tapping the client’s wisdom and resources. and with one’s environment: In Gestalt therapy. The critical importance of contact with oneself. empathic attune- ment. .

101). There is no “I’ or “me” or a “self” isolated from contact with others. the client’s sense of self is relational. (p. doing something to oneself that one wants to do to someone else or doing something for oneself that one wants the other to do for oneself (retroflection). Healing is conceived as taking place in the meeting. The therapist’s goal is not to “fix” the client but to engage in authentic dialogue. 87) It should be noted that. inclusion. Dialogical Gestalt therapy involves confirmation. Contact boundary disturbances occur when the boundary between self and others or between self and objects becomes blurred or disturbed. resulting in the individual being out of balance and frustrated that his or her needs are not being met. 2. means for changing oneself and one’s experience of the world” (p. In dialogic Gestalt therapy. each appreciating the other as a separate source of experience and worthiness. “Contact is the lifeblood of growth. attributing parts of the self to others (projection). and blurring or minimizing the differencesbetween oneself and others (confluence). As E. CAlN . sometimes sharing with the client his or her experience of the client. Gestalt therapy has been greatly affected by Martin Buber and his student Maurice Friedman. Polster and Polster (1973) noted. but rather contact with the other person is an end in and of itself. Rather the self emerges from the field of which it is a part when it interacts with another or the physical environment. The importance of authentic relationship and dialogue: Contempo- rary Gestalt therapists place a high value on the quality of the dialogical engagement. In dialogic contact the meeting is not an instrumental action done in order to reach some other goal. avoidance of contact (deflection). the primary goal is to “meet” the client where he or she is in the moment and to make empathic contact with the client.Help- ing clients repair disturbances in the contact process is a basic goal of Gestalt therapy. and presence. Confirmation refers to the therapist’s imagining 32 DAVID 1. Contact disturbances may take the form of accepting views or values uncritically (introjection). Buber’s premise that healing occurs through meeting is at the heart of Gestalt therapy. Dialogue is a special form of contact in which people are in touch with each other and share what they experience without aiming for an outcome. in Gestalt therapy. both saying what they mean and meaning what they say. Yontef ( 1998) commented.

Therapeutic focus on the present. responsibility for choices. a phenomenological approach is essential in field theory because the client’s behavior can be understood only by understanding the client’s subjective perceptions of reality in the given field. Therapist presence is mani- fested as the therapist expresses observations. The heightening of emotion provides energy and helps orient clients toward action that will satisfy their needs. p. a heightening of awareness that enables the clear emergence of emotion and personal needs. Consequently. 3. 4. Inclusion implies developing a “feeling for” the client’s viewpoint and grasping his or her experience. inclusion. Because all parts of the field affect all other parts. phenomenology. The therapeutic process often involves the intensification of experience. . and awareness of the client’s wants and values. self-knowledge and self acceptance and the ability to contact” (1989. events are understood by looking at the whole field of which the event is a part. and thoughts with the client as they seem relevant and with appropriate discrimination. while maintaining a separate sense of self. Field theory. preferences. By insight. the style of verbal expression. and warmth for the client. . Gestalt therapists focus on the client’s awareness of sensations. The focus is on the description of the relationship of the parts to each other and to the whole. It means seeing in fresh ways so new Gestalts are formed that open up alternative possibilities for behaving. caring. [which] includes knowing the environment. 327). Gestalt therapists mean a patterning of the perceptual field that clarifies signifi- cant realities for the client as they come into the foreground. They emphasize experiencing and processing emotion as opposed to talking about emotion. Yontef and Simkin (1989) contended that “the only goal is awareness . affective experiencing. independent. “here-and-now”experiencing of the client: Past and future events are viewed through the lens DEFINING CHARACTERISTICS 33 . Therapist confirmation. without evaluation or judgment. and distinctive person. The client’s awareness of immediate experience is central in Gestalt therapy. personal experiences. A goal of Gestalt therapy is to enhance the client’s awareness of “what is” to achieve insight. and presence are firmly grounded in the therapist’s respect. what it is like to be the client while affirming the client as a separate. and awareness: In field theory. one cannot understand behavior without understanding the field in which the behaving person exists at the moment. feel- ings. nonverbal behavior and body language.

Gestalt therapy aims at enabling clients to explore their immediate awareness and to learn how they construct reality in the moment. suggesting that therapists rely on their spontaneity and inventiveness to develop exercises and experiments in the moment that have promise for facilitating phenomenological exploration. Thus. They have been enor- mously creative in developing a wide range of exercises and experiments. In this process.g. 5 . The two best-known Gestalt experiments are the emptychair technique.).” which refers to feelings about prior experiences that have not been expressed or resolved. Emphasis is on the what and how (as opposed to the why) of experiencing. Although Gestalt therapists are present centered with their clients. or achieve a goal (e. split off or disowned parts of the self and conflicted relations with significant others are processed with a goal of reconstructing and integrating these experiences. p. 3 ff. Working through such unfinished business means bringing the past into the present in such a way as to complete a gestalt and bring closure to the preoccupation with the prior experience. of the present. and the two-chair technique. they also view clients in larger contexts. understand their manner of avoidance. including personality pat- terns existing over time and in terms of the client’s ongoing life story. The goal is to enable clients to attend to their immediate behavior and its impact. The creative and spontaneous use of active experiments and exer- cises to facilitate experiential therapeutic learning: Gestalt thera- pists use a number of methods to help clients illuminate their experiences and its personal meaning. which is used to resolve unfinished conflicts with others. make something happen. and interact more authentically and effectively in the moment. Gestalt therapy has been called “permission to be creative’’ by Zinker (1977. An experiment is a procedure proposed for experiential exploration and dis- covery that grows naturally from the therapist-client interac- tion. CAlN .. An important concept in Gestalt therapy is the client’s “unfinished business. exaggerating a gesture). which is used to resolve conflicts between different aspects of the 34 DAVID I . The experiment is proposed with a spirit of “Let’s try this out and see what might be learned. An exercise is a ready-made technique whose purpose is to evoke specific emotions.” Experiments have the form of guided journeys in which what might be discovered is unknown and may be a surprise to the therapist and client.

the faded person will usually come out of hiding. He describes the “self” as a system of continuing contact that is fluid while still retaining a sense of constancy. when I have alertly hung around. They were instrumental in expanding the Gestalt approach to therapy and in “softening” the therapist’s style. For moments . The individual’s complex of life experiences is formed into a Gestalt of the self that evolves over time. he reveals something so arresting as to merit . Gestalt therapists place a high premium on the client’s attending to that which is in their immediate awareness. He (1987) commented. With the support of the therapist’s fascination with their stories. Polster believed that the therapist’s task is to help clients flesh out their stories and experience the richness of the dramas that are their lives unfolding. Polster helps clients transform the ordinary storytelling into extraordinary living in the moment. ..g. Toward this end. Polster identifies two forms of the self: (a) essential selves. Contemporary Gestalt therapists value most highly the quality of the dialogic relationship and the focused processing of subjective experience. it would be incorrect to associate Gestalt therapy primarily with technique. Erving Polster contends that people are story-telling beings and emphasizes the importance of clients telling their life stories. Miriam Polster has developed a model of client growth as a three- stage integrative process as follows: DEFINING CHARACTERISTICS 35 . attitudes. Their book Gestalt Therupy Integruted (1973) is considered to be seminal reading for serious practitioners of Gestalt therapy. .suspense- ful. and (b) member selves. even more widespread attention. Noting that clients often tend to tell their stories in lifeless ways.” followed by “Where are you now?” (or similar questions) to assist them in processing their immediate experience. thoughtful) that are affected relatively little by experience. clients are enabled to become more interesting and engaged with the therapist (and others). and colorful memories. thus providing the client with a glimpse of how they might live. In Every Person’s Life Is Worth u Novel (1983. 4) With engaged immersion in his clients’ story. Although Gestalt therapists use a great variety of experiments and techniques to facilitate experiential learn- ing in the client. In giving up the dulled image. expectations and insights. Member selves are more fluid but could transform into an essential self. Sooner or later. clients are often asked “What are you aware of?” and then encouraged to “stay with it. which are conceived as the essences of one’s existence and represent fundamental aspects of the person (e. . (p.self. . Erving Polster assigns a prominent role for the client’s self in therapy. Erving and Miriam Polster have played an enormous role in advancing the theory and practice of Gestalt therapy. or aspects of the self that are more responsive to environmental contingencies. such persons offer remarkably individualistic.

with women usually in supporting roles to men. Kempler (1981). In this view. Accommodation stage: Clients recognize that they have choices and begin experimenting with new ways of behaving. In Eve’s Daughters (1992). Less therapist support is required at this stage as the client becomes more competent. 1. education. without exception.Miriam Polster addressed the societal limita- tions that exist for women because of the lack of female heroes. Clients’ awareness is more astute as they feel freer to act and move toward integration. Discovery stage: Clients reach new realizations about them- selves or view old problems or situations in new ways. is completely determined by and pertinent to the perceptual field 36 DAVID]. and Zinker (1977). Clients shift their focus from themselves to interpersonal relations. The therapist provides a high level of support in this stage. CAIN . Polster suggested a new view of heroism which she terms neohroism. a former student of Rogers. 3. Combs (1912-1999). She pointed out that most heroes are men. In the next section. made an enormous contribution to the fields of humanistic psychology. including the emergence of experiential therapies. A number of other people who have made substantial contributions to Gestalt therapy include Fagan and Shepherd (1970). 2. I review the most prominent advances in theory and practice. EVOLUTION OF HUMANISTIC PSYCHOTHERAPIES: ADVANCES IN THEORY AND THERAPEUTIC PRACTICE All major schools of humanistic psychotherapies were well established by the mid. which can be briefly stated as follows: “All behavior. Simkin (1976). knowledge. there have been substantial developments in theory and practice. Yontef (1993).1960s. women’s heroic accomplishments are on a par with those of men and are attained primarily by providing support. Art Combs’s Contributions Arthur W. and psychotherapy with the publication of 23 books and monographs in a career spanning over 60 years. Since then. and power that enables other women to achieve. Assimilation stage: Clients progress from choosing and trying out new behaviors to learning how to influence their environ- ment and become more active. assertive. He is best known for his perceptual field appromh. and effective at get- ting what they need and want.

“people behave according to how things seem to them. . the situations they are in and the purposes they are trying to achieve” (p. 49). Thus. 1999. Combs articulated a comprehensive system of psychotherapy whose essence I attempt to describe here. Consequently. Combs (1989) believed that people “can. The provision of therapeutic conditions sets clients free to explore themselves and their worlds. . 38). an individu- alized course of therapy. Combs (1989) maintained that “it should be possible to become aware of what people are thinking and feeling by reading behavior backwards’’ (p. Regarding the fundamental importance of helping clients alter their perceptions. Given Combs’s belief that client behavior is a consequence of perception or personal meaning. Or as Combs (1997) preferred to say. Combs maintained that people are continuously engaged in a process of being and becoming and that their self or identity constantly strives for continuance and enhancement. will. Combs maintains that therapy must challenge clients to confront themselves. must move toward health IF the way seems open for them to do so’’ (p. experi- ential field. the fundamental change in the perceptual field that leads to constructive change is change in the client’s self- perceptions. By attending to the clients’ behavior. p. “How might a person think. Therapeutic change. feel or believe in order to behave as they are?” As clients’ meanings become clear. Therapist empathy is the means by which the therapist makes inferences about the experiential world of the client. which is a consequence of their perceptions of themselves and their worlds. or the person’s life space. private world. in Combs’s view. Combs (1989) made the point that the self-concept “lies at the very center of a person’s existence [and is] one’s most precious possession” (p. with the client. their lives. Combs encourages further explora- tion to provide an opportunity to develop more congruent and functional ways for them to view themselves and their worlds and achieve their goals. He described the perceptual field as synonymous with the phenomenal field. The therapist’s primary role is to create conditions for the client to draw from his or her natural motivation toward personal fulfillment. the field of meaning. clients quickly revert to behaviors more in line with their unchanged perceptual organization” (p. ‘Change in behavior without fundamen- tal changes in the perceptual field provides only an illusion of progress [and] . Because Combs believes that the self- concept determines behavior. Combs asked himself. then a primary task of the therapist is to enable clients to become aware of and clarify their personal meanings. 44). threat to the self is disruptive to the person’s well- being and functioning. Combs ( 1989) stated. 240). and what is possible while minimizing DEFINING CHARACTERISTICS 37 . The therapist’s under- standing and acceptance of the uniqueness of each client enable the therapist to appreciate differences and the need to create. 22). 21). is dependent on constructive changes in the client’s self-concept.of the behaving organism” (Combs. especially how they perceive themselves.

Thus. Understanding emotion also provides clients insight into basic meaning structures that cannot be assessed accurately through purely cognitive analysis. it is not likely to have much effect on the change process unless the emotional aspects of problematic experiences are felt. and integrated system of belief guiding their work. 156). he urged therapists to find their own voice as therapists and creatively fit their methods and responses to the needs and goals of their clients. 59). 1989.threat.” Thus. Wallerstein. Combs believes that the self of the therapist is the most critical factor in assisting clients to learn from their experience. Accordingly. 1969) suggest that intellectual insight is of limited value or is insufficient for change. and integrated. Combs takes the position that effective therapists have a clear. It is probably fair to say that most humanistic thera- pists believe that although cognitive insight may illuminate experience and its meaning.g. 1989. (b) holding positive views of people’s capacity. It requires movement from what is to what may be” (Combs. explored. p. Combs believes that clients are most likely to engage in the therapeutic process when they have a “need to know. Conversely.” provide essential information about clients’ motives and desires while providing clues as to what might be needed for constructive change. not narrowing it. Viewing psychotherapy as a learning experience. Clinical experience and research (e. (c) having positive self-concepts. viewed as “impulses to act. believing that intellectual insight is usually not suffi- cient to effect constructive change. Because the effective processing of emotional experiences are so essential to clients’ therapeutic learning and well-being. p. CAlN . most humanistic therapists place relatively less emphasis on cognitive analyses. on the assumption that emotions are their body’s way of interpreting experience. 38 DAVlDJ. Focus on Emotion and Bodily Experience Humanistic therapists focus intently on the emotional experiencing of their clients. change in the self-concept “requires opening up experience. humanistic therapists take the view that feelings are vital sources of information. Finally. it becomes the therapist’s job to facilitate clients’ learning by following their lead regarding what is most relevant for them to know. He describes effective helpers as (a) people oriented. Combs views the level of feeling expressed by clients as an indicator of the personal relevance and meaning of their experience. and (d) having broader and larger purposes and priorities than less-effective helpers. Stating that “there are no universal right ways to counsel” (Combs.. Emotions. comprehen- sive. he stresses the importance of the therapist’s attention to and processing of client emotion.

Rice (1974). 293). Although humanistic therapists recognize the importance of processing client emotion. By attending to the “felt sense”of the problem in a supportive relationship.and Mahrer (1996). especially more traditional client-centered therapists. When this sense of clarity was reached. believing that the body carries the problem in a physically felt form. Greenberg & Van Balen (1998). 1996). The use of experiential focusing was seen by many as a major innovation and advancement in client- centered and other humanistic therapies.have developed increasinglyrefined methods for enabling clients to process their experiences. they vary considerably regarding how they respond to emo- tion. Rice (1974) identified the targets of therapy as “the set of schemes that are relevant to the recurrent situations in which the client reacts in unsatisfactory ways” (p. On the basis of this learning. The experience is one of cognitive and affective knowing coming together in a holistic and integrated manner. Next I review the experiential psychotherapies. those that place the highest emphasis on client processing of emotion and bodily states. Gendlin gently encouraged his clients to attend to their bodily sense of their problem. He observed that successful clients focused on and processed their affective experience. the client’s experience and its personal meaning would often unfold and become clear. 290). and powerful form of client-centered reflection. According to Rice (1974). along with some guidance from the therapist. Believing that clients have had problematicexperiences that have never been adequately processed. the aim of evocative reflection is to “open up the experience and provide the client with a process whereby he can form successively more accurate constructions of his own experience” (p. Prouty ( 1998). The goal is to enable the client to reprocess experience in an undis- torted manner that results in the reorganization of old and dysfunctional schemes. including Gendlin (1996). A number of humanistic therapists. Rice (1974)believed that “if the client can fully explorehis reactions DEFINING CHARACTERISTICS 39 . Experiential Therapies Focusing-Oriented Experiential Psychotherapy Eugene Gendlin made a major contribution to humanistic therapies by developing the process of experiential focusing (see Gendlin. vivid. saw it as incompatible because it directed the client’s process. Laura N. the client’s bodily response of relief or release confirmed the “rightness”of the understanding. The main areas of difference are along the continuum of therapist directivity and technique used. which she viewed as a more active. Rice extended the client-centeredresponse style by developing the method of evocative reflection. Some.

6. Greenberg describes process- experiential therapy as both relationally and task oriented. or goals. 294. and Rice’s and Gendlin’s experiential methods into a therapy they have called process-experiential therapy.to one such situation. bond. p. and become aware of the elements in a more accurate and balanced form . the effect will be to force reorganization of all of the relevant schemes” (p. qualitative. with each relating to the others with varying degrees of compatibility and integration. this volume. Process-experiential therapists emphasize the role of emotion in personal development and functioning” (Watson. Throughout the session. Greenberg. Therapist em- pathic attunement. in the moment. . Mahrer’s Experiential Approach Alvin Mahrer has developed an experiential system that ventures to the borders of what is traditionally viewed as humanistic psychotherapy. With extensive roots in existential philosophy. . Mahrer contends that a critical. see also Elliott and Greenberg. The emphasis in process-experiential therapy is on processing emotion and the reconstruction of emotion schemes. radical. and collaboration on client goals and treatment tasks are seen as essential. The approach involves the client’s working on therapeutic tasks with a process-directive therapist. his conceptualization offers a relatively simple model of personality consisting mainly of what is described as potentials for experiencing. & Lietaer. chapter 9). CAlN . both the client and the therapist are living and experiencing 40 DAVID J . Robert Elliott. Process-Experiential Therapy Leslie Greenberg. In Mahrer’s (1996) experiential psychotherapy. Greenberg is clear in emphasizing that the client and the quality of the relationship always take precedence over the therapeutic tasks proposed. . this volume. see also Hendricks. “The primary objective in process- experiential therapy is to help clients integrate information from their emo- tional and cognitive systems to facilitate a more satisfactory adjustment. . methods. Then the client and the experiential therapist both enter into and live in the scene to discover the precise instant of peak powerful feeling to discover the underlying deeper potential for experiencing. the client locates a scene of powerful feeling. existentialism. Some of these “potentials” are close to the surface whereas others are deeper. what it is like to live and be a qualitatively whole new person in a qualitatively whole new personal world. 1998. and their colleagues have blended the essence of client-centered therapy with elements of Gestalt therapy. he or she is encouraged to be receptive and to welcome the experience. chapter 7). After the client has entered the powerful scene. and quantum change occurs when the client wholly enters into his or her deeper potential for experiencing and when the client experiences. .

The key to this discovery-oriented research strategy is to answer four questions: (a) What are the excitingly new. and Wright. Two of the most prominent contributions. August. Satir (1982) recalled. highly impressive. My sense told me somewhere there had to be something positive” (p. I was trained to look at were all negative. (1990). and Roisman (1986). Hutterer. with virtually all of their attention on and in the scenes. those of Virginia Satir and Tom Gordon. as opposed to one another. . Virginia Satir (1916-1988) was a pioneer and founder of the develop- ment of family therapy. 2000). The therapist is almost fully aligned or joined with the client and goes through the in-session changes right along with the client (A. Rice. Mahrer.scenes of powerful feeling. and Elliott (1993). Schmid.Green- berg.Greenberg and Paivio (1997). “I felt I was doing some kind of ‘name-calling’when I diagnosed. By the early 1950s. she railed against the pathology-oriented views of the person she was taught in her psychoanalytically oriented training. Watson. Contributions to Children and the Family Humanistic psychotherapists have made unique contributions to the remediation of family problems and the enhancement of family life. are presented in this section.” which meant being a careful listener and an observer who now looked for health in others and their families. The things . . Satir would eschew her “clinical professional self” to return to her “detective work. Friedman (1982). 16). Lietaer et al. . .Rennie (1998).Gendlin (1962). and Stipsits ( 1996). As a young child. and Lietaer (1998). magnificent changes that occur in psychotherapy sessions? (b) What are the steps or sequences in which these poignant in-session changes occur? (c) What are the exciting new ways in which these extraordinary in-session changes can be brought about? (d) In what new ways might these in-session changes be used? Other important contributions to experiential psychotherapies include N. As a young social worker.Johnson (1996). R.Johnson and Greenberg (1994). Prouty (1994). These observations were instrumental in her development of family sculpt- ing techniques. DEFINING CHARACTERISTICS 41 . personal communication. She developed a communication theory based on her observation that there were significant discrepancies between what people said and their body language or nonverbal communication. she viewed herself as a parent “detective” and exhibited a curiosity about families that she retained throughout her accomplished professional career. Pawlowsky. . The goal of this research is to discover the secrets of what psychotherapy can be. Greenberg. One of Mahrer’s notable contributions to humanistic therapy is his discovery-orientedapproach to research on psychotherapy. Whitaker and Malone (1953). Everett.

In 1955. Gordon published Group-CenteredLeadership: A Way of Releasing the Creative Potential of Groups. CAZN . Thomas Gordon was one of Carl Rogers’s first students at Ohio State University. Gordon was a pioneer in group-centered leadership. Satir (1982) commented. an approach to leadership firmly grounded in democratic princi- ples. (c) everyone and everything affects and is affected by everyone and everything in the system. Satir would develop the first formal training program in family therapy. Satir’s process model of family therapy rests on four basic assumptions: (a) People are geared toward growth. Rather. “I pay attention to the damage. but with the emphasis on what will develop health.The experi- ence of living or working in a democratic relationship with others makes 42 DAVZD J . and a child) was the conceptual cornerstone of Satir’s approach. and recreate themselves in ways that enable all family members to develop and maintain a sense of wholeness and self-esteem. Gordon (1995) expressed his conviction about the importance of democracy in relationships as follows: “Democracy is therapy.” The goal of family therapy was to help families develop “nourishing” triads. mother. first publishing a chapter on the topic in 1951 in Rogers’ Client-Centered Therapy. . Satir focused on the growth process-how it takes place. how it becomes distorted. and how it can be restored. California. instead if trying to get rid of what is wrong” (p. 22). the therapist does not take charge of the family members. and a longtime friend. understand their communication and interactive patterns. Satir’s initial endeavor is to make authentic contact with and to demonstrate her valuing of each family member. Jay Haley. reduce blaming. (b) people have all of the resources they need to thrive. Gregory Bateson. Jules Riskin. John Weakland. children would do things that “worked against them. and symptoms represent blockages in freedom to grow within a family that is attempting to maintain its survival and balance. She envisions the therapist and family as joining forces to promote wellness. and others at the Mental Research Institute in Palo Alto. In her training approach. To survive in their families. a colleague at the University of Chicago. The Mmry survival niad (composed of father. Later that year. Satir joined Don Jackson. . . Satir’s task as a therapist was to observe the patterns of interactions between family members to understand the meaning and cause of the symptom. and (d) therapy is a process that takes place between people and has positive change as its goal. She conceptualized growth as an ongoing process of transformation and atrophy in which people added on what they needed and let go of that which no longer fit. Satir strives to enable family members to disclose and study themselves. Although Satir views the therapist as the leader of the healing process. The triad was the source of the destructive or constructive messages children received from their parents. In 1959.

developed a training program for parents called Parent EffectivenessTraining (PET). (c) a “no-lose” (democratic) problem-solving or conflict-resolution method to find mutually acceptable solutions to parpt-child conflicts. I focus on one of the most characteristic values of humanistic therapists. teachers. In 1997. Johnson and Greenberg (1994). a strong advocate for prevention in psychology. It is recognized as the first skills-based training program for parents. Approximately 35. As of 2000. They prefer “holistic. Individualizing Psychotherapy Humanistic therapists tend to either reject or place relatively little value on diagnostic classification as a means of developing a course of therapy. O’Leary (1999). Gordon. along with his wife Linda Adams and other colleagues. and in 1999 he received the American Psychological Foundation’s Gold Medal Award for Enduring Con- tribution to Psychology in the Public Interest. women. an expression of the parent’s feelings elicited by the behavior. In the next section. chapter 10). this volume. Other humanistic therapists who have made important contributions to the treatment of children. and families. Johnson (1996). The effect of PET has been astounding in its pervasive and constructive impact on families (see also Bratton & Ray. Since 1962. In 1962. and approxi- mately 1.5 million people have taken the PET course or other effectiveness courses. while autocratic environments make people unhealthy” (p. 320). couples. The essence of an I-message is a nonblameful description of the child’s behavior. Axline (1947). and families include Allen (1942).people healthy. (b) the expression of “I-messages” to encourage children to modify behavior that interferes with their parents’ needs and that is unacceptable to them. and (d) a values consultation (expression of values the parent believes are in the child’s best interests) from parent to child that is used at times when parents are concerned about behaviors of their children (e. This program has four primary emphases: (a) Empathic listening and re- sponding (active listening) to children when they are experiencing problems. chapter 12). couples. see also Johnson & Boisvert. and Satir (1983. this volume. teenagers. experiential diagnoses that attempt to DEFINING CHARACTERISTICS 43 . Moustakas (1997). the individualization of psychotherapy. poor grooming) that does not tangibly affect the parents’ needs. the PET book has sold 4 million copies worldwide. Kempler (1981). has developed additional courses for leaders.000 instructors have taught Gordon’s approach in 43 countries and in 30 languages.. Gaylin (1989). Gordon. and the tangible effect of the behavior on the parent. Gordon was nominated for the Nobel Peace Prize.g.

theory of change. The self-discovery that occurs in the client during the course of therapy is viewed as a more useful form of self-diagnosis in that it reflects the client’s generation of personal knowledge. we just need someone to help us bring them to the front of our head. . Although the focus of humanistic therapists is primarily on the relationship and processing of experience. 2000. . and (i) ask clients to be constructive critics of the therapist’s performance. and believe that diagnostic labels are constructions placed upon the client and are not. in any way. It’s a lot better to ask a person what they want to do and what they think will help” (Duncan & Miller. (d) adopt their clients’ view of their problems and their causes. innovation. Also. Because of the ideographic emphasis of humanistic therapies. . Humanistic therapists do not. strong emphasis is placed on individualizing therapy to the specific needs of the client. primary importance is placed on the evidence generated in therapeutic dialogue to guide therapists’ responses and the course of therapy. therapists constantly monitor whether what they are doing “fits. (b) embrace the view that all change is self-change. however. they maintain that therapy is most likely to be effective when therapists (a) develop a positive expectation for change. Duncan. . and credit the client for his or her effort in effecting change. CAIN .understand persons as whole beings-in-context as opposed to preemptive labels that are concerned with inadequacies and illnesses . 90). (f) identify and engage the client’s competencies. reality itself” (Bohart et al. ( e ) adopt their clients’ goals for change. . Ideally. 1997.p. 1997. they may use a variety of responses and methods to assist the client as long as they fit with the client’s needs and personal preferences. 44 DAVID J.. They believe that “scientific knowledge may and should inform practice but it should never dictate it as an authority in a one way manner” (Bohart et al. 83). validate it when it is evident.” especially whether their approach is compatible with their clients’ manner of framing their problems and their belief about how constructive change will occur. 63). and individualization in practice. and Miller (1999) and Duncan and Miller (2000) make a compelling case for the individualization of psychotherapy. p. (c) enlist their clients as collaborative partners. (h) encourage clients to incorporate resources outside of therapy. formal diagnostic labels are reductionistic and tend to simplify and obscure rather than illumi- nate clients’ problems. One of the primary ways in which humanistic therapies have evolved is in their diversity. The comments of a 10-year-old client beautifully capture the essence of these authors’ sentiments: “We have the answers. Using an approach they describe as client directed. and potential solutions and tailor the therapy accordingly. p. Consequently. disregard the scientific evi- dence for sound practices in psychotherapy. Hubble.. (g) observe constructive change in the client.

(1999). A shift toward individualizing the manner of the therapist’s response to the unique characteristics. suggesting that the client’s capacity for self-healing is the most potent factor in therapeutic change. 825-826). Since Rogers’s 1959 theory statement. As Bohart and Tallman (1999) stated. Watson (this volume. 1999). This way of being client centered has been supported in recent years by empirical research demonstrating that approximately 40% of the outcome of psychotherapy can be attributed to client factors or extratherapeutic factors (Asay & Lambert. and therapist technique was estimated to contribute only 15% of improvement (Asay & Lambert. and interpersonal relation- ships. more change seems to occur” (pp. . It is the ‘engine’ that makes therapy work” (p. 1989). Some of the more notable advancements are addressed in the next section. As Bergin and Garfield (1994) observed. then” formulation. . In line with Duncan and Miller (2000) and Hubble et al. . chapter 19) has placed greater importance on therapist contact with the client than Rogers’s initial formulation. . Bohart and Tallman (1999) made a strong case for the client as an uctive agent of change. In contrast. . Perhaps the most fundamental change in humanistic therapy has to do with the issue of therapist directiveness. personality. I have suggested that therapists’ adaptation to clients’ learning and personal style are factors that enhance their ability to use therapy effectively (Cain. “it is the client more than the therapist who implements the change process. In a related vein. published in 1959. 1999). needs. the therapist’s contribution to the change process is estimated to account for 30% of the variance. remains as perhaps the most fundamental and comprehensive statement of humanistic therapy. chapter 14) provides an expanded theory of how therapist empathy facilitates client change and differentiates various types of empathic responses.The fundamentalpremise of therapist nondirectiveness has been challenged as being too confining for both thera- pists and clients and not fully in keeping with the more fundamental goal of DEFINING CHARACTERISTICS 45 . Prouty (this volume. which focused primarily on therapist attitudinal conditions felt to be sufficient for all clients. 91). and strengths of the client would appear to be a significant advancement from Rogers’s original “If . a number of substantive modifications in client-centered and other humanistic theories of psychotherapy have been offered that build on or advance previous theory. “the client’s capacity for self-healing is the most potent factor in psychotherapy. As thera- pists have depended more on the client’s resources. There have been a number of creative developments in humanistic concepts and theory in recent years. Creative Developments Carl Rogers’s theory of therapy.

He identifies several subsystems that are “so intimately linked and mutually embedded that their function and their very definitions are interwoven with each other. Friedman. 623). in collaboration with their clients. Seeman (1988) criticized the concept as being too general and abstract to be tested. existential. C A N . In its stead. M. Seeman’s ( 1988)working definition of self-actualization suggested that “Persons are maximally actualizing when as total human systems they are functioning at peak efficacy” (p. 623). other humanis- tic theorists and practitioners have made a strong case for process directiwness. and control in their therapy and lives (Cain. Gestalt. Seeman (see this volume. Greenberg & Van Balen (1998) suggested that it is the “biologically adaptive emotion system that provides the scientific basis for the actualizing tendency and the associated organismic valuing process” (p.”(p. choice. the person is a “symbolizing. often do not attend to and process critical aspects of their experiences without “process” guidance and assistance. 309). Connection and communication within and between the subsystems provide for the possibility of optimal functioning. 1985) as having a strong interper- sonal component and as a byproduct of confirming dialogue with another person. However. Based in part on research that shows that clients. 46).g. Greenberg and Van Balen ( 1998)offered a synthesis of client-centered. The bedrock of most humanistic therapies is a basic premise that individuals have a natural tendency toward self-actualization.. on their own. he proposed a human-system model composed of interrelated subsystems that are self-regulating. humanistic therapists never insist that clients follow their proposals and refrain from directing clients’content. However. and experiential theories of therapy. In their view.meaning-creatingbeing who acts as a dynamicsystem constantly synthesizing information from many levels of processing and from both internal and external sources into a conscious experience” (Greenberg 46 DAVZD].enabling clients to experience freedom. He contended that differences in the organism’sefficacy in self-regulationaffect the person’s level of functioning. Human dysfunction is viewed as a result of impaired communication between the subsystems. New syntheses of humanistic psychotherapy theory have been offered by a few authors. Greenberg (1998) and others have challenged the soundness of the concept of self-actualization and offered an alternative. chapter 21) articulates a human- system model that has the power to “organize complex structures and also to account for their underlying unity” (p. many humanistic therapists. Self-actualization is viewed by some humanistic therapists (e. 1990). Although traditional client-centered therapists maintain that a nondirective attitude is essential to practice. Nor do they vary from their core belief and value that optimal therapist relational attitudes and qualities are essential to the promotion of client learning and growth. now propose a wide range of methods of processing experience for their clients’ consideration.

1998. . Dysfunction is viewed as resulting from three sources: (a) an inability to integrate aspects of experience and functioning in a coherent manner. For several decades. a number of major humanistic therapies have been developed whose contribution to the field of psychotherapy has been pervasive and profound. CONCLUDING THOUGHTS Starting with Carl Rogers’s “Newer Concepts in Psychotherapy” pre- sentation in 1940. 45). integration of client emotion schemes and levels of processing enables the creation of new meanings. (b) inability to symbolize adequately aspects of bodily experience. The Gestalt therapists have impressed on us the powerful impact of I-thou encounter and dialogue. In this view. and the ultimate challenge of coming to terms with our inevitable death. 44). that we create our realities from our subjective experiences and that we must all grapple with basic life issues such as our fundamental separateness and isolation. thereby enabling clients to resolve various difficulties in process- ing their experience. The self is viewed as a dynamic system that organizes “the elements of experience into a coherent whole [in] . Therapy is aimed at evoking maladaptive emotion schemes so they might be reprocessed and reconstrued. Rogers taught us to listen and demonstrated the constructive impact on the client’s well- being and growth of an optimal therapeutic relationship. The person is also seen as an active agent who organizes his or her experiences into emotion-based schemes. freedom-choice- responsibility. and (c) the activation of core maladaptive emotion schemes. and the richness of living in the immediate and flowing present. The existential-phenomenological school has taught us. with their focus on bodily and emotional states. Experiential therapists. meaningful. have enabled us to understand that the “body knows” and DEFINING CHARACTERISTICS 47 . 1998. 42). That is.& Van Balen. the enlivening effect of heightened awareness of self. and environment. The notion of the self-concept is replaced by one’s narrative constructions of one’s identity. . as psychotherapists and as human beings. almost all graduate training programs in clinical and counseling psychology have emphasized the importance of developing empathic and relational skills in their students. In the past 60 years. the roots of what would become the first approach to humanistic psychotherapy were planted. p. others. Consequently. therapists of many persuasions have challenged their clients to live more authentic. and richer lives. p. a process of dynamicldialectical synthesis” (Greenberg & Van Balen. meaning. the concept of self is the “ongoing process by which a person makes s e w of experience and explains his or her actions” (Greenberg & Van Balen. p. 1998. Therapeutic change occurs as the result of therapist and client co-constructing new meaning through dialogue.

Some of the most striking advances in our knowledge about effective thera- peutic response have come from “microprocess” research addressing the immediate interactions between client and therapist. freshness of experiencing. for example. Each humanistic therapy has benefited by incorporating and integrating some of the fundamental charac- teristics and strengths of other approaches while still retaining its own identity. adaptive. A primary reason for this is the cross- fertilization within the humanistic family. CAlN . and discerning in the manner in which they respond to their clients. Humanistic therapists have always embraced a dual endeavor of enabling clients to resolve their problems and to become more optimally functioning beings. there is cause for optimism in humanistic therapists.strong values and ethics. finding meaning. and trusting our perceptions. becoming grounded. humanistic therapists have enabled us to understand the centrality of the self in mediating experience and behavior. Both quantitative and qualitative 48 DAVID J. Julius Seeman (this volume. they have become increasingly creative. judg- ment.” as therapists have become more differentiated in their use of a variety of empathic response modes (Bohart 6r Greenberg. chapter 2 1) perceptively describes humanistic therapies as process centered as opposed to content centered. connection with others and all life forms. Similarly. Maslow and other humanistic scholars and practitioners enabled us to recognize that people can reach extraordinary levels of their potential and that they have enormous capacity for love. In contrast to a basically pathological and mechanistic view. Although humanistic therapists continue to view the quality of their relationship as the essential agent of change. Therapist empathy. The current “positive psychology” movement surely owes a great debt to the optimistic view of people and their resourcefulness that has been advanced by humanistic psychologists. has moved far beyond “reflection. The large body of research evidence clearly shows that humanistic therapies are as effective or more effective than other major therapeutic approaches in treating a wide range of client problems. Over approximately the past 25 years. Humanistic psychologists fundamentally altered our view of the person.that the processing of emotion is essential in clarifying our experiences. spontaneity. human sci- ence research has provided a window to the inner experiences of the client and therapist that have refined and expanded our understanding of “what really happens. and capacity for transcen- dence. humanistic therapies have evolved extraordinarilyconceptually and in the sophistication of their thera- peutic response styles and methods. humor. Finally. and decision making. acceptance of others. Relatedly.” This more sophisticated understanding of therapy has en- abled humanistic therapists to individualize therapy to fit the unique charac- teristics and needs of each client. creativity. clarity of perception. 1997).

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