Individual Behaviour

Yadav G., Manipal Global Education

 Diversity in Organizations

´  What are your views about elderly employees?

´  How do you view state mandated reservations for underprivileged

and deprived in private corporate sector?

´  The two levels of diversity:

´  Surface level diversity
can you give examples from within your society?

´  Deep level diversity

´  Can you spot “discrimination” in organizations?

Biographical Characteristics

´ Age: experience, judgement, work ethics, quality, flexibility,

change resistance, turnover, absenteeism, productivity, job
satisfaction, speed, agility, strength and coordination

´ Gender: problem solving ability, analytical skills, competitive

drive, motivation, sociability, learning ability, work schedules,
work-life balance

´ Disability: low vision/blindness, hearing impairment, locomotor

disability, mental illness (depression, anxiety)/retardation,
superior personal qualities e.g. dependability and potency
Biographical Characteristics contd …

´ Tenure: seniority, job productivity, absenteeism, turnover, future

behavior, job satisfaction

´ Religion: prohibits or encourages certain behaviours, obligation

to express beliefs in the workplace

´ Race and Ethnicity: favourism

´ Sexual Orientation & Gender Identity: transgender, gender

change

´ Marital Status: dedication and devotion

Individual
Behavior
Abilities: the deep level variable
Abilities contd ...
´ Intellectual abilities: general mental ability e.g. number aptitude,
verbal comprehension, perceptual speed, inductive reasoning,
deductive reasoning, spatial visualization, memory
´ There is no correlation between intelligence and job satisfaction

´ Physical abilities: strength factor (dynamic, trunk, static,

explosive), flexibility factor (extent, dynamic), other factors (body
coordination, balance, stamina)
´ A high score on one is no assurance of high score on others

´ Other abilities: emotional intelligence, tacit knowledge, time

management, standard of living, motivator, leader etc.
Should
Abilities
&
Jobs
Match?
Learning

´ A process by which new behaviors are acquired.

´ Relatively permanent change in behavior brought out by

experience or practice (reinforced), and not by physical
maturation.

´ Any kind of change in the way an organism behaves is learning.

´ Learning though involves change in behaviour, not necessarily

an improvement as bad habits, prejudices, stereotypes and work
restrictions are also learnt.
Learning contd …
´ Components of Learning

´ Drive
´ Cue, stimuli
´ Generalization
´ Discrimination
´ Responses
´ Reinforcements
´ Retention
´ Extinction
´ Spontaneous Recovery
Learning contd …

´ Factors affecting Learning

´ Motivation
´ Mental set
´ Nature of learning materials
´ Practice
´ Environment
Learning contd …

´ Learning Theories

´ Classical conditioning: Stimulus-Response (S-R) connection

´ Operant conditioning: Behaviour-Consequence connection

´ Cognitive learning: Cues-expectancy relationship

´ Social learning: observation, direct experience

Classical conditioning theory
´ By Ivan Pavlov, Russian Psychologist: acquiring a new response
(conditioned response) to a previously neutral stimuli
(conditioned stimulus) that results in an unconditioned stimulus
Operant conditioning theory
´ By B. F. Skinner, American Psychologist:

´ Investigates influence of consequences on subsequent behaviour

(voluntary responses)

´ It is the consequence that follows the response that influences if

the response is likely or unlikely to reoccur.

´ People learn to perform behaviours that lead to desired

consequences (and otherwise)

´ Linking specific behaviours to attainment of specific outcomes

motivates high performers and prevent behaviours that detract
from organizational effectiveness
Cognitive learning theory

´ Based on mental process by which learners take in, interpret, store

and retrieve information

´ It is self directed learning for personal development with a discovery

learning process
Social learning theory
´ Emphasizes learning through observation

´ Attention, Retention, Reproduction, Motivation

Attitude

´  Evaluative statements (favourable or unfavourable) about

objects, people or events.

´ Reflects how we feel about something, for example ….

´ It has three components (ABC model):

´ Affective – emotional or feeling segment of an attitude

´ Behavioural – describes intention to behave in a certain way
´ Cognitive – a description or belief in the way things are
Attitude contd …
Attitude contd …
Attitude & Behaviours

´ Do they appear together?

´ Does one follow the other?

´ Can they feed on each other?

Job Attitudes
´ Job Involvement: psychological empowerment
or degree to which a person identifies with the
job and actively participates in it (self-worth)

´ Organizational Commitment: degree to which a

person identifies with a particular organization
and its mission and values
´ Affective commitment
´ Continuance commitment
´ Normative commitment
Job Attitudes contd …

´ Perceived Organizational Support (POS): degree

to which an employee believes that the
organization values their contributions and cares
about their wellbeing (Organizational Citizenship
Behaviour i.e. OCB)

´ Employee Engagement: persons involvement,

satisfaction and enthusiasm for work they do
(Positive Attitude about the work)
Job Attitudes contd …
´ Job Satisfaction: one of the major outcomes of
organizational behavior. Contributing factors are:
´ Interesting work
´ Training
´ Variety
´ Autonomy
´ Control & Feedback
´ Social support / interactions with coworkers

“What about the salary & benefits?”

Job Satisfaction contd …

´ Impacts of Job (Dis)Satisfaction:

´ Job performance : +ve

´ Organizational citizenship : +ve
´ Customer satisfaction : +ve
´ Absenteeism : -ve
´ Turnover : -ve
´ Workplace deviance : -ve

“Bottom line: +ve, on satisfaction”

 Job Satisfaction contd …

´ Impacts of Job (Dis)Satisfaction:

Active

EXIT VOICE
Destructive Constructive

NEGLECT LOYALITY

Passive

“Bottom line: -ve, on dissatisfaction”

Personality

´ Personality is the dynamic organization within the individual of

those psychophysical systems that determine his unique
adjustments to his environment – Gordon Allport, 1937

´ Personality is the sum total of ways in which an individual reacts

to and interacts with other. It is described in terms of measurable
traits a person exhibits

´ Personality is unique behaviors, attitudes and emotions that

characterize an individual (bashful, happy, dopey, sneezy,
grumpy, sleepy or so)
Personality contd …

´ Traits - determines a persons personality based on the character

t r a i t s ( B i g F i v e M o d e l : E x t r a v e r s i o n , A g re e a b l e n e s s ,
Contentiousness, Neuroticism, Openness) they exhibit.

´  Type A Personality - ambitious, aggressive, controlling,

competitive, pre-occupied, time conscious, arrogant (high
achieving workaholics who multitask, push them for deadlines)

´ Type B Personality - apathetic, patient, relaxed, easy-going, no

sense of time schedule, lack of urgency, sensitive of other’s
feelings
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)

´ Extraverted (E) vs Introverted (I) - Extraverted individuals are

outgoing, sociable and assertive. Introverts are quite and shy.

´ Sensing (S) vs Intuitive (N) - Sensing are practical and prefer

routine and order. Intuitives rely on unconscious process and
look at the big picture.

´ Thinking (T) vs Feeling (F) - Thinking types use reason and logic.
Feeling types rely on personal values and emotions.

´  Judging (J) vs Perceiving (P) - Judging types want control and prefer
order and structure. Perceiving types are flexible and spontaneous.
MBTI contd …

MBTI classifications together describe 16 personality types e.g.

´ Introverted(I), Intuitive(N), Thinking(T), Judging(J) i.e. INTJs are

visionaries with original minds and great drive for ideas and purposes.
They are skeptical, critical, independent, determined and stubborn.

´  Extraverted(E), Sensing(S), Thinking(T), Judging(J) i.e. ESTJs are

organizers. They are realistic, logical, analytical, decisive and have a
natural head for business. They prefer to organize and run activities.

´  Extraverted(E), Intuitive(N), Thinking(T), Perceiving(P) i.e. ENTPs are

conceptualizer, innovative, individualistic, versatile and attracted to
entrepreneurial ideas. They are resourceful but may neglect routine
assignments.
 The Big Five Personality Model
Trait Characteristics
Talkative, Aggressive,
Extraversion Sociable, Bold, Confident,
Unrestrained, Assertive
Sympathetic, Kind,
Agreeableness Understanding, Helpful,
Cooperative, Trustful,
Organized, Neat, Efficient,
Contentiousness Responsible, Precise,
Practical, Dependable
Relaxed, Patient,
Neuroticism Unexcitable, Undemanding,
Masculine, Optimistic
Creative, Intellectual,
Openness Philosophical, Artistic,
Innovative, Imaginative
Inverse Characteristics
Shy, Quite, Silent, Introvert,
Bashful, Reserved, Timid,
Withdrawn
Cold, Unkind, Rude, Harsh,
Inconsiderate, Insensitive,
Uncharitable,
Careless, Inefficient, Sloppy,
Haphazard, Neglect,
Inconsistent
Moody, Temperamental,
Jealous, Touchy, Envious,
Irritable, Nervous
Simple, Unreflective,
Shallow, Unsophisticated,
Uninquisitive
Personality Traits relevant to OB
´ Core Self-Evaluation - like themselves and see themselves as
effective, capable and in control of their environment.
´  Machiavellianism (Niccolo Machiavelli, 16th century) - pragmatic,
maintains emotional distance and believes ends can justify means.
Machs manipulate more, win more, are persuaded less and persuade
others more.
´  Narcissism (Greek myth of Narcissus, a man so vain and proud he fell in
love with his own image) - self importance, requires excessive
admiration, has a sense of entitlement and is arrogant.
´  Self-Monitoring – adjusts his or her behavior to external, situational
factors. Highly sensitive to external cues and an behave differently in
different situations.
´  Risk Taking Personality
´  Proactive Personality
Perception
´ Perception is a process by which individuals organize
and interpret their sensory impressions in order to give
meaning to their environment
´ It is the process of selecting or receiving and
organizing or transforming information received by
the sensors
v Selecting or Receiving (through seeing, hearing,
smelling, tasting) is called bottom-up processing
v O rganizing or Transforming is the top-down
processing in which meaning is derived by
application of knowledge and expectations
Perception contd …
Factors that influence perception are:

´ P erceiver: interpretation is influenced by

personal characteristics (attitudes, motives,
interests, experience, expectations)
´ Target: relationship of target to its background
influences perception (context, proximity,
similarity, size)
´ S ituation: situational aspects e.g. time,
location, light, heat etc. influence attention
Perception contd …
A few features of perception are:

´ Physiological as well as Psychological process

´ Selective process
´ Perpetual process
´ Voluntary or compulsory
´ Positive or negative action
´ Overt (noticeable) or covert (feelings) forms
Person Perception: Making Judgments
Application of perception concept, relevant to OB:

´ Attribution Theory: explains ways in which we

judge people differently, depending on the
meaning we attribute to given behavior and
determine if it is caused
´ Internally (i.e. under the personal control of
individual) or
´ E xter nally (i.e. situation forced the
individual)
Attribution Theory contd …
Attribution Theory, in a grid:
Observation Interpretation Attribution

External
Distinctiveness (if, high)
(if person behaves differently in different situations) Internal
(if, low)
Individual External
Behavior Consensus (if, high)
(if others in same situation behave in same way) Internal
(if, low)
Internal
Consistency (if, high)
(if the person reacts the same over time) External
(if, low)
Shortcuts in Judging Others
´ Selective Perception: characteristics may make a
person, an object or an event stand out for increased
probability of its perception

´ Halo Effect: operates when we draw impression of an

individual based on a single characteristic

´ Contrast Effect: reaction to a person is influenced by

others recently encountered

´ Stereotyping: when we judge someone on the basis

of our perception of the group he/she belongs
Organizational Decision Making

´ Rational Decision Making: a six step rational

decision making model for an optimal decision
´ Define the problem (complete information?)
´ Identify the decision criteria
´ Allocate weights to the criteria
´ Develop alternatives (limited to neighborhood?)
´ Evaluate the alternatives
´ Select best alternative (option with highest utility)
It is indeed least used, in a real world.
Organizational Decision Making contd …

´ Bounded Rationality: people respond to a

complex problem by reducing it to a level at
which it an be readily understood
´ People ‘satisfice’ i.e. seek solutions that are
satisfactory and sufficient
´ Individuals operate within the confines of
bounded rationality
´ They construct simplified models that extract the
essential features
Organizational Decision Making contd …

´ Bounded Rationality - decision making process

´ After identifying a problem, search for criteria
and options begin
´ A limited set of conspicuous choices is identified
´ Decision maker then reviews the list, looking for a
solution which is ‘good enough’
The belief is – a fast and frugal process of
solving problems is the best option
Organizational Decision Making contd …

´ Intuition: Intuitive decision making occurs

outside conscious thought as it relies on holistic
associations between disparate pieces of
information and thus is fast, affectively charged.
´ The key is neither to abandon nor rely solely on
intuition but to supplement it with evidence and
good judgement.
´ Intuition is a highly complex and highly
developed form of reasoning that is based on
years of experience and learning.
Common Errors in Decision Making
´  Overconfidence Bias: no problem in judgement is and
decision making is more prevalent and catastrophic
than overconfidence.
´  Anchoring Bias: tendency to fixate on initial information
and fail to adequately adjust for subsequent
information.
´  Confirmation Bias: we seek out information that reaffirms
our past choices, and we discount information that
contradict them
´  Availability Bias: tendency to base judgments on readily
available information.
Common Errors in Decision Making contd …
´  Escalation of Commitment: staying with a decision even
when there is clear evidence that it is wrong.

´  Randomness Error: tendency to believe that we can

predict outcome of random events.

´  Risk Aversion: sticking with established ways, rather than

taking chance on innovative or creative methods

´  Hindsight Bias: tendency to believe falsely, after he

outcome is known, that we would have accurately
predicted it.
 Motivation
´  A process that account for an individual’s intensity,
direction and persistence of effort towards attaining a goal.

´  Intensity describes how hard a person tries (maximum focus

is mostly made on this)

´  High intensity is unlikely to lead to favorable job

performance unless effort is channeled in a direction that
benefits the organization.

´  Persistence measures how long a person can maintain

effort.
 Hierarchy of Needs Theory: Abraham Maslow
´  Physiological needs: includes hunger, thirst, shelter, sex and other
bodily needs
´  Safety needs: security and protection from physical and
emotional harm
´  Social needs: affection, belongingness, acceptance and
friendship
´  Esteem needs: internal factors such as self-respect, autonomy,
achievement and external factors such as status, recognition
and attention
´  Self-actualization: drive to become what one is capable of e.g.
growth, achieving potential and self-fulfillment
´  Self-transcendence: holistic level of human consciousness, to
oneself, to others, to human beings, to other species, to nature.
Theory X and Theory Y: Douglas McGregor
´ Theory X believe employees inherently dislike work and
must therefore be directed or even coerced into
performing it.
´ Theory Y in contrast assume employees view work as
being as natural as rest or play and therefore average
person can learn to accept & even seek responsibility.
´ Theory Y assumes Maslow’s higher order needs
dominate individuals. McGregor held that Theory Y
assumptions are more valid than Theory X, with ideas
such as participative decision making, responsible and
challenging jobs, good group relations etc. which
maximize employee’s job motivation
Two Factor Theory: Frederick Herzberg
´ Also known as motivation-hygiene theory
´ Intrinsic factor such as advancement, recognition,
responsibility and achievement (called motivation
factors) are related with job satisfaction
´ Extrinsic factors such as supervision, pay, company
policies, working conditions, relationships with others
and job security (called hygiene factors) are related
with job dissatisfaction
´ Existence of a dual continuum: opposite of
‘satisfaction’ is ‘no satisfaction’ and the opposite of
‘dissatisfaction’ is ‘no dissatisfaction’
David McClelland’s Theory of Needs
´ Need for Achievement (nAch) is the drive to excel, to
achieve in relation to a set of standards, to strive to
succeed
´ Need for Power (nPow) is the need to make others
behave in a way in which they would not have
behaved otherwise
´ Need for Affiliation (nAff) is the desire for friendly and
close interpersonal relationships
´ High achievers perform best when they perceive their
probability of success is 0.5 …………….. why?
´ Best managers are high in their need for power and
low in their need for affiliation …………….. how?
Contemporary Theories of Motivation
´ Vroom’s Expectancy Theory:
´  Effort-performance relationship
´  Performance-reward relationship
´  Rewards-personal goals relationship
´ Self-Determination Theory; cognitive evaluation theory
´ Goal-Setting Theory; management by objective
´ Self-efficacy Theory; social learning theory
´ Reinforcement Theory; operant conditioning
´ Equity Theory; organizational justice