Page 1 of 30

TTS MODULE # 1

Compiled By: Rimsha Asif

 Page 2 of 30

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Module Introduction…………………………………………………….03

Lesson 1: About Electrical Equipment………………………………...04

Lesson 2: High-voltage Equipment……………………………………09

Lesson 3: Medium-voltage Equipment……………………… ………..16

Lesson 4: Low-voltage Equipment………………………… ………….22

Lesson 5: Electrical Measuring Devices………………… ……………..26

Module Conclusion………………………………………………………..29

Glossary…………………………………………………………………….29

Compiled By: Rimsha Asif

 Page 3 of 30

Module Introduction

This module is an introduction to electrical equipment. Electrical equipment is

so common in the workplace and our homes that knowledge of the electrical
components that comprise electrical circuits is essential.

Training in this subject is important because, as an operator, you are constantly

in contact with electrical equipment. An understanding of how power is
generated and distributed throughout your plant is vital for safe and efficient
operation of the plant equipment.

In this module, you will learn about the basic function of electrical equipment.
You will also learn about high-voltage, medium-voltage, and low-voltage
electrical equipment. In addition, you will learn about electrical measuring
devices.

Compiled By: Rimsha Asif

 Page 4 of 30

LESSON 1
About Electrical Equipment

LESSON INTRODUCTION:
This lesson provides an introduction to electricity and electrical systems. Electricity enables us to
supply energy to equipment to do work. Because electrical equipment is so common in our jobs and
our everyday lives at home, an understanding of how electrical energy can be transferred and used
is very helpful.

Training in this subject is important because, as an operator, you are using electrical equipment
every day to do your job. The more you know about the characteristics of electricity and the
components of electric circuits, the more comfortable you will be with your job.

In this lesson, you will learn about the fundamentals of electricity. You will also learn about power
generation systems. In addition, you will learn about power distribution systems.

Electrical equipment uses electrical energy or electricity as the driving force to do work. An
understanding of how this driving force is created provides a foundation to understanding how
electrical equipment operates.

ELECTRICITY
A fundamental understanding of the principles of electricity is helpful when describing electrical
energy and its utilization.

Electric Charge
Electric charge is a basic property of all matter and is dependent on its atomic structure. All objects
are made up of atoms that contain “positively” charged protons and “negatively” charged electrons.
If these charged particles are free to move, they will attempt to balance each other. The total
electric charge of any object is the algebraic sum of all the charged particles comprising it.

Conductivity
Electrically-charged particles can move freely through some objects, but are effectively blocked in
their movement in others. The measure of how easily the charged particles can pass through
materials is known as its conductivity. Materials may be classified as conductors, semiconductors, or
insulators. Due to their atomic makeup, most metals are generally good conductors. Insulators are
used to prevent the flow of charged particles between conductors.

Electric Potential
The interaction between electrically charged particles causes each charged particle to push away
from other particles with like charges and to be pulled toward particles with unlike charges. These
forces are called electric potential, and can be either positive or negative. The electric potential is
related to the magnitude of the charges and distance between the charged particles.

Compiled By: Rimsha Asif

 Page 5 of 30

Electric Field
The space around a charged object in which the influence
of the charge is felt is called its electric field. Electric lines
of force are used to pictorially represent the strength and
direction of the electric field. An electric field always
emanates from a charged object and extends between
objects with unlike charges. The strength of an electrical
field diminishes as the distance from the point of origin of
the charged object increases.

Figure 1-1
Electric Field around Charged Objects

Static Electricity
Static, or stationary, electricity is the accumulation of enough electric charge on an object to give it a
measurable positive or negative charge. The most common way to build up a static charge is by
creating friction between two non-conducting materials. When this occurs (as with your rubber-
soled shoes and the carpet), electrons are displaced between one material and transferred to the
other. Since the non-conductivity of the materials allows little movement of the charged particles,
this static electric charge builds up. If the charges become great enough or if a conducting path is
provided, the charged particles flow toward the object with the lower potential. Static electricity is
then said to be discharged.

Current
The movement of charged particles, such as the discharge of static electricity, is known as electric
current. Current carries energy from one location to another. A direct current (DC) is one in which
the net charged particles move in one direction only. An alternating current (AC) is one in which the
current changes direction periodically. By convention, the current flow is shown as the flow from
positive to negative. The unit of current is the ampere, abbreviated amp.

Potential Difference
You learned that electric potential is the force exerted between charged particles. The difference in
the energy levels between two objects is their potential difference. If the two objects are connected
by a conductor, current will flow from the area of higher potential to the area of lower potential. The
unit of potential difference is the volt.

Resistance
As current flows to the area of lower potential, it encounters resistance. This resistance can be
caused by the conversion of electrical energy to another form of energy to do work, or it can be
caused by the poor conductivity of the conductor. Resistance is measured in ohms.

Compiled By: Rimsha Asif

 Page 6 of 30

Load or Power
Electric power is the measure of work produced in the system. This is also called the load on the
system. Power is a factor of both amps and volts. Load (or power) is measured in watts or kilowatts.

Electric Circuit
If the charged particles move along a closed path,
an electric circuit has been made. All electric
circuits involve a potential difference, current,
resistance, and load. The current, in carrying energy
from one location to another, does work. This energy
transfer could be a conversion to light, heat,
mechanical energy, sound, or other forms. Electric
circuits can contain any number of elements that can
be arranged and connected in many different ways.

The energy transfer process of an electric circuit is

illustrated in Figure 1-2.

Figure 1-2
Electrical Circuit

The terms described above are common to all the electric circuits you will encounter in the plant. All
electrical equipment is supplied with electric energy in the manner that has been described. A good
understanding of these principles of electricity will enable you to understand how electrical
equipment works.

For all the electrical equipment in your plant to operate, electric power, or energy in the form of an
electrical potential difference, must be supplied. Different sources of electricity include public
utilities, self-generated electrical systems, and cogeneration systems.

PUBLIC UTILITY
Frequently, a plant depends upon a public utility to provide the necessary power for the equipment
to operate. Electricity is purchased from the public utility at substantial cost to the plant.
About 70% of the electricity generated in the U.S. is produced at power plants that use fossil fuels.
These plants may burn coal, oil, or natural gas. Heat from the combustion of the fuel converts water
into steam in a boiler. The high-pressure steam pushes against the blades of a turbine, causing the
turbine shaft to spin. The spinning shaft turns the rotor of a generator, generating electricity which is
fed into a network of public users. In addition, hydroelectric and nuclear power plants each produce
about 15% of the total electricity used in the U.S.

PLANT GENERATION SYSTEMS

Your plant may generate its own electricity. Steam turbines and natural gas combustion turbines are
the most common types of power sources to drive industrial plant electric generators. If a plant
requires a steam system, the steam turbine is usually used to generate electric power for the plant.
When steam is not available at high pressure, the combustion gas turbine (similar to a jet engine) is
used.

Compiled By: Rimsha Asif

 Page 7 of 30

Stand-by Generator
The risk of severe storms, tornadoes, hurricanes, etc. that could cause a lengthy power outage is
alleviated in many plants by the installation of a stand-by generator. This generator does not help
plant productivity during short electrical outages, but allows operation when possible down time
stretches into hours. Many stand-by generators are driven by diesel fuel.

Emergency Power Sources

It is often necessary to have a source of emergency power to operate essential plant functions
during a power failure. An emergency system is activated automatically when the primary source of
power fails, and supplies electricity to radio communications, automatic control and instrumentation
for emergency shutdown, lube oil circulating pumps for essential equipment, and emergency
lighting. Emergency power for instrumentation is most often supplied by a DC-battery. An auto-start
stand-by generator is usually available for other emergency services.

COGENERATION SYSTEMS
A processing plant that produces large quantities of heat, steam, or fuel by-product for its own use
may use any excess waste heat and/or steam to generate its own electricity. The construction of a
cogeneration facility involves a large capital outlay, which must be offset by the economic benefits
of having the facility. Some of the factors that influence this decision are:

 The cost of purchased electricity versus the fixed annual costs of the cogeneration facility

 The reliability of purchased electricity. Frequent short power outages, even of a 1/2-second
duration, can seriously disrupt some processes

 The cost of extension lines and distribution equipment from the public utility to the plant site

 The cost of maintaining the cogeneration facility

 Whether purchased electricity is curtailable and when

In addition to providing a reliable source of electricity, a distinct advantage of a cogeneration facility

for a plant is the possibility of selling any excess electricity generated by the plant back to the public
utility. When cogeneration is economically viable, there can be a great savings for plant power costs.

Electrical equipment will fail or operate improperly unless it is supplied with power at the correct
voltage and current levels. Every plant needs a reliable power distribution system.

A typical power distribution

system is illustrated in
Figure 1-3

Figure 1-2
Power Distribution System

Compiled By: Rimsha Asif

 Page 8 of 30

FROM UTILITY POWER PLANT TO YOUR PROCESSING PLANT

A typical utility power plant generator can produce 1 million watts of electric power at an electric
potential of 22,000 volts. Step-up transformers then boost this voltage as high as 765,000 volts for
transmission through the distribution network. High transmission voltages are necessary to reduce
resistance in the wires, which reduces the cost of transmitting the power. High-voltage electricity is
carried by the transmission lines to transmission substations near the area where the electricity will
be used. There the voltage is reduced to a safer level. Substations use step-down transformers to
reduce the voltage to a range of 12,500 to 138,000 volts. The voltage is then further reduced at
distribution substations to 2000 to 34,500 volts.

Distribution lines may carry the electric power at these voltages directly to commercial, industrial, or
institutional users. Distribution lines also carry power to distribution transformers that reduce the
voltage to the levels needed by residential customers (220 and 110 volts). Wires from the
distribution transformers run to homes, stores, and offices.

POWER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS

Typically, high-voltage (12,000 to 138,000 volts) transmission lines bring power into the plant
property, where the voltage is reduced to about 4160 volts. Electricity at this high voltage is supplied
to one or more high-voltage distribution points. From the high-voltage distribution points, 4160-volt
power lines distribute current either below or above ground to large motors in the plant and to
motor control centers/load centers.

In the motor control centres/load centres, this

high voltage is reduced to medium voltage (480 volts).
Electricity at this voltage is distributed throughout
the plant by way of ducts and conduits to most of
the motor-driven equipment. Medium-voltage feeder
lines also supply electricity to process control buildings
where it is reduced to low voltage (120 volts).
A low-voltage distribution network supplies current to
motor starters, instrumentation systems, plant lighting
systems, and other low-voltage users. A low-voltage
feeder line is further reduced and transformed to a
24-volt DC system which is distributed to its users.

Figure 1-4
Plant Power Distribution System

Compiled By: Rimsha Asif

 Page 9 of 30

LESSON 2
High-voltage Equipment

LESSON INTRODUCTION
This lesson describes the high-voltage equipment that you may encounter in your plant.

Training in this subject is important because, as an operator, you may be responsible for operating
and controlling high-voltage equipment. Knowledge of this equipment is essential for you to operate
safely and efficiently.

In this lesson, you will learn about the buildings that house high-voltage equipment. You will also
learn about generators, co-generators, and transformers. In addition, you will learn about electrical
distributing equipment. Finally, you will learn about other high-voltage users.

You have learned that within the electrical distribution system of your plant, there are buildings and
structures that contain high-voltage equipment. High-voltage equipment is defined as that
equipment operating at 4160 volts or higher. It is possible that you will never have to enter a
building or structure containing high-voltage equipment. Nevertheless, it is wise for all operators to
have an understanding of what occurs in these buildings.

WARNING

Buildings that contain high-voltage equipment are off limits to unauthorized personnel.
Untrained operators could be exposed to great danger.

SUBSTATION
A substation is an assembly of equipment in an electric power system through which electric energy
is passed for transmission, transformation, distribution, or switching. A substation may be either an
outdoor structure on your company’s property that is enclosed by a fence or a well-identified
building.

In either case, the substation contains incoming high-voltage power lines from the utility company.
Within the substation, the transmission lines have a power circuit breaker, ground fault protection,
and other protective relays. The substation may also contain a high-voltage transformer that
typically reduces the voltage to 4160 volts. If so, additional protective relays and instrumentation are
provided. The high-voltage transmission wires are enclosed in cables within ducts or conduit.

SWITCHGEAR BUILDING
A switchgear building is the main power centre for the plant and contains an aggregate of switching
devices for a power transmitting station. The switches provide the capability to reroute 4160volt
transmission circuits if necessary. The switching devices have circuit breakers, ground fault
protection, and protective relays.

Compiled By: Rimsha Asif

 Page 10 of 30

The switchgear also has the ability to switch to 4160volt power for plant use from a generation or
cogeneration facility if one exists on the plant site. It can also send excess power back to the
substation where it can be sold to the power company. The high-voltage transmission wires are
enclosed in cables within ducts or conduit.

GENERATOR OR CO-GENERATOR BUILDING

If your plant has power generation capability, the generator(s) or co-generator(s) are probably
housed in a dedicated building. This building contains the high-voltage generating equipment, circuit
breakers, and protective relays, as well as the appropriate instrumentation. The high-voltage
transmission lines are enclosed in cables within ducts or conduit.

GENERATORS
Generators and co-generators use mechanical energy to produce electric energy. The possible
sources of mechanical energy include: wind, water, or moving steam. A generator does not create
energy, it merely converts mechanical energy to electric energy. Every generator must be driven by a
turbine, diesel engine, or other device that produces or harnesses natural mechanical energy.

WARNING

Generators and co-generators are high-voltage equipment. Only experienced operators should
be in the vicinity of the equipment.

Parts of a Generator
The main components of a generator are the same as those for a motor, which converts electric
energy into mechanical energy. In fact, a generator behaves like a motor in reverse. (The theory of
motors is discussed in detail in the next lesson.) The important parts of a generator include:

 Prime mover: the mechanical device that supplies mechanical energy. In commercial
installations, this is usually a steam- or water-driven turbine.

 Drive shaft: the device that makes the physical connection between the prime mover and
the generator.

 Field structure: the magnet that sets up the magnetic lines of force.

 Armature: the coil of wire in which electricity is induced.

 Slip rings: contact rings that collect the current being produced by an AC generator.

 Commutator: sliding contact devices that work with brushes to collect the current being
generated by a DC generator.

How Generators Work

Electricity can be generated either by rotating the armature coil to cut the magnetic lines of force
from the field structure, or by rotating the magnetic field structure around the armature coils. In
either case, the stationary structure is known as the stator, and the rotating structure is the rotor.

Compiled By: Rimsha Asif

 Page 11 of 30

Most DC generators are constructed with the armature

as the rotor and the magnetic field as the stator.

Figure 2-1
DC Generator

A commutator/brush assembly in a DC generator

conducts the current from the generator.

Figure 2-2
DC Generator Operation

Most AC generators are constructed so that the

stator revolves. The armature is free to turn to
follow the revolving field.

Figure 2-3
AC Generator

The generators that are the most common type for commercial power are AC generators. They are
also often called alternators. The speed of an AC generator determines the frequency. AC power in
the United States is 60 cycles per second. AC voltage is determined by the strength of the rotating
magnetic field.

A small DC generator is a part of the AC generator unit to provide a source of DC current for the
field. This auxiliary generator is called the exciter.

Although generators can be sized to develop a very wide range of voltages, for the sake of this
lesson, the discussion is aimed at large, high-voltage (at least 4160 volts) generating equipment that
you may find in your plant.

Compiled By: Rimsha Asif

 Page 12 of 30

CO-GENERATORS
Co-generators are electricity generators that also generate another utility, usually steam, for plant
use or that utilize available waste heat from the process. Steam co-generators are built with the
capacity to provide all the steam required for plant production and excess steam to drive turbines
for power generation. If the co-generator can supply more than enough electricity for plant use,
electricity can often be sold back to the power company after increasing its voltage from about 4160
volts to the incoming power line voltage at the substation.

TRANSFORMERS
You learned previously that the high voltage (12,000 to 130,000 volts) from the power company is
reduced to 4160 volts at the main substation for distribution within the plant. This is accomplished
using a high-voltage step-down transformer. As an operator, it is important to have a basic
understanding of how transformers work.

Parts of a Transformer
A transformer is a device that transfers AC electrical energy from one circuit to another at a different
voltage. A transformer, as shown in Figure 2-4, consists of two coils of wire individually wound on a
common iron core. Typically one coil consists of a comparatively few turns of wire, and the other coil
consists of a relatively large number of turns of wire. The input coil is called the primary winding and
the output coil is the secondary winding.

Figure 2-4
Transformer Structure

How the Transformer Works

Transformers can be used for “stepping down” or reducing the voltage from one AC circuit to
another. They can also be used for “stepping up” low AC voltages to high voltages for long-distance
power transmission.

The fundamental principle governing the operation of a transformer states that when the magnetic
field enclosed within a circuit varies, an electric current that is proportional to the rate of variation is
induced in the circuit. In a transformer, the alternating current that flows through the primary
winding creates an alternating magnetic field that passes through the secondary winding. This
condition induces a secondary alternating current and voltage.

The transformation ratio (ratio of input voltage to output voltage) is determined solely by the ratio
of the number of turns of wire on the primary and secondary windings of the transformer. Thus, if
the secondary winding has twice as many turns as the primary winding, the output voltage will be
twice as high as the input voltage. The output current, however, will be one half of the input current.

The large transformers at the main substation may be located outside, but within a fenced
enclosure. Remember that very high and potentially dangerous voltages exist on both the input and
output sides.

Compiled By: Rimsha Asif

 Page 13 of 30

You learned previously that the buildings containing high-voltage equipment have distribution
equipment that includes circuit breakers, protective relays, switchgear, buses, and ground
protection. As an operator, you should have a basic understanding of these components.

CIRCUIT BREAKERS
Circuit breakers are designed to interrupt the flow of electricity quickly and safely. They are also
used to complete an electric circuit.

In high-voltage service, arcing can create a serious problem

when the electrical contacts are opened and the current flow
stopped. Therefore, many high-voltage circuit breakers are of
the oil-break or gas-blast type. In the oil-break type, the
contacts are separated under oil for the quick and effective
extinction of the arc. In the gas-blast type, a blast of high
pressure hydrogen, air, or other gas is directed on the arc at
the moment of contact separation to accelerate its extinction.

Figure 2-5
Oil-break Circuit Breaker

RELAYS
Relays are electric switching devices made up of one
or more contacts that open or close circuits. The
switching device is usually activated by an
electromagnet that closes or opens the contacts by
attracting or releasing a movable armature.
There are also relays that are activated mechanically.

Figure 2-6
Relay

This type of relay has a coil of wire wrapped around an iron core. An iron yoke carries the movable
armature. When the current passing through the coil creates an adequate magnetic force, the
armature is attracted to the iron core, moving the contacts to close the circuit. When the current
flow stops, the magnetic force diminishes, releasing the armature, and the contacts open.

SWITCHGEAR
Switchgear is the high-voltage circuit switching device that allows rerouting of 4160-volt circuits. It
consists of high-voltage circuit breakers and relays. The components are housed in a metal-clad
enclosure which may also contain certain high-voltage motor starters. On the front of the switchgear
panels are instruments that indicate major plant current loads and protective alarms.

Compiled By: Rimsha Asif

 Page 14 of 30

Figure 2-7
Switchgear Enclosure

BUSES
Buses are sets of two or more electric conductors that act as common connections between load
circuits. Buses are transmission pathways for high-voltage circuits. A bus may be called a bus-bar or
busway. Bus-bars within switchgear buildings are heavy, rigid metallic conductors, usually
uninsulated, carrying large currents. Busways are prefabricated assemblies of standard lengths of
bus-bars that are rigidly supported by solid insulation, and are enclosed in a sheet-metal housing.

GROUND PROTECTION
The earth’s crust has fairly good conductivity. This means that electric currents can pass through the
soil if differences in potential (voltage) occur at various points on the earth’s surface. Conversely,
any potential difference will be immediately equalized and the earth becomes an equipotential
surface.

Electrical equipment or conductors that are connected to the earth are said to be “earthed” or
“grounded.” Earthed or grounded equipment is at the same electrical potential as the earth.
Grounding thus provides a safeguard against electric
shock to anyone who happens to touch the metal
parts concerned. For your protection, the walls of
substations and switchgear buildings are often lined
with wire netting or metal plates that are electrically
connected and earthed. All high-voltage equipment
needs to have good earth connections through
low-resistance soil.

Examples of methods of grounding are illustrated

in Figure 2-8.

Figure 2-8
Methods of Grounding

You have learned that generators and co-generators are high-voltage equipment. It is possible that
as an operator you will never be exposed to this equipment. However, there is other high-voltage
equipment that you may be required to operate.

HIGH-VOLTAGE USERS
A high-voltage user in your plant is a piece of equipment that operates at a voltage of 4160 volts or
greater. Most of the plant equipment that you will be operating runs at medium voltage (480 volts).
Most large motors, or motors of approximately 300 horsepower or greater, are operated at 4160

Compiled By: Rimsha Asif

 Page 15 of 30

volts. This enables them to operate at much smaller current loads, resulting in a more efficient
motor.

Examples of high-voltage users that you may encounter include:

 A 300-horsepower air compressor in a foundry

 A 400-horsepower water chiller in a chemical plant

 A 350-horsepower pump around pump on a fractionator in a refinery

 A 600-horsepower recirculating pump on a crystallizer in a sugar plant

 A 750-horsepower rock crusher in a mining operation

 A 300-horsepower agitator in a sulfuric acid mixing tank

 A 400-horsepower vacuum pump in a vapour recovery system

 A 1000-horsepower cold water distribution pump to the reactors in a polystyrene plant

Compiled By: Rimsha Asif

 Page 16 of 30

LESSON 3
Medium-voltage Equipment

LESSON INTRODUCTION
This lesson describes the medium-voltage equipment that you will encounter in your plant.

Training in this subject is important because, as an operator, you will be responsible for operating
and controlling medium-voltage equipment. Knowledge of the electrical components for this
equipment is essential for you to operate safely and efficiently.

In this lesson, you will learn about buildings that contain medium-voltage equipment. You will also
learn about medium-voltage distribution and protective equipment. In addition, you will learn about
motors.

You have learned that within the electrical distribution system of your plant there are buildings that
contain medium-voltage equipment. Medium-voltage equipment is defined as operating at
approximately 480 volts. As an operator, you will most likely have the need to enter these buildings.
It is important to understand the equipment that is contained in these buildings.

MOTOR CONTROL CENTRE

A MCC (motor control centre) is literally a centre for controlling the electric power supply to the 480-
volt motors in the plant. There are probably a number of MCCs throughout your plant, located
within the various operating units. The MCC can be considered the medium-voltage (480 volts)
distribution centre for plant motors.

The MCC contains modular steel cabinets that

house individual motor starters, circuit breakers,
and line fuses. The face of each cabinet module has
the dedicated equipment number. It may also have
an electrical disconnect handle, start and stop buttons,
a run-indicating light, and a current meter.

It is important for the operator to be familiar with the

MCCs in the operating unit because if work is to be
performed on a piece of equipment, that equipment
must be electrically de-energized in the MCC.

Figure 3-1
Motor Control Centre

LOAD CENTER
A load centre may have its own dedicated building or may be housed within the motor control
centre building. The load centre may contain a step-down transformer to reduce incoming high
voltage to medium voltage. The load centre contains 480-volt bus bars that distribute and balance
medium voltage to the MCCs.

Compiled By: Rimsha Asif

 Page 17 of 30

Like the high-voltage system, the 480-volt system has its own distribution and protective equipment.

DISTRIBUTION EQUIPMENT
Medium voltage is supplied to the MCCs via 480-volt bus-bars. The main 480-volt feeder lines are
protected from overload by the main circuit breakers. Large metal conduits carry groups of power
supply wires from the MCCs to the operating areas. Individual conduits carry the power supply wires
to the individual motors where additional distribution and protection equipment is located.

PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT
The 480-volt distribution network is equipped with protective devices. These include circuit
breakers, fuses, field disconnects, start/stop stations, and grounding.

Circuit Breakers
As previously described, circuit breakers are devices designed to safely and quickly interrupt the
current flow in an electric circuit. The circuit breakers used for medium-voltage service are
electromagnetic relays that open contacts when the line current is excessive.

Fuses
Another protective device in the electrical circuit is a fuse. You are familiar with the fusebox in your
home or automobile. The principle of the fuse in 480-volt motor circuits is the same, relying on the
relationship between current flow and heat in a conductor.

A fuse is a short, thick, metal bar inserted in the line circuit. During normal current flow, the fuse is
heated, but not sufficiently to do any physical damage. If for any reason, usually a short circuit, the
current flow becomes too high, the fuse will be heated excessively and melt. When this occurs, the
circuit is broken.

Field Disconnects
A field disconnect is another protective device
that is often located adjacent to the equipment
motor in the plant. The field disconnect enables
the operator to de-energize the power circuit at
the piece of equipment. The disconnect is simply
a switch with a switch lever.

Figure 3-2 illustrates two types of switches

commonly used in industry.

Figure 3-2
Switches

Compiled By: Rimsha Asif

 Page 18 of 30

Start/Stop Stations

There will almost always be a start/stop station located at the motor. These are usually a push-
button type and consist of spring-tensioned contactors. As a safety feature, there is a locking
mechanism for the push-button in the “Off” position. This assures the operator that the motor
cannot be started if the equipment is being worked on.

Grounding
To safeguard the operator against electrical shock, ground wires or straps are run from the motor to
the reinforcement steel in the concrete pad supporting the equipment. There is also a ground wire
connection for the wire bundle encased in the electrical conduit.

An electric motor is a machine that converts electric energy into mechanical energy to do work. As
an operator, you are aware that nearly all of the equipment that you are responsible for is motor
driven. Therefore, it is important to have a basic understanding of how motors work.

MOTOR ACTION
Electric motors come in many forms, shapes, and sizes. There are hundreds of different kinds of
electric motors, yet all of these motors do basically the same thing. All motors have the same basic
components.

Basic motor action depends on the interaction of two magnetic fields. How these fields are obtained
and how they interact accounts for the various types of electric motors. One of these two fields
rotates. The other does not rotate with respect to the rotating field.

The rotating magnetic field is called the stator, for stationary. This may sound odd, but remember
that the electrical windings are stationary. The magnetic field is not stationary, it rotates. The other
field is called the rotor, for rotary, and is also known as the armature. Although the rotary field
rotates with respect to the frame of the motor, it does not rotate with respect to the stationary
field.

When current flows through the rotor, a magnetic field is created, and the two magnetic fields
interact. This interaction of the magnetic poles (attracting and repelling) causes the rotor to keep
spinning. Since the rotor or armature is connected to the driveshaft, the driveshaft turns with the
rotor.

There are three main types of electric motors, depending on the power that they use. These types
are DC motors, three-phase AC motors, and single-phase AC motors.

DC MOTOR
A DC motor consists of a supporting casing, a
magnetic field created by permanent or
electromagnets, an armature, commutator, and brushes.

Figure 3-3
DC Motor Components

Compiled By: Rimsha Asif

 Page 19 of 30

A DC motor converts DC electric power to mechanical power, resulting in the ability of the rotating
armature to do work.

DC motor action results from the attracting and repelling magnetic effects between the magnetic
field of the permanent magnet and the magnetic field created from the armature which is free to
rotate. The armature magnetic field is created by passing DC current from the DC source through the
brushes and commutator and into the armature coils. The commutator switches the direction of the
armature current after each 180° of rotation, which changes the direction of the magnetic field. The
continual repulsion and attraction of the like and unlike magnetic poles keeps the armature shaft
turning.

THREE-PHASE AC MOTOR
The most common type of motor that you will encounter in the plant is the three-phase AC motor.
Most of the motors operate off of 480-volt, 60-Hz (60 cycles per second) AC electricity. There are
two categories of three-phase motors, induction and
synchronous. Both induction and synchronous motors
have a stator. The rotating magnetic field caused when
the three-phase AC power is applied to the stator
causes the rotor to rotate. The rotors in each, however,
behave differently.

The basic components of an AC motor are shown

in Figure 3-4.

Figure 3-4
AC Motor Components

Induction Motor
In an induction motor, the rotor has no direct connection to the external source of electricity. Timed
alternating currents are fed to a series of stator windings to produce the rotating magnetic field. The
rotating magnetic field “induces” an electric current in the rotor windings. The magnetic field
associated with the rotor current interacts with the stator’s magnetic field, causing the rotor to turn.
Thus, as the stator’s magnetic field pattern rotates, it “drags” the rotor with it. The squirrel cage
rotor is the most common rotor used in the three-phase AC induction motor.

Synchronous Motor
A synchronous motor has the same stator as the three-phase induction motor. However, at the
maximum speed, the synchronous rotor receives direct current from an outside power source. The
rotor becomes a DC electromagnet having a constant North and South Pole. Because of the constant
attraction of the opposite poles of the rotor and stator magnetic fields, the rotor moves at a fixed
speed, and “locks in” with the rotating field of the stator. If a fixed-frequency source is used, a
synchronous motor can maintain a constant speed under changing loads.

Compiled By: Rimsha Asif

 Page 20 of 30

SINGLE-PHASE AC MOTOR
The action of single-phase motors is fundamentally the same as three-phase motors, depending on
the principle of the rotating magnetic field. There are many designs of single-phase motors with
varying internal construction to create the magnetic field interaction.

It is much more expensive to operate a 480-volt, single-phase AC motor because of reduced motor
efficiency, which is why they are rarely found in industry. You will, however, encounter small single-
phase motors in your plant because they are more economical to purchase.

Overall motor construction varies, depending on factors such as type of motor, size, application, and
environment. Some common features of motors are described below. As an operator, you should be
familiar with the terms used to describe motor construction. These include enclosures, motor
frames, stators, and rotors.

ENCLOSURES
The enclosure (or housing) of an electric motor provides protection to the working parts of the
motor. Different ambient conditions require different types of enclosures. Some of the available
types of motor housings are:

Open
Appropriate for clean, dry areas.

Drip proof
Appropriate for clean areas where water droplets may fall on the motor.

Splash proof
Appropriate for clean areas where water may splash into the motor.

Weather Protected
Appropriate for outdoor service in clean, non-hazardous areas.

Totally Enclosed
Appropriate for dirty, wet, contaminated, or hazardous areas.

MOTOR FRAMES
The motor frame serves as a rigid mounting support for the stator and the shaft bearing. Some
common types of frame arrangements are:

Direct-mounting
Direct-mounting frames are designed for mounting directly on the load shaft. A direct-mounted
motor has neither shaft nor shaft bearings.

Pedestal Bearing Design

The pedestal bearing design is used where the motor application requires an unusually large frame.

Compiled By: Rimsha Asif

 Page 21 of 30

Vertical-type
Vertical-type motors may have a solid shaft with a coupling at the bottom, or a hollow shaft for
coupling at the top.

STATORS
The essential elements of the stator are the core and the coils.

Stator Core
The stator core is constructed of many layers of thin steel laminations with electrical insulation
between adjacent layers. Insulated laminar construction reduces power losses and extraneous
heating.

Stator Coils
The stator coils each contain a number of turns of wire carefully insulated from each other. In
addition, each coil is insulated from its surroundings before it is inserted into the stator coil slots.
This extensive insulation is necessary to prevent break-down and arcing between turns or to ground.

Rotors
The essential elements of the rotor are the shaft, spider, field poles, and field coils.

Shaft
The shaft is the rotating element that supports all the other rotating elements and provides the
mechanical linkage between the motor and the load.

Spider
The spider is a hub with radiating arms that provide support and a point of attachment for the pole
pieces. The spider is attached directly to the shaft.

Field Poles

The field poles are formed of laminar steel as is described for the stator cores. The field poles are
attached to the spider by keys or bolts.

Field Coils
The field coils are wound of insulated copper wire or straps. As was described for the stator coils, the
field coils are extensively insulated.

Compiled By: Rimsha Asif

 Page 22 of 30

LESSON 4
Low-voltage Equipment

LESSON INTRODUCTION
This lesson describes the low-voltage equipment in the plant. Low-voltage is considered 220 volts or
less, and is either alternating or direct current.

Training in this subject is important because, as an operator, you should be knowledgeable of the
low-voltage systems and equipment that you will use to operate the plant.

In this lesson, you will learn about plant lighting systems. You will also learn about instrumentation
systems. In addition, you will learn about batteries.

You have learned in the previous lessons about high- and medium-voltage equipment and their
distribution systems. Most of the plant equipment is operated at these voltages. Some essential
equipment, however, is operated at low voltage. Your plant lighting system is a low-voltage user.

LIGHTING SYSTEMS
An adequate lighting system in any plant is critical for safe and efficient operation. Most indoor and
outdoor lighting systems are operated at about 220 or 110 volts AC.

Power from the 480-volt distribution system is stepped down in a transformer located in a load
centre or motor control centre. A low-voltage feeder line supplies panel boards from which non-
motor users can be fed. These are primarily plant lighting systems, but include 220-volt and 110-volt
service receptacles.

In addition to normal low-voltage AC control room lighting, plant building lighting, and outside area
lighting, an emergency lighting system must also be in place in the event of a power outage. Indoor
and outdoor emergency lights are generally powered by low (24- to 12-volt) voltage DC batteries.
These batteries would most likely be located in the MCCs and have dedicated conduit feeders to the
emergency lights. Battery chargers in the MCC convert incoming medium-voltage AC to low-voltage
DC power to provide a floating charge to backup batteries. In addition, each building probably has
self-contained, wall-mounted emergency lights.

Instrumentation systems are operated off of low voltage because of the sensitivity and low currents
involved. As an operator, you will be exposed to both low AC and DC instrumentation power
systems.

AC INSTRUMENTATION POWER SYSTEM

Most AC instrumentation systems are powered by a 110-volt AC source. The instrumentation power
system consists of 110-volt circuits dedicated to the control room or field instruments. These circuits
usually come from the motor control centre where 480-volt AC power is transformed to 110 volts.
This becomes a stable low-voltage source for the instrumentation and communication systems in
the plant.

Compiled By: Rimsha Asif

 Page 23 of 30

DC INSTRUMENTATION POWER SYSTEM

Most DC instrumentation systems also receive their power from the 480-volt AC motor control
centre. The incoming power is transformed to low-voltage (about 24 volts) DC power that feeds the
DC instruments. A battery charger maintains a constant charge on low-voltage (24 VDC) batteries
that serve as a backup power supply.

As an operator, you will use the instrumentation systems to control the process. Whether you are
operating controllers from the control room or the field, working at the CRT station, or programming
control circuits for the DCS, the equipment is energized by low-voltage power supplies.
Communication systems such as telephones, radios, and paging systems are also low-voltage
equipment.

You learned that batteries in the plant provide low-voltage power to different equipment. Batteries
offer an effective method for providing electricity “on demand” and are a means of storing “excess”
electrical energy. As an operator, it is good to have an understanding of how batteries work.

PRIMARY BATTERIES
Primary batteries are devices that produce electricity by means of chemical action. Primary batteries
ultimately stop working and must be discarded after one of their chemical components has been
used up. A primary battery may consist of one or several cells.

Most primary batteries use a paste electrolyte, and are referred to as “dry cells.” Commonly used
primary battery cell configurations include:

 Carbon-zinc cell. This cell uses a manganese dioxide/ammonium chloride electrolyte. This is a
common flashlight battery.

 Alkaline cell. A strong alkali solution of potassium hydroxide is used as the electrolyte. This cell
delivers sustained high currents more efficiently than a carbon-zinc cell, and lasts from five to
eight times as long.

 Mercury cell. This cell uses a cathode of mercuric oxide and an electrolyte of potassium
hydroxide. Unlike other primary cells, the voltage of a mercury cell remains constant until the
cathode material is completely depleted.

MAJOR COMPONENTS
The major components of a dry cell primary battery are the electrodes, electrolyte, and terminals.

Electrodes
Every dry cell primary battery has two electrodes that have opposite electrical charges. Each
electrode consists of a different kind of chemically active material. The anode in the battery is the
positive terminal that becomes negatively charged. The cathode is the negative terminal that
becomes positively charged.

Electrolyte
The electrolyte is the conducting material between the electrodes.

Compiled By: Rimsha Asif

 Page 24 of 30

Terminals
The terminals are the locations where the electrodes
connect to the outside circuit.

Figure 4-1
Carbon-zinc Dry Cell Battery

HOW IT WORKS
The carbon-zinc battery consists of a zinc container that functions as the anode, an electrolyte paste
of ammonium chloride, manganese dioxide, and water, and a carbon rod in the centre of the cell to
serve as the cathode current collector. The anode and cathode are separated by a porous material,
usually muslin or paper, to prevent the materials from mixing together.

Atoms of zinc at the surface of the electrode give up electrons and become positively charged zinc
ions. The zinc ions move away from the anode, leaving their electrons behind on the surface.
Consequently, the anode becomes more negatively charged than the cathode.

If the cell is connected to an external circuit, the excess electrons flow from the anode through the
circuit and re-enter the cell through the carbon rod. The electrons combine with the electrolyte
molecules in a chemical reaction which will occur until the electrolyte is consumed. After the zinc
cathode is used up, the cell can no longer generate energy, and is dead.

SECONDARY BATTERIES
Most secondary batteries use a liquid electrolyte and are referred to as “wet cells.” The most
common types of secondary batteries, also called accumulators, are:

 Lead-acid storage batteries. These batteries use lead and lead dioxide electrodes and a sulfuric
acid electrolyte.

 Nickel-cadmium storage batteries. These batteries

use a negative electrode of cadmium, a positive
electrode of nickel oxide, and a potassium hydroxide
solution for the electrolyte. Ni-cad batteries can be
sealed airtight, unlike lead-acid batteries, which must
be vented.

Figure 4-2
Lead-acid Storage Battery Cell

Compiled By: Rimsha Asif

 Page 25 of 30

HOW IT WORKS
Lead-acid storage batteries are made up of a series of cells. Each cell has a set of ribbed or lattice-
like electrodes (grids), the meshes of which are filled with spongy lead. The grids may be made of
lead-antimony alloy or of lead-calcium-tin alloy (maintenance-free batteries). These form the
negative electrode. A second set of grids filled with lead oxide form the positive electrode. Both
electrodes are immersed in an electrolyte of sulfuric acid and water.

When the battery discharges, atoms of pure lead at the negative electrode react with the
electrolyte, and free electrons flow from the negative electrode to the external circuit. They are
captured at the positive electrode by the molecules of lead dioxide.

The sulfuric acid electrolyte is continually consumed and water is produced during battery use.
Eventually, the sulfuric acid becomes so diluted that the necessary chemical reactions can no longer
occur. The battery can be become recharged, however, by passing a current through the battery in
the opposite direction. This action reverses the chemical reactions that occur when a battery
discharges and restores the electrode materials to their original form.

You learned that some of the low-voltage equipment in the plant is battery powered. Although both
dry and wet cell batteries are used in industry, you are more likely to find secondary battery cells
arranged in series or parallel circuits to provide the required DC current.

Compiled By: Rimsha Asif

 Page 26 of 30

LESSON 5
Electrical Measuring Devices

LESSON INTRODUCTION
This lesson describes electrical measuring devices. Although technicians in the electrical group are
most likely to be using these devices on a routine basis, it is good for all operators to have a
fundamental understanding of how they work.

Training in this subject is important because the use of these instruments is often necessary to solve
plant electrical problems by measuring the voltage and/or current in a circuit.

In this lesson, you will learn about voltmeters, ammeters, and the power factor.

The first measurement devices only indicated the presence of electricity, with no reliable indication
of quantity. In addition, the early devices measured static charge only. It was not until 1887 that the
first commercial voltmeter became available. Most voltmeters use the electromagnetic force in a
coil of wire carrying a current to move a pointer across a scale.

MOVING COIL GALVANOMETER

The moving coil galvanometer is the basis for many
measuring instruments. It consists of a flat, rectangular
coil of fine wire wound on a light metal frame and
suspended by a shaft between the poles of a powerful
magnet. A soft iron cylinder may be placed inside the
coil between the poles. A hair spring provides torque
to the shaft.

A moving coil galvanometer is shown in Figure 5-1.

Figure 5-1
Moving Coil Galvanometer

As current flows through the wire, the interaction of the magnetic fields deflects the coil from its
dormant position. The direction and amount of deflection depend on the direction and amount of
current flowing through the coil.

The restoring torque exerted on the coil by the suspension wire causes the coil to come to rest
quickly. A pointer attached to the top edge of the coil registers the coil deflection. A galvanometer
shows the existence of a potential difference, the direction of current flow, and its amplitude.

The advantages of a galvanometer include that it:

 Is unaffected by external magnetic fields because of the proximity of the strong internal
magnet

 Does not have to be aligned in any definite direction

Compiled By: Rimsha Asif

 Page 27 of 30

 Has a uniform scale, since the angle of deflection is directly proportional to the current

 Comes to rest quickly

MEASURING VOLTAGE
The principle of the galvanometer is used in the operation
of a voltmeter. Voltmeters measure the electric potential
difference between two points in a circuit in volts. A
voltmeter is always placed in parallel with the part of the
circuit to be measured. It is undesirable for the voltmeter
to draw current from the circuit when making a
measurement. Therefore, the voltmeter must have a very
high resistance when compared with the circuit portion
it is measuring.

Figure 5-2
Voltmeter

Commercial voltmeters are actually galvanometers connected in series with a high resistance.

It is often necessary to measure the current flow in a circuit. Current flow can tell a trouble-shooter
if a motor is overloaded. It can also be used to determine if electrical wires are overloaded due to an
undesirable low resistance or short circuit. It may also suggest that circuit breakers or fuses need to
be changed for adequate protection.

MEASURING CURRENT
Instruments that measure current flow in a circuit are
called ammeters and measure the flow in amperage
or amps. As with the voltmeter, the ammeter
incorporates the operating principle of the galvanometer.

Figure 5-3
Ammeter

Since ammeters measure the current flow in a circuit, they must be inserted into the circuit
in series as shown. To keep from disturbing the circuit, the ammeter must have a very low
resistance. Typically, a commercial ammeter consists of a galvanometer provided with a precision,
low-value resistor called a shunt connected in parallel with the galvanometer. This permits a known
fraction of the circuit current to go around the meter, giving the meter greater range and accuracy.

Compiled By: Rimsha Asif

 Page 28 of 30

You have learned about electrical potential (voltage) and electrical flow (current), and the
relationships between the two. Electricity, however, is purchased from the utility company in terms
of power. Whether it is measured at the power meter at your home or in the main substation at
your plant, the consumer buys power.

MEASURING POWER
Power is the rate of doing work. It is measured in watts or kilowatts, and is mathematically
expressed as the product of voltage and current. Thus, in any electric circuit, the power, or energy
consumed (and billed for), is equal to the volts in the circuit times the amps in the circuit for a given
period of time.

The dynamometer is an instrument that measures power consumption by measuring both voltage
and current simultaneously. The dynamometer consists of two coils, one fixed and one free to
rotate. One coil is engaged by the current in the circuit and the other by the voltage. The interaction
of the two coils produces a moving magnetic field around a light aluminium disc which is free to spin.
The small currents produced in the conductive disc cause it to rotate. The speed of the rotation is
proportional to the strength of the two fields, which is a measure of the power being consumed.

If a counter is added, power consumption over a period of time can be recorded. Because of the
interaction between the two coils, this device works equally well for alternating or direct current
power measurements. To observe a dynamometer in action, watch the electric meter at your home
for a few minutes, and see the kilowatts of power consumed add up. Industrial facilities have similar
meters that also measure power consumed.

POWER FACTOR
Most of the power consumed in operating plants is provided by three-phase, AC circuits. In an AC
circuit, voltage and current are usually not in phase. This condition results in system inefficiencies
and wasted power. A term called the power factor is used to determine the power costs at your
plant. The power factor is the ratio of the measured “actual” power consumed in watts divided by
the “apparent” power available for use, measured in volt-amps.

A plant that contains a lot of induction motors will have a low power factor and consequently,
considerable wasted energy. In fact, utility companies apply severe cost penalties to plants that have
low power factors. In recent years, plants have attempted to increase their operating power factor
as near as possible to the optimum, which is 1.0.

You may have heard of or seen capacitors in your plant. Capacitors are electrical equipment
components that are installed in the plant to improve the power factor and lower the monthly
electric bill. Capacitors have the ability to store electricity and correct the out-of-phase condition
between voltage and current in AC circuits.

Capacitors may be installed in strategic locations in the plant. An optimum location might be on the
feeder line to a large motor to increase its individual efficiency. Many plants have capacitors on their
main feeder lines to different operating areas to increase the overall efficiency. In any case, the use
of capacitors results in an improved power factor and greater plant efficiency

Compiled By: Rimsha Asif

 Page 29 of 30

Module Conclusion

In this module, you learned about electricity and electrical systems. You also
learned about high-voltage, medium-voltage, and low-voltage electrical
equipment. Finally, you learned about electrical measuring devices.

Glossary

ALTERNATING CURRENT
Electric current that reverses direction periodically, usually many times per second. Abbreviated AC.

AMPERE
The unit of current in the mks system.

AMPLITUDE
The maximum departure of the value of an alternating current or other waveform from its average
value.

ANODE
The terminal at which current enters a primary cell or storage battery.

ARMATURE
The movable part of an electromagnetic device, such as a relay or motor.

BATTERY
A direct-current voltage source consisting of one or more units that convert chemical energy into
electrical energy.

BUS-BAR
A heavy, rigid, metallic conductor, usually uninsulated, used to carry a large current or to make a
common connection between several circuits.

CATHODE
The terminal at which current leaves a primary cell or storage battery.

COGENERATION
The simultaneous on-site generation of electricity and either heat or steam from the same facility.

CONDUCTIVITY
The ratio of the current density to the electric field in a material. It is a measure of the ability of the
material to conduct electricity.

Compiled By: Rimsha Asif

 Page 30 of 30

CONDUIT
Tubing through which insulated wires are run.

DIRECT CURRENT
Electric current that flows in one direction only. Abbreviated DC.

ELECTROMAGNET
A magnet consisting of a coil wound around a soft iron core. The core is strongly magnetized when
current flows through the coil, and is almost completely demagnetized when the current is
interrupted.

INSULATOR
A device or material having high electrical resistance, and therefore suitable for separating electrical
conductors.

MAGNETIC FIELD
The portion of space near a magnetic body or a current-carrying body in which the magnetic forces
due to the body or to the current can be detected.

PARALLEL CIRCUIT
A circuit having multiple branches connected between the same two end points (terminals).

POWER FACTOR
The ratio of the average power to the apparent power in an AC circuit.

PRIMARY WINDING
The input side of a transformer.

ROTOR
The rotating member of an electrical machine or device.

SECONDARY WINDING
A transformer winding that receives energy by electromagnetic induction from the primary
winding. A transformer may have several secondary windings.

SERIES CIRCUIT
An arrangement of circuit components end-to-end to form a single path for current.

SHUNT
An electrical path placed around (in parallel with) a circuit component.

STATOR
A stationary machine part in or about which a motor runs.

SWITCH
A manually or mechanically actuated device for making, breaking, or changing the connections in an
electric circuit.

VOLT
The unit of potential difference in the mks system.

X………………………………….............……X……………..……………………………………X

Compiled By: Rimsha Asif