© INABB/CTR ( 1 )

Tuesday, November 21, 2017

and Potential
Transformers
Ferroresonance
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What is happening here?
• A case reported in 1980, at a substation near Kanpur:

– A 220kV Air blast circuit breaker is opened, completely discharging the

220 kV Bus.
– The bus PT still shows a voltage even higher than the normal rated
voltage.

CB Open
– Is something wrong with
Breaker? 220kV
– Or is it problem with PT?
– Is it something else?
> 220kV
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What is happening here?
• A case reported at Manitoba-Hydro, Canada
– One line of double circuit tower is terminated to unloaded transformer.
– The neighboring line is at full load condition.
– The unloaded transformer sees high voltage, with very severe voltage
distortion.

Un-energized
CB open Line Loaded Line

• Another case reported at Manitoba-Hydro, Canada

– 72 numbers of Potential transformers failed in a single instant, due to
unexplained overvoltages
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Ferroresonance
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Ferroresonance

• The term “Ferro-resonance” first appeared in the literature in 1920s.

• It refers to all oscillating phenomena occurring in an electric circuit

which must contain at least:

– A non-linear inductance

• ferromagnetic and saturable

– A capacitor

– A voltage source

• (generally sinusoidal)

– Low losses

• Transformer on no load, Measuring instruments with low burden

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Components responsible for

ferroresonance
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Saturable Inductance

• Power networks have large number of saturable inductances

– Power transformer

– Voltage measurement transformers (PT and CVT)

– Shunt reactors

• Saturable inductance cannot be avoided because

– Saturation is inherent property of all iron core material

– Better utilization of material can be obtained by having working flux

density near to saturation point

– Air core reactor design will result in large size and is not always
practical.
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– Saturation depends on various parameters.

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Effect of Low Frequency on core magnetization
• It can be seen from the famous transformer formula.
E=4.44ffN
• If the system frequency goes down the flux increases by same proportion.
• So for the same excitation voltage if frequency goes down to 32 Hz.
i.e. 32/50 = 0.64, the flux rises by 1/0.64, i.e. 156.25%
• This increase is greater than 120% so the core is driven into saturation.
• The figure below compares the two magnetization curves.

Excitation curve

2
Induced voltage in pu

1.5

0.5

0
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0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Magnetising current in %

normal condition 156% Over excited

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Capacitance

• Power networks also have large number of capacitance

– Cables

– Long lines

– Capacitance of bus, bus post insulators, string insulators etc.

– Capacitor voltage transformers

– Series or shunt capacitor banks

– Voltage grading capacitors in circuit-breakers

– Metal-clad substation
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Main Features of
ferroresonance
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Properties of Ferroresonance

• Many stable steady state responses are possible for the same set of
the network parameters.

– A steady state response is the voltage or current that continues at

same magnitude for a long time, after the transients die.

• Transients like

– Lightning over voltages

– Energizing or de-energizing of transformers or loads

– Occurrence or removal of faults

– Live works etc.

Can initiates ferroresonance.

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Properties of Ferroresonance

Sample circuit for PT ferroresonance

• The circuit breaker is opened at one instant and the voltage across
the PT is measured.
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• The plots of the voltage waveforms is shown in the next slide.

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Properties of Ferroresonance
• The response can suddenly jump from one normal steady state
response to an another ferroresonant steady state response.

Normal steady state response

Ferroresonant steady state response

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Features of Ferroresonance

• The ferroresonant steady state response is characterized by presence

of:
– High overvoltages
– High harmonic levels
• This may lead to:
– Untimely tripping of protection devices, due to overvoltages.
– Destruction of equipment such as power transformers or voltage
transformers
• Current through the windings and leakage current through the
insulation increases due to increase in voltage.
• This leads to increase in winding and insulation temperature.
• Causing HV insulation failure due to thermal runaway.
– Production losses
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– Unusual noises from transformers

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Dealing with ferroresonance

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Dealing with ferroresonance

• To prevent the consequences of ferroresonance it is necessary to:

– Understand the phenomenon,

– Predict it,

– Identify it,

– Avoid or eliminate it.

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Understanding
ferroresonance
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Understanding ferroresonance

• To understand ferroresonance it is important to draw a distinction

between
– Linear (normal) resonance
– Ferroresonance

• Resonance
– Resonance is a phenomenon encountered on electrical power system
of all voltage levels.
– It occurs between linear inductance and capacitance
– It can be classified into series resonance and parallel resonance
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Examples of Resonance
• The resonant testing system
– This is used for high voltage testing of highly capacitive test objects
– It uses series resonance for obtaining high voltage across the test object, with
low voltage source
• Harmonic filters
– Band pass and high pass passive filters use series resonance
– At the tuned frequency the impedance of filter is minimum, grounding all the
current of that frequency.
• Peterson Coil for neutral grounding
– This uses parallel resonance to reduce the ungrounded system fault current
• LC tuning circuit for radio receivers
– All types of radio receivers uses parallel resonant LC tank circuits for tuning to a
particular frequency.
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Resonance

IL
VC VL IC
Series Resonant Circuit

• The series resonance occurs when the voltage

drop across the inductor is completely
compensated by that across the capacitor.
| VL| = | VC| Parallel Resonant
Circuit
• The parallel resonance occurs when the current
through the inductor is completely compensated
by the that through the capacitor.
| IL| = | IC|
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Series Resonance
• Characteristics of series resonance
– At resonance the power factor is exactly unity.
– The impedance of the complete circuit is at minimum.
– Current through the circuit is very large.
– Large voltage across individual L and C. This voltage can be many
times greater than the supply voltage.
• For example
– Consider series resonant circuit with parameters
– R=1 Ohms
– L= 100 mH VC VL
– C= 101.32 microF Series Resonant Circuit
– 50 Hz Supply voltage of 100 V
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Series Resonance
• The inductive and capacitive impedance are
– XL = 2*pi*50*L = 31.45 Ohms
– XC = 1/(2*pi*50*C) = 31.45 Ohms
– So the circuit is at series resonance at 50 Hz frequency.
• The current through whole circuit
– I = V/Z = V/(R + j(XL-XC)) = 100 Amp.
• The voltage drop across inductor and capacitor
– VL = I*XL = 100 * 31.45 = 3145 V
– VC = I*XC = 100 * 31.45 = 3145 V
• As can be seen here the current through the inductor and capacitance
is high, and the voltage across the L and C is very high compared to
the supply voltage.
– Normally any equipment is not rated to sustain this much high voltage
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and current for long, and may fail eventually.

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Parallel Resonance
• Characteristics of parallel resonance
– At resonance the power factor is exactly unity.
– The impedance of the complete circuit is at maximum.
– Current through the circuit is very small.
– Large current through individual L and C. IL
IC
This current can be many times greater
than the current supplied by source.
• For example
– Consider series resonant circuit with parameters
– R=1 Ohms
– L= 100 mH
Parallel Resonant
– C= 101.32 microF
Circuit
– 50 Hz Supply voltage of 100 V
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Parallel Resonance
• The inductive and capacitive impedance are
– XL = 2*pi*50*L = 31.45 Ohms
– XC= 1/2*pi*50*C = 31.45 Ohms
– So the circuit is at series resonance at 50 Hz frequency.
• The current through whole circuit
– I = V/Z = 100/((R + jXL) ||1/XC) = 0.1013 Amp.
• The currents through inductor and capacitor
– IC = I*XC = 100/ 31.45 = 3.18 A
– IL = IC = 3.18 A
• As can be seen here the current through the inductor and capacitance
is high compared to the current supplied by the source.
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Linear Resonance

• As seen previously the resonance can cause heavy current and

voltage across the circuit elements.

• These voltage and current can be much higher than the normal

capability of the supply circuit, and may prove hazardous.

• However, these conditions can occur only for a one particular

frequency called ‘Resonance Frequency’, so it has only one steady

state response.

• Linear resonance is quite predictable and thus can be avoided though

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proper system design.

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Ferroresonance

• The linear resonance case can occur for circuit having linear portions

of inductances.

• If a circuit has any non linear inductance connected, then there is a

possibility of ferroresonance.

• The behavior of the circuit changes dramatically, but the major

characteristics of resonance like over voltage and high current are

still exhibited in the ferroresonant circuit.

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Ferroresonant Circuits
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Ferroresonant circuits
• The main differences between a ferroresonant circuit and a linear
resonant circuit are
– The ferroresonant circuit can have possibility of resonance in a wide
range of values of C.
– The frequency of the voltage and current waves during resonance may
be different from that of the sinusoidal voltage source.
– The existence of several stable steady state responses for a given
configuration and values of parameters.
– One of the several states is the expected ‘normal’ state, and other are
‘abnormal’ ferroresonant states.
– Initial conditions determine which steady state response will result.
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Simple ferroresonant circuit

• Consider the simple circuit given above

– The inductor is a saturable type, its saturation characteristics is shown
in the adjacent figure.
• Saturated inductance (Ls) is much smaller than linear inductance (L).
– The losses (Resistance) are considered negligible.
– The voltage at the capacitance at time t = t0 is considered to be V0.
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– At instant t0, the switch K is closed.

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Simple Ferroresonant circuit
• When the switch is closed the current is established in the circuit
– The frequency of the current is given by expression

w1 = 1/ Ö(L*C)
– The flux in the coil and voltage across the capacitor is given by

Φ= (Vo/ w1)*sin(w1*t)

v = Vo*cos(w1*t)

– If Vo/ w1 is less than Φsat, then the

inductor behaves as a linear
element.
– The current and voltage are
sinusoidal with frequency equal to
w1
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Simple Ferroresonant circuit
• When the switch is closed the current is established in the circuit
– The frequency of the current is given by expression

w1 = 1/ (L*C)^0.5
– The flux in the coil and voltage across the capacitor is given by

Φ= (Vo/ w1)*sin(w1*t)

v = Vo*cos(w1*t)

– If Vo/ w1 is greater than Φsat, then the

inductor is driven into saturation.
– The inductance of the saturated reactor
becomes Ls.
– Ls is very small compared to L,
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Simple Ferroresonant circuit
– The capacitor suddenly ‘discharges’ across the reactor with pulse of
frequency

w2 = 1/ (Ls*C)^0.5
– After some time the flux return to a value less than the saturation point,
the reactor reassumes inductance value L, and further oscillations at
frequency of w1.
– The frequency during saturation is greater than the frequency during
linear region,

w2 > w1
– The voltage waveform is trapezoidal, and current waveform is peaky.

– The resultant oscillation frequency is in between w2 and w1

w1 <w< w2
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Waveforms of simple ferroresonant circuit

Voltage across capacitor

Current through inductor

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Flux
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Simple ferroresonant circuit

• The initial frequency depends on saturation point (i.e. degree of non

linearity) and the initial conditions Vo.

• In practice due to losses in the resistance of the circuit, the amplitude

of oscillation voltage goes on reducing.

• This also reduces the overall frequency of oscillations.

• If the energy losses are supplied by the voltage source in the system,
the frequency of the oscillations can lock at the frequency of source
or at a sub-multiple frequency.

• This shows that unlike linear resonance, for a given inductance,

resonance can occur for a wide range of values of C.
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Characteristics of
ferroresonance
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Main characteristics of ferroresonance

Basic series ferroresonance circuit

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Main characteristics of ferroresonance
• Figures in previous show the basic series ferroresonance circuit
• Sensitivity to system parameter values
– This figure gives peak value of voltage across reactor as a function of
amplitude E of sinusoidal supply voltage.
– There is unique solution for the circuit at source voltage of E1.
– For E = E2, there are three solutions
(M2n, M2i, M2f). M2n corresponds to
normal steady state solution, M2f
corresponds to ferroresonant state
and M2i is unstable solution.
– For E = E3 there is only one solution,
corresponding to ferroresonant state.
Sensitivity to system parameters
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Main characteristics of ferroresonance

Sensitivity to system parameters

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Main characteristics of ferroresonance
• Sensitivity to initial conditions
– If the supply voltage lies between E2” and E2’ then whether the normal
state is reached of the ferroresonant state is reached depends on the
initial conditions.
– This figure gives trajectories of pair of flux
and voltage across capacitor as a function
of time for different initial conditions.
– Curve C describes boundary.
– If the initial flux and capacitor charge
are less, then a normal state is reached,
and if they are greater than the boundary,
then the ferroresonant state is reached. Sensitivity to initial condition
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Classification of ferroresonant modes

Fundamental Mode Sub-harmonic Mode

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Quasi-periodic Mode Chaotic Mode

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Classification of ferroresonant modes

• The steady state ferroresonant modes are classified into four

categories.

– Fundamental mode

– Sub-harmonic mode

– Quasi-periodic mode

– Chaotic mode

• These modes can be identified by the waveforms or frequency

spectrum of the current and voltage signals.

• Fundamental and sub-harmonic are the most commonly exhibited

modes, while the other modes are rare.
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Identifying
Ferroresonance
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Identifying ferroresonance
• The ferroresonant high voltage with different frequency components
affect the system and equipment in various ways.
• Ferroresonance is identified by the symptoms like:
– High permanent overvoltages between phase to phase and phase to
earth
– High permanent overcurrents
– High permanent distortion of voltage and current waveforms
– Displacement of the neutral point voltage
– Transformer heating in no-load operation
– Continuous, excessive loud noise in transformers and reactors
– Damage of electrical equipment due to thermal effect and insulation
breakdown.
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Practical situations
necessary for
ferroresonance
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Conditions necessary for ferroresonance
• Before we go on to see the conditions favorable to ferroresonance, we
must identify the situations which are absolutely necessary (but not
sufficient) for ferroresonance to be present
– Simultaneous presence of capacitance with non linear inductances
– Existence of at least one point in the system, whose potential is not
fixed.
– Isolated neutral
– single fuse blowing
– single phase switching etc.
– Lightly loaded system components
– Unloaded power transformers
– PT or CVT with low burden connected
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Practical situations favorable

for ferroresonance
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Conditions favorable for ferroresonance
• Some of the typical configuration that may lead to ferroresonance are
listed here
– Voltage transformer energized through grading capacitance of open
circuit breaker.

Ferroresonance in voltage transformer

due to grading capacitance
– Experience have shown that the source delivers enough energy
through the grading capacitance to sustain the ferroresonance
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– The mode of oscillations is generally sub-harmonic type

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Conditions favorable for ferroresonance
• Voltage transformers connected to an isolated neutral system
– The isolated neutral system can be resulted for accidental opening of
system earth.
– Any transients like faults,
load rejection or fault
clearing can initiate
ferroresonance.
– The parallel
ferroresonance can result
in neutral voltage
displacement, phase- Ferroresonance in PT due to isolated
phase and phase - earth neutral
overvoltages.
– Depending on the relative values of the magnetizing inductance of
the VT and the capacitance C0, ferroresonance is fundamental, sub-
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harmonic or quasi-periodic.
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Conditions favorable for ferroresonance

• Transformer accidentally energized in only one or two phases.

– This condition can occur due to fuse blowing, or conductor snaping or

during commissioning of remote controlled breakers.

– The line capacitance, phase -to- phase and phase -to- earth

capacitance, transformer winding configurations, core configuration,

voltage source earthing and the energized phases etc. are all factors

affecting which ferroresonant mode results.

– Even a small loading of the transformer and use of three phase opening

device will prevent this type of ferroresonance.

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Conditions favorable for ferroresonance
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Unbalanced systems at risk from ferroresonance

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Conditions favorable for ferroresonance
• Voltage transformers and HV/MV transformers with isolated neutral
– Ferroresonance may occur when the HV and MV neutrals are isolated
and unloaded PTs are connected on MV side between phase and
earth.
– When an earth fault occurs on HV side the HV neutral rise to high
potential. The overvoltages appear of secondary side due to capacitive
effect and may trigger ferroresonance.
– This type of ferroresonance is of fundamental type.
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Conditions favorable for ferroresonance

PT with unearthed HV/MV transformer

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Equivalent Circuit of above network

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Conditions favorable for ferroresonance
• Power system earthed through a reactor
In applications like:-
• fault limiting neutral grounding reactor or a Petersen coil
• conditions of heavy fault through the HV neutral
can lead to a sustained ferroresonance because of
• transformer design asymmetry or
• natural asymmetry of the capacitance to earth
.
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Resonant earthing system

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Conditions favorable for ferroresonance
• Transformer supplied by a highly capacitive power system with low
short-circuit power
– This case is an example of underground cable urban or industrial power
network.
– Ferroresonance can occur when an unloaded power transformer is
suddenly connected to weak supply.
– The mode can be fundamental or quasi-periodic type.

Equivalent diagram of unloaded power transformer

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supplied by a capacitive system

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Preventing or damping
ferroresonance
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General methods for preventing ferroresonance

• The various methods used are based on the following principles

– Avoid configurations susceptible to ferroresonance, through proper

design and proper switching operations.

– Provide a safety margin to ensure that system parameters are in the

low risk area.

– Ensure the energy supplied by the source is not sufficient to sustain the
phenomenon.
– This technique normally consists of introducing losses which damp out
ferroresonance.
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Practical solutions for preventing ferroresonance

• The general methods described earlier can be applied in practice as

given below

– In isolated neutral systems, the wye-connected PT primaries should not

be earthed or a delta-connection of PTs should be used.

Ungrounded
neutral
system

Potential
transformer
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Practical solutions for preventing ferroresonance

• If wye-connected primaries with earthed neutral is used in an isolated

neutral system, then
• Use design measures to make magnetic core at low flux density of around
4000 to 6000 gauss.

• Introduce losses by means of low resistance extra burden, to effectively

damp the phenomenon.

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Practical solutions for preventing ferroresonance
• The following method can be used to compute load resistance values
– In case of PT with one secondary winding
– A damping resistor R is connected to the secondary of each PT.
– In this case the resistors continuously absorb power.
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Protection against risk of

ferroresonance in PT
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Practical solutions for preventing ferroresonance
• In the case of PTs with two secondary windings, it is advisable to use
the extra winding for connecting resistors in open-delta configuration
• The advantage of this is that it does not affect any errors or introduce
the losses in normal operating condition.
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Protection against ferroresonance

in case of PT with two secondary
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Practical solutions for preventing ferroresonance
• To prevent ferroresonance occurring on a transformer the practical
solutions consists of:
– Lowering the value of capacitance between the breaker and transformer
below its critical value by using CB cubicle closer to transformer
– Avoiding use of transformers delivering an active power lower than 10% of
its rated value
– Avoiding no load energizing
– Prohibiting single phase operations or fuse protections.
– Prohibiting live work on cable-transformer assembly.
– Resistance earthing on supply substation neutral
– Solidly earthing of wye connected transformer primary
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Practical solutions for preventing ferroresonance

• In case of MV power system earthed through a reactor

– The coil inductance can be increased to over compensate the power
frequency earth fault capacitance
– Add a resistive component to increase Petersen coil losses.
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Analysis of
ferroresonance
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Conclusion
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Conclusion

• The risk of ferroresonance must be taken into considerations at early

design stage.
• Vigilance is required during operations and knowledge of dangerous
configurations proves useful.
• To guard against dangerous configurations and employ the damping
measures.
• Finally:
It should be understood that not all unexplainable breakdowns
can be ascribed to this phenomenon!
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For Further Reading

• Cahier Technique no. 190 – Ferroresonance

• Failure of electromagnetic voltage transformer due to sustained over
voltage on switching – an indepth field investigation and analytical
study, IEEE trans. PAS 100, No. 11, by R.P.Aggarwal et.al
• Cadick Corporation, Technical Bulletin – 004a Ferroresonance
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