A Short Reference Grammar of Gulf Arabic PDF

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A SHORT REFERENCE GRAMMAR

OF GULF ARABIC
V
-"—*«H
Acknowledgments
Tucson and Abu Dhabi for their intelligence, patience, humor, and
warm hospitality. To Mr. Carl N. Hodges, Director of The University
of Arizona Environmental Research Laboratory and the resident
staff members of the Arid Lands Research Center in Abu Dhabi for
their steady interest and encouragement. Last, but not least, my CONTENTS
hearty thanks go to the Head of the Department of Oriental Studies
and the Dean of the College of- Liberal Arts of The University of
Arizona for having provided adequate office facilities and released Page
time needed for the completion of the project.
INTRODUCTION xvii
TRANSCRIPTION xxi
H.A.Q.
PART ONE
THE PHONOLOGY O F GULF ARABIC
Tucson, Arizona
Diagram I - CONSONANTS
Digram II - VOWELS
1. CONSONANTS
1.1 Stops 5
1.2 Fricatives 8
1.3 Affricates 12
1.4 Nasals 13
1.5 Laterals 14
1.6 Flap 14
1.7 Semivowels 15
2. VOWELS 15
3. SOUND COMBINATIONS . 19
3.1 Diphthongs 19
3.2 Consonant Ousters 21
3.2.1 Double Consonants 21
3.2.2 Two-Consonant Clusters 22
3.2.3 Three-Consonant Clusters 24
4. MAJOR SOUND CHANGES 24
4.1 The Helping Vowel/" 24
4.2 Assimilation 26
4.3 Elision 27
4.3.1 Vowel Elision 27
4.3.2 Consonant Elision 29
4.4 Pharyfigealization 29
5. STRESS 30
(U/nienis
8.2 Instance Nouns 81
PART TWO 8.3 Unit Nouns 83
THE MORPHOLOGY O F GULF ARABIC 8.4 Feminine Nouns 85
6. VERBS-DERIVATION 39 8.5 Participles as Nouns 87
6.1 Simple Verbs 39 8.6 Occupational Nouns 87
6.1.1 Sound Verbs *39 8.7 Instrumental Nouns 88
6.1.2 Weak Verbs 40 8.8 Locative Nouns 89
6.1.3 Doubled Verbs 41 8.9 Diminutive Nouns 90
6.2 Derived Verbs 41 8.10 Foreign Nouns 93
6.2.1'Class II 41 9. NOUNS-INFLECTION 96
6.2.2 Class III 43 9.1 Gender 96
6.2.3 Class IV 43 9.2 Number 99
6.2.4 Class V 44 9.2.1 Singular 99
6.2.5 Class VI 45 9.2.2 Dual 100
6.2.6 Class,VII 46 9.2.3 Plural 102
6.2.7 Class VIII 47 9.3 Nunation 115
6.2.8 Class IX 48
10. NOUN MODIFIERS 116
6.2.9 Class X 48
6.3 Quadriliteral Verbs 49 10.1 Construct Phrases 116
7. VERBS-INFLECTION 10.1.1 Ordinary Noun Constructs 118
51
10.1.2 Verb-Derived Noun Constructs 120
7.1 Perfect Tense 51 10.2 Elative Constructs 122
7.1.1 Sound Verbs 51 10.3 The Determiner System 123
7.1.2 Weak Verbs 54 10.3.1 The Article Prefix 123
7.1.3 Doubled Verbs 57 10.3.2 Quantifiers 123
7.2 Imperfect Tense 58 10.3.3 Intensifiers 133
7.2.1 Sound Verbs 58 10.3.4 Demonstratives 134
7.2.2 Weak Verbs 66 10.4 Participles 135
7.2.3 Doubled Verbs 71 10.4.1 Active Participle 136
8. NOUNS-DERIVATION 74 10A2 Passive Participle 144
8.1 Verbal Nouns 74 10.5 Adjectives 146
8.1.1 Class I 74 10.5.1 Derivation 146
8.1.2 Class II 77 10.5.2 Inflection 153
8.1.3 Class III 77 11. PRONOUNS 158
8.1.4 Class IV 77 11.1 Independent Pronouns 158
8.1.5 Class V 78
11.2 Suffixed Pronouns 160
8.1.6 Class VI 78 11.3 Demonstrative Pronouns 171
8.1.7 Class VII 78
8.1.8 Class VIII 79 12. PARTICLES 172
8.1.9 Class IX 80 12.1 Interrogatives 172
8.1.10 Class X 80 12.2 Prepositions 175
8.1.11 Quadriliterals 81
^
*ma
xiv Contents Contents xv
17. CONCORD 232

12.3 Conjunctions 181
12.3.1 Coordinating Conjunctions 181 17.1 Adjectives 232
12.3.2 Subordinating Conjunctions 182 17.1.1 Positive Adjectives 232
12.4 Adverbs 187 17.1.2 Elative Adjectives 235
12.5 Other Particles 190 17.2 Pronouns and Verbs 235
18. NEGATION 238
PART THREE
T H E S Y N T A X O F G U L F ARABIC 18.1 Negating Verbs 238
18.1.1 Perfect and Imperfect 238
13. MAJOR SENTENCE TYPES 197 240
18.1.2 Negating Pseudo-Verbs
13.1 Nominal Sentences 197 18.1.3 Negating Imperatives 241
13.2 Pseudo-Verbal Sentences 200 18.2 Negating Other Parts of Speech 242
13.3 Verbal Sentences 202
13.4 Topical Sentences 204 PART FOUR
13.5 Conditional Sentences 205 TEXTS
13.5.1 Open Conditionals 206 247
TEXT I
13.5.2 Unlikely Conditionals 206
13.5.3 Unreal Conditionals 207 TRANSLATION I 248
14. CLAUSES TEXT II 249
209
14.1 Noun Clauses 209 TRANSLATION II 251
14.2 Relative Clauses 210 TEXT III 254
14.3 Haal Clauses 216 254
TRANSLATION III
15. MAJOR PHRASE TYPES 217 255
TEXT IV
15.1 Noun Phrases 217 256
TRANSLATION IV
15.1.1 JV+Nf+N + N . . . ) 217
TEXT AND TRANSLATION V 257
15.1.2 7V(+N) + Adj(+Adj...) 218
15.1.3 Quantifier + W 219
15.1.4 AT+Adj. + N 221 APPENDICES AND BIBLIOGRAPHY
15.1.5 N+ Participle + N 221 263
APPENDIX I
15.1.6 N + Prepositional Phrase 222
1. f-*y
15.1.7 N+s- 222
2. j^-y or j
15.2 Adjective Phrases 222
15.3 Adverb Phrases 223 3./-/
15.3.1 Time 223 APPENDIX II 265
15.3.2 Place 223 1. q-^joxg
15.3.3 Haal 223 2. q-*g
16. VERB STRINGS 3. g-*q
224
APPENDIX III 267
16.1 dall, soar 224
1. k-*c
16.2 baga, raad, gaddr, Haawal, jarrab 226
2. k-*k
16.3 ga9ad,gaam '227
16.4 laazim 230
^ .^
XVI Contents
APPENDIX IV 269
CVd C2i •* CCj VC2
APPENDIX V 271
CVCjC2 -^C t VC 2 INTRODUCTION
BIBLIOGRAPHY 273
1. Preliminary
The language which the present work defines is to be commonly

known as Gulf Arabic: it is t h e language used in informal situations
by the indigenous populations of Bahrain, Qatar, and the United
Arab Emirates of Abu Dhabi, Dubai, Sharja, Ajman, Umm
al-Qaiwain, Ras al-Khaima, and Fujaira. These territories have much
in common. Geographically, they lie on the southern coast of the
Gulf. Most of them lare coastal settlements, although some, such as
Ajman, are inland territorial enclaves which presumably originated
from settlements around watering places and summer gathering
centers of nomads. Historically, the whole area came into the orbit
of European influence in the sixteenth century, when the Portuguese
established settlements for their trading ports. In the eighteenth
century, traders from Holland, France, and Britain began vigorously
to attack the Portuguese monopoly. Dutch predominance was
gradually overtaken by the British in the late eighteenth century.
Britain became paramount in the area, and the Gulf became an
important,link in the chain of her communications with India. In
1853 the rulers of the Shaikhdoms signed a treaty in which they
agreed tb the cessation of plunder, raids, and piracy. The most recent
developments in the Gulf are the formation of the United Arab
Emirates, the establishment of a U.S. naval base in Bahrain, and the
opening of American embassies and consulates in the U.A.E.,
Bahrain, and Qatar. Socially, the indigenous populations of the Gulf
states is made up of Arabs. A high degree of mutual intelligibility
exists among the dialects of these states. There, are differences, of
course, but " t h e fact that these differences exist, however, should
not be allowed to obscure the fact of their essential unity as a dialect
group." (T.M. Johnstone, Eastern Arabian Dialects, London: Oxford
University Press, 1967, p. 18.)
XVUI Introduction Introduction xix
2. Summary of Relevant Studies which is a basic language course based on the dialect 'of Abu Dhabi,
U.A.E., as modified by the dialects of Bahrain, and Qatar. It
Much has been written on the history and politics of the Gulf
comprises forty-two "lessons .from spontaneous conversations of
area; a few linguistic studies have been published, but almost nothing
unsophisticated Gulf Arabs. The dialogs cover a wide variety of
of the scope of the present work has been previously attempted or
interests, such as greetings, getting acquainted, directions, shopping,
published. BASIC GULF ARABIC (by this.author), based on the
banking, mailing letters, etc.
dialect of Abu Dhabi, was first published by The University of
Linguistic studies of t the related dialects are rather better
Arizona Environmental Research Laboratory and later by Khayats,
represented. Cantineau's "Etudes sur quelques parlers de nomades
Beirut, Lebanon1, 1970. It was" written while the author was
arabes d'Orient," Annales de I'Instituit d'Etudes Orientates d'Alger, ii
Linguistics Specialist and Training Director of the Abu Dhabi
(1936), 1-118'and iii (1937); 119-237. These studies give a detailed
Program, which The University of Arizona administers in Tucson and
phonological and a useful morphological analysis of a large number
in Abu Dhabi. This book was intended to serve the specific language
of dialects of different Bedouin groups. A more recent work is that
needs of The University of Arizona Environmental Research
of T.M. Johnstone, Eastern Arabian Dialects, London: O.U. Press,
Laboratory staff. The kind of Arabic described in this textbook is
1967. Cantineau's work lacks a modern linguistic treatment and
basically that of Abu Dhabi, modified by contact with the speech of
reflects theory and practice of 35 years ago; Johnston's is a more
Arab immigrants-Palestinians, Lebanese, Syrians, Iraqis, etc.
scientific work, but it is limited in scope, fragmented and repetitious
Designed with practical and specific goals in mind, this textbook
in presentation. Furthermore, it does not bear directly on the present
provides the learner with approximately 600 vocabulary items, of
work, as it is not a description of the present urban semi-educated
which 100 are specialized terms of importance to project members.
and unsophisticated Gulf Arab. A Short Reference Grammar of Iraqi
The topics ardund which the dialogs are centered partially serve the
Arabic by Wallace M. Erwin and A Reference 'Grammar of Syrian
needs of people with a wide variety'of interests.
Arabic by Mark C. Cowell were useful in setting up grammatical
Some textbooks have been prepared by the oil companies for
categories.
the use of their personnel. The Bahrain Petroleum Company has
It is hoped that t h e present study would contribute to future
producerj a 'Handbook for the Spoken Arabic of Bahrain (n.d. or
studies of1 Penisular Arabic, particularly the varieties of Arabic
place). In Qatar the government has published a small textbook
spoken in Eastern Arabia, and to comparative studies of Arabic
Spoken Arabic of Qatar (K. Dajani, Beirut, 1956). A member of the
dialects.
American Mission in Kuwait has published a textbook Spoken Arabic
of the Arabian Gulf (E. de Jong, Beirut, 1958). It should be stated
that all of those handbooks and texts are very much limited in scope 3. The Present Study
and lack a modern linguistic treatment. They adopt either the
A Short Reference Grammar of Gulf Arabic, based on the
grammar-translation method or no method at all. The grammar notes
dialect of Abu Dhabi, U.A.E., presents an explicit outline of the
are flimsy and sketchy; the grammar drills, if any, are limited in
phonology, morphology, and syntax of Gulf Arabic. It is the result
number and type and are unsuitable for classroom use. Furthermore,
of the author's field work in Abu Dhabi, Bahrain, and Qatar during
the authors tend to give preference to pan-Arabic koine over Bahraini
the periods of February through May of 1970, September 1970
or Qatari in the matter of vocabulary, and they themselves say of
through June 1971, and the following summer months (June through
their appended texts that they are "closer to 'Classical Arabic' " than
August) of 1972 through 1975. Initially, a frequency word list of
ordinary speech. Aramco's Spoken Arabic (Dhahran, 1957),
about 3,000 items for A Basic Course in Gulf Arabic was compiled
Conversational Arabic (Beirut, n.d.), and its English-Arabic Word List
from recordings which this investigator had made of spontaneous,
(Beirut, 1958) are all in pan-Arabic koine.
unprepared narratives and conversations of unsophisticated Gulf
This researcher has produced A Basic Course in Gulf Arabic,
The University of Arizona Press and Librairie de Liban, Beirut,
Introduction
Arabs in different situations, such as greetings, telephone

conversations, comments, interviews, etc. Later, there was an active
search for tales, fables, anecdotes, and stories from storytellers,
poets, and other native speakers. TRANSCRIPTION
The present work seeks to fill some of the important gaps t h a t
presently exist in linguistic and language studies of Peninsular Arabic, Consonants :i
especially that of the United Arab Emirates. .It is linguistically
oriented and the analysis Uses different techniques for the Symbol Approx. Sound Symbol Approx. Sound
description of language. The book is usable to students who have » (glottal stop) P p in pen
already acquired (or are acquiring) a knowledge of Gulf Arabic; to >
b b in big q
teachers who intend t o use it as a checklist of grammatical points;
and to Arabic linguists and dialectologists who will use it as a source V ch in church r Spanish/ - in caro
c
of information about this dialect. It will also serve larger groups, d d in dog s s in sip i
namely, petroleum company employees, government consultants, f fin fat s
technical experts, and others who have communicative and linguistic
g g in God V sh in ship
interests in the Arabian Gulf area. It will be useful, for instance, t o s
the staff and personnel of the U.S. Naval bases in Bahrain and g Parisian r in Paris t t in tall
Dhahran and the newly established American embassies in Abu h h in hat t t in tot
Dhabi, Bahrain, and Qatar. H w w, in win
j / in jam X German ch in Nacht
4. The Native Speakers k k in skim y in yet
y
The native speakers ("informants") whose speech served as the 1 I in lathe z z in zeal
basis for the language of the present work are semi-educated and 1 I in bell e th in thin
unsophisticated bona fide Gulf Arabs in Abu Dhabi. They have m m in mat & th in this
relation ties with other Gulf Arabs in Bahrain and Qatar and have
n n in nap
come in contact with a great number of Arab immigrants working in
the Gulf: Jordanians, Palestinians, Lebanese, Syrians, Iraqis, q
Egyptians, etc. The influence of the dialects of those immigrants on
the local dialects has been so great that Gulf Arabs tend to emulate Vowels
other dialects, especially Levantine and Egyptian. The author has
Short Approx. Sound Long Approx. Sound
frequently run across' contrast of styles in the same speaker on
different occasions. i in sit ii ea in seat
aa a in hat
ee
u in put uu oo in food
British o in pot oo British aw in law
xxi
xxu Transcription
Symbols and Abbreviations'
item on the left is changed into item on the right

item on sthe right is derived from item on the left
indicates an ungrammatical utterance ^
AP active participle
PP passive participle^
C consonant
C, first consonant
C2 second consonant PART ONE '
C3 third consonant
N noun 1
!
T H E
N noun head
V vowel P H O N O L O G Y
V-ed* passive participle
GA Gulf Arabic O F G U L F A R A B I C
MSA Modern Standard Arabic
( ) item enclosed is optional, e.g., mu(u)(b) ca'n be read as mu,
muu, muub, or mub, or explanatory, e.g., (English) is from
English, (m.s.) is masculine singular, (p.) is plural, etc.
adj. adjective neg. negative

adv. adverb obj. object
alt. alternate P- plural
coll. collective s. singular
dim. diminutive s.th. something
f. feminine s.o. some
imp. imperative sitbj. subject
intra. intransitive tra. transitive
lit. literally var. variant
loc. locative vd voiced
m. masculine vl voiceless
Diagram II
Glottal -
VOWELS
Pharyngeal PC c^
1. Short
Uvular a"
Front Central Back
Velar M w X- -bO £ High i u
Alveo-
Palatal >-c/l >^
Middle 0
Alveolar '>Q •—, c («
Low a
Alveolar
CO +J • V). -.
H Pharyngealized .,
Diagram
NSONA
Dental -t-* T3 W SJ A
2. Long
" O
Pharyngealized *•
Front Central Back
Interdental CD <fc>
High ii uu
Labiodental 1^
Middle ee 00
Bilabial CX JD £
Low aa
> >- > > > > > > > -a
>
a) a) *c5
<S1
> 0
a, 0 ID >
o CO •*->
CO < 3 E
CD
CO
E
I. CONSONANTS
The consonant sounds below are described in terms of point of

articulation (e.g., bilabial, labiodental, etc.) and manner of
articulation (e.g., stops, fricatives, etc.). Among the consonant
sounds r*of Gulf Arabic, the stops, fricatives, and affricates may be
either voiceless or voiced. The voiceless sound is one which is
produced without vibration in the vocal cords, e.g., the t sound in
English pat. A voiced sound is produced with vibration in the vocal
cords, e.g., the d sound in English pad. The voiceless-voiced pairs in
American English are:
1. Stops: p-b, t-d k-g
2. Fricatives: f-v, b-fr, s-z, s-z
3. Affricates: c-j
Those of GA are:
1. Stops: p-b, t-d, k-g
2. Fricatives: 0-fr, s-z, x-g, H-9
3. Affricates: c-j
1.1 Stops: p.b.t.d.t.k.g.q,* !
A stop is a sound which is produced by halting the passage of

air by a complete closure at some point along the vocal tract, and
then releasing the air.
p: voiceless bilabial stop
Similar to English p as in pin.
s:
6 The Phonology of Gulf Arabic

Consonants
This sound occurs rarely in GA. It is found in words of foreign
origin: k: voiceless velar stop
Similar to English k:
pamp ' p u m p ' (English) peep 'pipe' (English)
kuuli 'workman'
parda 'curtain' (Persian) pyaala 'small glass' (Hindi) killa 'all of it'
b: voiced counterpart of p seekal 'bicycle'
Similar to English b: m(u)baarak 'blessed'
b(i)9iir 'camel' (For k - c, see APPENDIX III.)
yabi 'he wants'
g: voiced counterpart of k
mu(u)(b) 'not'
This sound, similar to English g as in good, bag, etc., mainly
t: voiceless dental stop occurs in foreign words:
Similar to English t: garaaj 'garage' (English)
twannas 'hejiad a good time, enjoyed himself gafsa 'spoon; ladle'-(Turkish)
daxtar 'doctor' bugsa 'envelope; bundle' (Persian)
kabat 'cupboard; wardrobe' jigaara 'cigarette' (English)
jimrig 'customs, duty' (Persian)
t: pharyngealized counterpart of t
rig 'rig' (English)
t and / constitute the first pair of plain and pharyngealized
consonants that we will take up. In the production of t, the tip of In a few words it corresponds to MSA 1 q:
the tongue touches the back of the upper teeth; for the gaal 'he said' gatu 'cat'
pharyngealized t the tongue, instead of remaining relaxed as for plain 'butcher' geed- 'summer; (summer) heat'
gassaab
t, is tense and a little retracted, f is a little aspirated, i.e., pronounced
with a little burst of air, while / is unaspirated. /, like any other galam 'pencil; pen' baag 'he stole'
pharyngealized consonant sound, takes the backed pronunciation of sagir 'falcon, hawk' naaga 'camel (f.)'
adjacent vowels, while t takes the fronted variety. foog 'up; above' 'azrag "blue'
taaH ;
he fell down'
q: voiceless uvular stop
9atni 'give (m.s.)me!'
This sound can be produced by trying to say a fc-sound farther
banaatliin (pairs of) pants'
and farther back or by trying to pull the root of the tongue straight
battal 'he opened' back as far as possible. It occurs in some words and classicisms in the
âgt pressure' speech of most educated Gulf Arabs.
gatt 'he threw away s.th.' Examples:
qadiim 'old; ancient'
d: voiced counterpart of t
qisim 'section, part'
Similar to English d:
1-qaahira 'Cairo (f.)' El
diriisa 'window'
sadiiq 'friend'
'adri T know'
cabd 'liver' 1. In this study MSA and literary Arabic are used interchangeably.
V
8 The Phonology of Gulf Arabic Consonants 9
(For q -* g and g -> q, see APPENDIX II.) saalfa " 'story, anecdote*
wilf 'valve'
': glottal stop
Haaff 'dry'
This sound does not exist ini English as a distinctive sound. It is
not a full-fledged phoneme in English, and it is nonrepresented in 6: vojceless interdental fricative 2
regular writing. It is produced by all speakers of English in
Similar to English th in thin and Heath.
vowel-initial isolate'd words, e.g., above, erase, ink, etc. It sometimes
occurs as a variant of / as in some dialects of English (e.g., bottle, 0aani . 'second'
button, etc., with the glottal stop instead of-tt-). It is also used,, e.g., 1-Ia0 neen *Monday'
instead of the h 'in the English interjections': oh-oh! In* GA ' is a dild 'one-third'
distinctive sound; jt.occurs mainly in word-initial position:
'aana T 'ubu 'father' fr: voiced counterpart of 0
'ii na9am 'yes, certainly' 'ihni 'here' Similar to English th in this, rathphznd lathe.
fraak 'that (one)'
It should be noted that in forms corresponding to MSA initially
hamzated verbs, the glottal stop is sometimes not heard, e.g., ya 'he ha-creel 'these'
came' and xai)- 'he took' are heard rather than 'aya and 'axad-. In >
postvocalic positions, however, it is retained, as in: TT: pharyngealized counterpart of ir
huwa 'arduni 'he is Jordanian' and si'al 'he asked' The dot under ft represents pharyngealization, traditionally
It rarely occurs medially and finally: l-'ardun 'Jordan,' si'al 'he known as êmphasis."'*A pharyngealized sound is pronounced with
asked.' It usually changes into / when preceded by the definite the tongue farther back in ,the m o u t h ; the lips are rounded or
article: protruded slightly. In producing the plain non-pharyngealized 3- the
tongue is relaxed and its tip protrudes a little beyond the edges of
'anil* 'folks;*relatives' + /- -+ 1-Iahil '(the) folks; (the) relatives' the upper and the lower teeth. For the pharyngealized fr on the other
'akil 'food; eating- + /- -*.1-Iakil '(the) food; (the) eating' hand, the tongue is tense, lower in '.the middle, and more raised
toward the back part. Note that ^his changes the Quality of adjacent
vowels, especially a and aa, and gives¥ a 'hollow' or 'backed' effect.
1.2 Fricatives: f,0,*r,fr,s,z,s,s\x,g,H,9,h (The aa sound in itaa9 'he broadcast,' for instance^ is similar to the a
in English that, but it changes to a" sound similar to the a sound in
During the production of a fricative, the air stream that passes hard in the GA word ftaa9 'he, it, got lost.') fr-iris the'second pair of
along the vocal tract is not completely stopped as in the case of plain and pharyngealized consonants.
stops, but is allowed to pass with audible friction. The fricatives of xraaj 'he got fed up'
GA are:
'abu dabi 'Abu Dhabi'
f: voiceless labiodental fricative gi&ab 'he grabbed'
beeir 'eggs'
Similar to the English / s o u n d in fat. The air stream is impeded
between th& lips and the teeth.
s: voiceless dental fricative
fannas 'he quit work, resigned' Similar to English s in sip.
ftarr 'he turned around'
2. It is interesting to note that in the speech of the Shiah sect in Bahrain,
sifittum 'I saw them' the sound 9 does not exist;/is used instead. Thus, faani, l-lafneen, and./?//are
used instead oidaani, l-ladneen, and 6U9, respectively.
simac 'fish' yitbax 'he cooks' liix 'fishing net*

winsa 'fun, good time'
g: voiced counterpart of x
ciis 'bag; sack'
This sound is produced in gargling; it is close in quality to the
Parisian r as in Paris,rien, etc.
z: d counterpart of s
In GA,^ sometimes corresponds to q, the-voiceless uvular stop
zeen 'well; fine, good J (see APPENDIX II>.
ma9aaziib 'owners, proprietors' gasmar ^he joked with s.o.'
raziif 'celebration; merry-making' 1-ga'arH ' 'the judge; the magistrate'
baariz 'ready'
laga " 'language'
s: pharyngealized counterpart of s faarig 'empty'

gitra , 'head dress''
s and s constitute the third pair of plain and pharyngealized
consonants. In the production of s the front part of the tongue is in stiglaal 'independence'
the same position for s, but the central part is depressed and the back baga the wanted, liked'
part raised toward the velum. Pharyngealized s has a lower pitch than manaatig 'regions, districts'
plain s.
sbayy 'boy; servant' H: voiceless pharyngeal fricative
sakk 'he shut, closed the door' For the. production of frthe muscles of the throat are tense and
gasiir 'short, not tall' the passageway at the back of the throat becomes constricted, x has
been described above as a voiceless velar fricative. In producing x the
girtaas 'paper'
back of the tongue must come near the soft palate; for H the tongue
must not approach it.
s: voiceless alveopalatal fricative
From the writer's own experience in teaching Arabic, H is one
Similar to English sh in ship.
of the two most difficult sounds for native speaker's of English. The
sayy 'thing; something' other sound is 9, which is described below. The following exercise
seeba 'old man' has been tried with students in order to help them recognize and
s-saarja 'Sharja' produce an acceptable H sound: whisper and repeat the phrase 'Hey
diriisa 'window' you!' as loudly and as deep in your throat as you can; then say only
'Hey,' elongating the initial h sound, 'Hhhhhhhhhhhey.' Repeat this
dass 'he entered'
with the muscles used in gagging tensed up. This would be an
nass 'he woke up'
acceptable approximation of H. An alternative suggestion is to start
with 'ah!', whispering it as loudly as you can. Now repeat it and
x: voiceless velar fricative
narrow the pharynx by moving the root of the tongue back, and
This sound is similar to Scottish ch in loch and German ch in raising the larynx.
Nacht. For the production of x the tongue is in the same position as
Haaff 'dry, not wet*
for k but is allowed to move down just a little bit in order to let the
air pass through. Examples: Hammaam 'bathroom, latrine'
xaliij 'gulf xuttaar 'guests' laHam 'rrieat'
mixtilif 'different* 'uxu 'brother' mHassin 'barber'
yiHH 'watermelons' In the following forms only c occurs: 3

s-sabaaH '(in) the morning' 9asaac 'your stick'
'asmic 'your name'
9: voiced counterp art of H
'uxuuc 'your brother'
There is nothing in the English sound system that is similar or
frarabc 'he hit you'
even close to either H or 9. In the production of 9 the muscles in the
throat become very tense and the passageway at the back of the 9ataac 'he gave you'
throat becomes constricted. The following exercises would yield an In foreign words c occurs as an original sound:
approximation of the 9 sound: say 'ah,' and then tense up the £aay 'tea' (Persian)
muscles of your throat as in gagging. Another exercise is to try to cingaal ' f o r k ' (Persian)
imitate the bleating of a sheep 'baaa.* Tighten your neck and throat
cuula 'fireplace' .(Hindi-Urdu)
muscles as if someone were choking "you. The result would be a
kalac '(car) clutch' (English)
strangled or a squeezed sound, probably an acceptable 9 sound.
lane 'launch (n.)' (English)
'9aayla 'family' 9ees 'rice'
cay yak 'he checked' (English)
maa9uun 'dish; plate' H9baw 'they played'
subi9 'finger' rabi9 '(group of) people' j: voiced counterpart of c
Similar to English /' in fudge and dg in edge. In most instances
h: voiceless glottal fricative
literary / corresponds to GA y:
Similar to English h as in hat. Contrary to English the GA h
yaahil 'child' m(a)siid 'mosque'
sound may occur in a pre-consonant position, a post-consonant
position, or at the end' of a word. yiit 'I came' rayyaal 'man'
haaira 'this' hamba 'mangoes' '1 yaay '(act. part.) coming' mooy 'waves'
bhaam 'thumb' karhab(a) 'electricity' (See APPENDIX I for j ^ y and APPENDIX II for q -* j.)
hduum 'clothes' hini, hni 'here'
'a9uu#u billaah! 'God forbid!'
1.4 Nasals: m a n d n
Similar to the English sounds m and n in man and night,

1.3 Affricates: cand/ respectively.
m: m(a)siid 'mosque* 'asmaac 'fishes'
c: voiceless alveppalatal affricate
glaam(a) 'pens; pencils' tamaam 'exactly'
This sound is similar to the English ch sound in church and
urchin. In the following forms c is a variant of k: n: na99aasa 'dancing girl' lane 'small boat'
flaan 'so and so' leen 'when, as soon as'
caan 'he was' Haci 'talk, conversation'
coocab 'water spring' can9ad 'kind of fish'
9acwa 'stick' • yabci 'he cries, weeps'
diic 'rooster' simac 'fish' 3. See APPENDIX III.
s
1.5 Laterals: / a n d / . raaH 'he went' rasta 'paved road'

<
ribyaan ''shrimp' j< k rifiij 'frientl; companion'
1: dental lateral
garb a] 'he bothered' girtaas 'paper'
While there is no similar sound in American English, there is an
sakaf 'sugar' saar 'he left, went'
approximation of the GA / in words like lean, lack, late, etc., where
the / sound is initial and prevoca'lic. In other positions/the American 7
is more or less pharyngealized", depending upon Ihe dialects of the
1.7 Semivowels: wandyi
speakers. G A / is a plain' sound- as opposed to the dark / as in
American English hill and belly. In the production of GA /-the tip of
the tongue touches the tooth, ridge (slightly farther forward than in Similar to English w ancj\y in way and yet, respectively. In most
English), and the middle of the tongue is low. examples literary / corresponds to- or is -used interchangeably with
GA y. For "a discussion of this see APPENDIX I.
laHam 'meat' ' leen 'when;«until'
w: waayid' * 'much, a lot' wilda 'hisson^ (
l-mi9ris 'the bridegroom' yilas 'he sat down'
zuwaaj* 'marriage' leewa 'folk dance'
zuuliyya 'carpet' calma 'word'
For examples with final w see 3.1 below,
naariil 'coconut' 9ayal 'therefore'
y: yaabis 'dry' yarhm 'close tb, near'
1: pharyngealized counterpart o f / tfiHiyya 'slaughter animal' 9ayyil 'child'
/-/ constitute the fourth pair of plain and pharyngealized
consonants. / is similar Bto the American English / sound ,in tall, bill,
>2. VOWELS
and silly. The occurrende of / is,,more frequent in GA than in other
Arabic dialects such as Syrian, âbanese, Jordanian, Palestinian, or
Short and Long. GA has in its1 sound system four short vowels
Egyptian. Initially, it occurs only in the environment of
pharyngealized consonants:, (i,a,u,o) and five long vowels. Four long vowels correspond to the
four short ones (i-ii, a-pa, u-uu, o-oo) and the fifth long, vowel is ee.
1-lasil '(the) origin' latiif 'nice' Unlike English, vowels in GA, ^s in most other dialepts of Arabic,
glaas 'glass (CUD)' 'alia 'God' have a wide range of valuqs, depending upon the environment in
magli 'fried' galam 'pen, pencil' which the vowel is used; !.e:, the type of consonants, other vowels,,,
stressed or unstressed syllables, etc. In tfre sections below major
naxal 'palm trees' * gabil 'before'
variants of vowels will be described.
i: high front
1.6 Flap: r
Similar to English i in bit, though not so high and tense. This
GA r is not like American English r; the former is a consonant variant occurs when it is riot word-final or preceded by semivowel y
while the latter is more of a vowel than a consonant. For the or in the contiguity of pharyngealized consonants. Examples:
production of r most Americans curl the tongue up toward the roof killahum 'all of them (m.)'
of the mouth as car, far, etc., and round their lips when the r sound
simac 'fish'
is word-initial or syllable-initial, as in ream, rock, marry, etc. GA/- is
a tongue flap; it is produced by striking the tip of the tongue against finyaan '(coffee) cup:
the roof of the mouth. It is similar to the r in Spanish or Italian caro xasim 'nose'
'dear.' In the speech of most Americans, intervocalic t sounds similar Another variant of this sound is one between the i sound in bit
to GA r: city, pity, Betty, etc.
and the u sound in club:
s :
16 The Phonology of Gulf Arabic Vowels 17
li-9raag 'Iraq' Ha mar 'red'

('i)mbaarak 'Mubarak (male's name)' faHam 'charcoal, coal'
i is often retracted and lowered in the environment of pharyngealized ribaH 'he gained*
consonants:
aa: long counterpart of a
sidj 'truth' batin 'belly'
Long aa is more pharyngealized in GA than in most other
gaadi 'judge (n.)' ftiHiyya 'slaughter animal'
dialects of Arabic because of the influence of other languages that
r are often heard, such as Persian and Urdu. It has a clear retracted and
ii: long counterpart of i lowered quality in the continguity of pharyngealized consonants,
This long vowel is approximately twice as long as i and has a palatals, velars, pharyngeals, and glottals:
different quality. It is similar to the English sound i in machine, but
taaH 'he fell down'
is a monophthong and does not have any glide quality:
s-saarja 'Sharja'
'ii na9am 'indeed, certainly' fii 'there is; there are'
9ala hawaac 'as you wish'
sicciin 'knife' rayaayiil 'men'
nsaalla 'God willing'
tagriiban 'approximately' diib 'wolf
gsaar 'short (p.)'
ii is deeper and more audible in the environment of pharyngealized
consonants: fraabit '(army) officer'
caay 'tea'
mariifr 'sick' basiit 'simple'
biskaar 'servant'
naiHif 'clean' latiif 'nice'
xaayis 'rotten*
a: short low front, central or back Haal a 'condition'
a has a low back quality in the environment of pharyngealized haadif 'Hadif (male's name)'
consonants and frequently before or after /q/. This sound is similar Elsewhere it has a more fronted quality:
to the a sound in father but shorter and farther back:
saal 'it flowed'
sakk 1-baab 'he shut the door'
rummaan 'pomegranates'
santa 'bag, suitcase'
taab 'he repented'
rtab 'fresh dates' 4
saatt 'sixth'
rgasaw 'they danced'
paariis 'Paris'
qadiim 'old; ancient'
yaam9a 'university (f.)'
raqam 'number'
Before or after the pharyngeals 9 and H, or any other plain u: short high back rounded
consonant, a is farther front than the a in father; its quality ranges Close to the oo sound in English book. This variant occurs in a
between the e in pen and a in pan:
medial or final position, not in the environment of a pharyngealized
9adil 'correct(ly);just(ly)' consonant:
ba9ad 'too, also'
yim9a 'Friday' 4. Variant of saadis. •
9awar 'one-eyed'
E
^8 The Phonology.of Gulf Arabic Sound Combinations 19
'uxu 'brother' oo: long counterpart of o < >

gabguuba-f ^crabplobster' GA oo is approximately twice as long as o. It is similar to the
murta 'his wife' vowel aw in British 'English law; it does not have any off-glide
raadu quality. Examples:
'radio'
yoom 'day'
*ubu 'father'
9ood" 'tug,, large' \
beettum 'their home'
gaal oo 'they said it' " ,T
In the environment of pharyngealized consonants or following
za^xop 'they caught, found, him'
H or 9,u is more backed and lowered than in the examples above. Its vj
quality is between a in fall and u in full: • soob 'in the direction o f
subi9 'finger'
ee: long mid-front unrounded
butbuta 'motorcycle' fi
This is t h e only long vowel' that does not .Have a short
iruhur 'noontime* H
counterpart. It is similar to, but not the same as, English ai in main,
Hurma 'woman' for example. In English main there is a glide toward the semi-vowel y
9ugil 'head bands' at the end of the vowel; GA ee as iri dneen 'two' is monoghthongal
r'
and has no glide. v
uu: long counterpart of u Ha0neen (var. l-'adneen) "'Monday 1
uu is a monophthong. It is similar to English oo in moon. In leet 'light'
moon the lips become more rounded toward the end' of the vowel; m
nasseena 'we woke up'
but for GA uu the lips maintain the same rounded position
throughout: geed- ' 'summer (heat)'
'ubuuy(a) 'my father' seef 'summer'
buuz 'mouth' 9alee 'orfhim''
thorns 'teeth'
mu(u)(b) 'not' 3. SOUND COMBINATIONS
yithaawsuun 'they fight, are fighting'
yaryuur 'shark' 3.1 Diphthongs
gabguuba 'crab; lobster' A diphthong is a combination in one syllable of two' vowel
sounds, a vowel and a semivowel (w oty ). The voice glides with a
o: short mid back rounded falling intonation from the first to the second sound and the mouth
This vowel occurs only in a few words. It is a less frequently position^ is different at the' end of the diphthong. There are five
used variant of -aw. diphthongs in GA:
lo 'if (var. law)
iw: This diphthong is not common:
gaalo 'they said' (var. gaalaw) 9iwraan 'one-eyed (m.p.)*
twaag9o 'they quarreled with each other' (var. twaag9aw) ('i)wlaad 'boys'
mla9iwzatni '(she) having botherefJ me'
20 The Phonology of Gulf Arabic Sound Combinations 21
iy: This diphthong is used in free variation with the long 3.2 Consonant Ousters
vowel ii:
3.2.1 Double Consonants
'iy na9am 'yes, indeed, certainly'
In terms of length consonants in Arabic are referred to as single
'iyda 'his hand'
(i.e., short) or double (i.e., long) or doubled consonants. 5 Clusters of
wiyya 'with' two identical consonants, traditionally known as geminates, occur
frequently in GA. Double consonants in English occur across word
aw: This diphthong frequently occurs in the second or third boundaries, e.g., straight to, hot tea, guess so, etc., and occasionally
person masculine plural suffixes: within compound words and words with prefixes or suffixes, e.g.,
gaalaw 'they said' (cf. gaaloo 'they said it') cattail, unnamed, thinness, etc. Double consonants in GA occur
riHtaw 'you went* medially, finally, and, in a few cases, initially.
sribaw 'they drank* (cf. sriboo 'they drank it')
Initial
yaw (var. jaw) 'they came'
Initially, double consonants ,are usually those formed by the
taww- 'just' (as in tawwaya 'he has just come') combination of ,a prefix (the article prefix, or a conjunction, or a
verb prefix) and the first stem consonant. Examples:
aaw is the long counterpart of aw."
r-rayyaal 'the man'
yaaw 'they came' (var. yaw or Jaw)
'<! 1-laHad 'Sunday'
gtaawti 'my cats'
d-dreewil 'the driver' 1
daaw 'dhow, boat'
w-wasix 'and dirty'
ay; 'ay(ya) 'which? any' w-waafag 'and he agreed'
maynuun 'crazy' tcayyak 'it was checked'
9alayy(a) 'on me' jjaawib 'you (m.s.) answer'
mayy 'water' ddarras 'it was taught'
aay is the long counterpart of ay: Medial

I
saayfa 'I have seen him' Any double consonant may occur in an intervocalic position.
maay (var. mayy) 'water' -gg- and -qq- are rare, however.
waraay 'behind me' dabba 'car trunk' gattat 'she threw away'
caay 'tea' madrasatta 'her school' tfaWal 'please!'
raay 'opinion; idea' ('i)0-0alaafl 'Tuesday' na99aasa 'female dancer'

wiyyaay 'with me* najjaar 'carpenter' sakkeet 'I closed'
naggas 'he decreased' tsallaf 'he borrowed*

uw: This diphthong occurs only as a variant of the third person 'nobody' nsaalla 'God willing'
maHHad
masculine plural suffix. See the diphthong aw above, 'chick peas'
mitwaxxir 'late; belated' naxxi(y)
gaaluw 'they (m.) said'
sribuw 'they (m.) drank' i
5. See Mark C. Cowell, A Reference Grammar of Damascus Arabic,
kaluw 'they (m.) ate' Georgetown University Press, 1964, p. 23.
22 Sound Combinations 23
The Phonology "of Gulf Arabic
Haddaag 'fisherman' xammaam 'garbage collector' Initial

caftfraab 'liar' bannad 'he shut' ManyF two-donsonant clusters occur initially. The following are
tarras 'he sent* sahhal 'he m'ade easy' examples:
y9arif 'he knows' yHasid 'he "envies'*
('al)Hazza 'now' • 9awwar 'he hurt (s.o.)'
rtab 'fresh dates'- s-gadd 'how many (much)?'
mHassin 'barber' Hayya 'he greeted j(s.o.)'
nxala '.palm tree' sxala 'young goat, kid'
nasseet i'l.woke.up' t .sicciin 'kniye'
stagal 'he worked,' mxabbal 'crazy'
Hassal 'he obtained' saffaj 'he clapped' •
bhaam 'thumb' sbiil '(smoking) pipe'
For £he "occurrence ,of a cbnsoriant sound after a double'
consonant'see 4.3.2 beloW. jnaa'za 'funeral' thaawas 'he quarreled'
Htaba 'piece of .wood' fHama 'piece of coal'
Final i
rguba *neck' ntiras 'it'was filled with s:Jh.*
Any double consonant may occur finally except for g, q, and h, hwaasa 'quarrel'
gfaas 'ladles'
which have no^ been noted'. A final double consonant is not
gmaas 'pearlf syara 'tree'
pronounced differently from a final'single'consonant, e.g.,,final'/ in
'aqall 'less' is the sam£ as final i in tafal 'he spat* as far as the sotind' stariiH 'rest!' rweed 'radish'
itself is concerned. The difference is in stress: 'aqall and tafal (see 5. msfid 'mosque' stika 'he complained; he
STRESS, below). A few examples are given below: filed a suit'
M b 'lizard' 'aqall 'less'
Hagg Medial
'belonging, t q ' 'ayann 'crazier'
lakk Most two-consonant clusters, may occur between two vowel
'thousand' maHall 'place'
sounds. Examples:
nuss 'half 'ayadd 'newer'
lagwiyya 'talkative' parda 'curtain'
yximm 'he sweeps' dagg 'he knocked'
matruus 'filled with s.th.' yamkin 'maybe, probably'
zaxx 'he caught s.o.' xatt 'letter'
tagdar 'she can' inixtilif 'different'
9a7Tfr 'he bit s.p. 1 barr 'desert' 'sleeping place'
mataarzi 'bodyguard' margad
dass 'he entered' Haaff 'dry'
calma 'word' gatma 'mute'
siHH 'dates' sbayy 'young boy'
'amlaH 'grey' 'liHya 'beard'
Had3- 'luck' saatt 'sixth'
bistaan 'garden; orchard' 'i^ra 'corn'
If a suffix beginning with a" consonant^ is added^.to a final double dirwaaza 'doorway, gate'
'afwaat 'feet'-
consonant, the double consonant is reduced to a single consonant,
na0ya 'female' maylis 'living room'
See 4.3.2 below.
xasmic 'your nose' % bugsa 'envelope'
3.2.2 Two-Consonant Clusters d-dreewil 'the driver' darzan 'dozen'
A consonant cluster is here defined as any- combination of two 'asmax 'deaf la9waz 'he bothered'
or more different consonants. In GA two-consonant clusters occur rubbiyya 'rupee'
9ibri passenger
frequently.
9acwa l-yim9a 'Friday'
'stick'
3S1
Major Sound Changes 25
Final two-consonant clusters are fairly common: syara 'tree'

9awwart 'I, y o u , injured* tguul 'you say' or 'she says'
dirast 'I, y o u , studied'
farg 'difference' wist rguba 'neck'
'middle'
sidj 'truth' rtab 'fresh (not very ripe) dates'
9arafc 'he knew you*
9abd 'slave; negro' cabs stagal 'he worked'
'ram'
Halj 'mouth' stariiH '(imp:) rest'
la9wazt 'I, you, bothered'
sarg 'east' •&raba 'he hit him'
cabd(a) 'liver'
Mrs . 'tooth' wagt n9aya 'ewe'
'time'
msaxxan 'running a temperature'
3.2.3 Three-consonant Clusters 'you know' or 'she knows'
t9arif
Three-consonant clusters are rare in GA. Initially they may yxadim 'he serves'
occur in imperatives, e.g., ('i)striiH (var. stariiH6) 'rest (m.s.).' A three-consonant cluster is usually encountered in two cases:
Medially, they are very rare. The only example noted is guntraaz
'contract.' Between word boundaries three- or four-consonant A. When a word ends with a single consonant and is followed by
clusters (usually with the helping vowel /) are common (see 4.1 a word beginning with a double consonant or a two-consonant
below). The following are examples of three-consonant clusters cluster. In such a case the helping vowel is used after the first of
without the helping vowel: three consonants or between word boundaries. Examples:
gat9 li-xsuum 'the cutting off of noses' min-i-s-saarja 'from Sharja'
sarg 9uman 'east of Oman' fluus-i-d-dreewil 'the driver's money'
waladk jaasim 'your son, Jasim' liHyat-i-r-rayyaal 'the man's beard'
cabd xaayis 'rotten liver' lees-i-d-diss? 'Why do you enter?'

leen-i-truuH 'when you go*
gilt-la 'I said to him; I told him'
farg waayid 'big difference' lees-i-truuHiin 'Why do you (f.s.) go?'
bank bu dabi 'Bank of Abu Dhabi' ma yriid-i-xmaam 'he does not want garbage'
rayy aal-i-m x abbal 'crazy man'
t9arfiin-i-s-ki0ir? 'Do you (f.s.) know how many (much)?'
4. MAJOR SOUND CHANGES 'he wants to go'
yriid-i-yruuH
yrii duun-i-y saafr uun 'they want to travel'
4.1 The Helping Vowel /
leen-i-truuHiin 'when you (f.s.) go'
The helping vowel /, sometimes referred to as an anaptyctic or raaH-i-stika 'he went and filed a suit'
prosthetic helping vowel, is inserted within consonant clusters. Its 'you (f.s.) will know later on'
ba9deen-i-t9arfiin
occurrence does not affect meaning; it is used only as an aid to
pronunciation. This feature is known as anaptyxis. In GA it is not The forms yriid yiruuH and yriiduun yisaafruun are also heard.
usually used with an initial two-consonant cluster: B. When a word ends with a double consonant or a
two-consonant cluster and is followed by a word beginning with a 1/
single consonant. In such a case no helping vowel is used. Examples:
6. The variant stariiH is more commonly used.
s
26 The Phonology of Gulf Arabic Major Sound Changes 27
Hagg 9ali 'belonging to Ali' + daa9maw ddaa9maw 'they collided'

\ I'ayann minnak 'crazier than you* ( + duux -*• dduux 'you smoke; she smokes'
yximm wiyyaahum 'He sweeps with them.' + sallaf -* ssallaf 'he borrowed (money)'
sikk Haljak! >. 'Shut your m o u t h ! ' + zixx •+ Z2ixx 'you lay hands (on s.o. or s.th.)'
If the article prefix is used'before a two-consonant cluster word, the + zigg -»• zzigg 'you deficate; she deficates'
helping vowel pr.epedes the .two-consonant cluster: + 0amman *+ 00amman 'it was priced'
wiyya l-ir9yaal , 'with the children* -> ttigni 'you hit me; she hits me'
+ tigg
min l-i-wlaad 'from the boys* -> câHHac 'he laughed'
+ toiHHac
min l-i-mxabbal 'from the crazy one' •+ 00alla0 'it was tripled'
+ 0alla0
Other examples are: l-i-Hkuuma 'the government,' l-i-bdiwi 'the + tarras -* ttarras 'it was sent'
Bedouin,' l-i-gmaas 'the pearl,' l-i-Hsaab 'the bill, the (bank) account,' The above examples involve only assimilation. Below are some
U-fluus 'the .money,' l-i-sxala 'the young goat, kid,' 1-i-fHama 'the
other examples that involve both anaptyxisand assimilation:
piece of coal, charcoal,' etc. Such' examples are transcribed
"li-Hkuuma; li-bdiwi, etc., throughout this study. * cift + -hum -*• *cifithum -+ cifi'ttum 'I saw them'
A four-consonant cluster, which, would-be encountered "when a &arabt + -ha -*• *ârabitha -> *arabitta 'I hit her'
word ending with a double consonant or a two-consonant cluster is daHHakt + -hin -* *taHHakithin •+ traHHakittin 'I made them
followed by a word beginning with a* double consonant or ,a laugh'-
two-consonant cluster, is prevented "by inserting i between the two
Forms with -Vf where V is a short vowel change / into c before
words. Examples:
a - c suffix. Examples:
bis t-i-bdi wiyya 'a*Bedouin's dress*
daHHakat 'she made s.o. laugh' + -c -»• 5aHHak5cc 'She made you
min-i-dbayy 'from Dubai' laugh.'
wild-i-kleeS im 'Kleithim's son, ctgld' xaabarat 'she telephoned you' +-£-*• xaabara"cc 'She telephoned
cint-i-hnaak? 'Were you there?' you.'
9abd-i-mxabbal 'crazy slave' 9rafat 'she knew' + -c -»• 9rafdcc'She knew you.'
Hassalt-i-smica 'I found, got, a fish'
4.3 Elision
4.2 Assimilation
4.3.1 Vowel Elision
In GA the feature of assimilation covers the sound h when A word that ends with -VC, where -V- is any unstressed vowel,
preceded by the consonant t and both sounds occur medially and the drops its -V- when any vowel-initial suffix is added to it, unless -V- is
sounds d, s, z, j, 6, t, and ff when preceded by initial or medial /., In stressed in the.resultant form. Examples:
the latter case, the' t is almost always an inflectional prefix of the '&sim 'name' + -a -* 'asma 'his name'
imperfect tense or the first sound in a Class V verb. Examples: + -ak -*• 'asmak 'your name'
beet + -hum -* beettum 'their house'
+ -i -* 'asmi 'my name'
+ -ha -*• beetta 'her house' + -ic -*• 'asmic 'your (f.s.) name'
+ -hin -*• beettin 'their house' + -een -*• 'asmeen 'two names'
TT
l£l^^K#V
Major Sound Changes 29

'uxut 'sister' + -a ->• 'uxta 'his sister' 4.3.2 Consonant Elision

ftaham 'he understood' + -aw -* ftahmaw 'they understood' When a double consonant is followed by a single consonant in
+ -at -+ ftahmat 'she understood' the same word or between word boundaries, the double consonant is
reduced to one single consonant:
+ -an -*• ftahman 'they (f.) understood'
kill (var. hull) 'all; each' + -hum -»• kilhum (var. kulhum)
However, words of the fd9al pattern change into f9dl- when a vowel 'alrof them'
initial suffix is added except for the suffix -em. Examples:
galam 'pen' + -a -+ glama 'his pen' yamm 'near, close'to' + saalim -»- yam saalim 'near Salim'
+ -ak -»• glamak 'your pen' bass 'only, just* + maay -*• bas maay 'only water'
+ -i -> glami 'my pen' gatt 'he threw away' + -hum •* gathurn 7
+ -ic -* glamic 'your (f.) pen' 'he threw them away'
+ -een -* galameen 'two pens* + -ha •+ gatha
The forms gluma, glumak (or galdmk), glumi, and glumic (or galamb) 'he discarded her'
are also heard. Other examples are: + -hin -> gathin
fdHam 'coal, charcoal': 'he discarded them (f.)'
fHama 'his coal' ywaffij 'he makes s.o. successful' + ak -* ywafjak 8 'he makes
fHami 'my coal' you successful'
fHamak (var. faHdmk) 'your coal' sakk 'he closed' + -ha -*• sakha 'he closed it (f.)'
fHamic (var. faHamc) 'your (f.s.) coal' sikk '(imp.) close 1 + HaljaTc •+ sikk Haljak
'Shul your mouth!'
bdgal 'mule':
bg&la 'his mule'
*
bgali 'my mule' 4.4 Pharyngealization 9
bgalak (var. bagdlk) 'your mule' i,
bgalic (var. bagdlc) We have seen above (see the pharyngealized consonantsf,fr,5,/)
'your (f.s.) mule'
that pharyngealization is not limited only to a pharyngealized sound,
wdlad 'boy' is irregular:
but affects neighboring consonants and vowels and sometimes 'the
wflda 'his son' whole word. Compare, e.g., fatar 'it became warm' and fatar 'he had
wiidi 'my son' breakfast.' / in fatar is similar to English / in fat, but in fatar the /
wildak (var. walddk) sound is similar to that in father, i.e., it is backed and
'your son*
'pharyngealized.' The quality of the vowel sound a is different in
wildic (var. waldcc) 'your (f.s.) son' fatar from that in fatar. In some analyses of Arabic / in fatar, for
9draf 'he knew':
9rafa 'he knew him' 7. Such words will be transcribed with one single consonant, except
between word boundaries, e.g., kilhum 'all of them* and kill yoom 'everyday.'
9rafak (var. 9ardfk) 'he knew y o u '
8. As in 'alia ywafjak! 'good luck!' said to a man. It literally means 'May
9raTic (var. 9ardfc) 'he knew you (f.s.)' God make you successful.' ywafjak involves vowel elision.
qdtal 'he killed':
9. The feature of pharyngealization is sometimes referred to as
qtdla 'he killed him' "emphasis" (see, for example, Erwin, Wallace M., A Short Reference Grammar
qtalak (var. qatdlk) of Iraqi Arabic, Georgetown University Press, Washington, D.C., 1963,
'he killed y o u '
pp. 13-14) or "pharyngealization" (see Cowell, op. cit., p. 6, footnote).
qtalic (var. qatdlc) 'he killed you (f.s.)'
Stress 31
example, would also be considered as a pharyngealized consonant. In Initial: saaffin 'he saw them'
this analysis, however, only /, •&, s, and / are the pharyngealized zoojha 'her husband'
consonants and other sounds affected by these pharyngealized 'he was bothered*
tla9waz
consonants are considered plain and thus transcribed without
beettum 'their house'
subscript dots. In fact, pharyngealization varies from one region to
another and from speaker to speaker. ttarras 'it was sent'
Medial: tab iin ha 'you want it'

mithaawsa 'having (f.s.) quarreled with s.o.*
5. STRESS
Hayaattin 'their life'
The stressed syllable in any given word is the one that is maHaasna 'barbers' (pi. otmHdssin)
pronounced the loudest. In GA, stress is generally predictable, i.e.,
Final li-9yaal 'the children'
you can deduce which syllable in a word is stressed from the
consonant-vowel sequence in that word. There are some exceptions, yifrHacuun 'they are laughing'
which will be pointed out as they occur. You should note the maryam 6o 'diminutive of Maryam (girl's name)'
following general comments on syllable structure in GA: âHHacc 'he made you laugh'
1. Every syllable contains a vowel, short or long.
B. Examples of more than one long syllable:
2. Every syllable begins with a consonant sound. The first
syllable may have one, two, or three consonants initially. ma9aaziibhum 'those responsible for them, their elders'
3. If a word has two consonants or a double consonant garaatiis 'pieces of paper' (pi. ofgirtdas)
medially, syllable division is between these two consonants. suwaahiinhum 'their falcons' (pi. of saahiin)
There are three types of syllables in GA: short, medium, and 'they see'
ysuufuun
long. A short syllable is composed of a consonant followed by a
mithaawsiin 'having quarreled with each other'
short vowel (CV). A medium syllable is composed of a consonant
followed by a short vowel followed by a consonant (CVC), or a '(it's) impossible, it cannot happen'
maaysiir
consonant cluster followed by a short vowel ( C i C 2 V ) . A long Of all the long syllables only CVVC occurs in all three positions:
syllable is of the following structures: CVVC, CVCC (or C V d C 2 ) , initially, medially, and finally. CVCC (or C V C ] C 2 ) occurs only
CCVC (or C , C 2 V C ) , CCVVC (or C , C 2 V V C ) , and CCVV (or independently and finally as one of the doubled consonants is elided
C ( C 2 W ) . Other structures of syllables do not normally occur in when followed by another consonant (see 4.3.2 above) and a medial
GA, except for CVV. three-consonant cluster is very rare in GA. Perfect tense forms with
Stress in GA is governed by the following two rules: (1) All the first or second person singular suffix -t may have a CVCC (or
words are stressed on the penultimate syllable, i.e., on the next to C V d C 2 ) syllable finally:
the last syllable, unless (2). the ultimate or final syllable is long, i.e.,
'aana sikatt *I was silent'
CVVC, CVCC (or C V C , C 2 ) , or CCVC (or C, C 2 VC), CCVVC or
CjC 2 VVC), CCVV (or C , C 2 V V ) , or CVV, in which case it is 'inta sikatt 'you were silent'
stressed. In the discussion below examples of the kinds of syllables in 'aana xarbatt 'I threw s.th. into disorder'
GA are cited. 'inta xarbatt 'you threw s.th. into disorder'
A. Examples of one long syllable and one or more short or fannast 'I (you) resigned'
medium syllables: 'I (you) sent s.th. to s.o.'
tarrast
nijaHt 'I (you) succeeded'
Iffl
32 The Phonology of Gulf Arabic Stress 33
Also perfect tense forms or nouns with the -c suffixed pronoun may The syllable CVV
occur finally with this syllable: The syllable CVV'is neither short, nor medium, nor long. As far
xaabaracc 'she telephoned you' as stress is concerned, it is treated as a long syllable. Examples:
kallamacc 'she talked to you' daraahim 'money' (lit., "dirhams," p. of di'rhim)
TâHHakacc 'she (he) made you laugh' 9alee 'on him'
simacc 'your fish' 9ayaayiz 'old'ladies'
Similarly CCVC (or C, Cj VC) occurs only initially as in ttdrras 'it was baayig 'thief (lit., "having stolen")
sent',' itfdHHak 'he smiled, laughed,' tld9waz 'he was bothered,' etc. 9ataa 'he gave him'
CCVVC (or, Cj C 2 VVC) occurs only initially and independently:
karraani 'clerk'
initially: dduuxha 'you smoke it (f.); she smokes it (f.)' xallooha 'they left her'
00i'irha 'you bring it (f.) up; she brings it %
lagaati 'my language'
(f.) up' kandoora 'men's long dress, dishdash*
gmaashum 'their pearl'
9yaalha D. Examples of two CVV syllables:
'her children'
wlaadna gaaloo 'they said it (var. gaaluuy
'our sons' HI
xaasuuga 'spoon'
independently: blaas 'free of charge'
saar6o '(dim. of sadra) Sara'
nzeen 'fine, O.K.'
nuur6o '(dim. of nuura) Nora'
tmuut 'you die; she dies'
baa96o 'they sold it (var. baa9uu)'
C. Examples of medium and short syllables:
E. Examples of long and CVV syllables:
"•yitrayyag 'he eats breakfast'
xaasmoo 'they quarreled with him (var. xaasmuuy
mustasfa 'hospital'
saamH6oha 'they pardoned, forgave, her'
ma gassartaw 'you did your best'
maHHad 'nobody, no one' syeeyiira '(dim. of sayydara) car'
xleeliita '(dim. of xalldata) mixer'
'iklaw '(imp.) eat (m.p.)!'
tyeeyiira '(dim. of tayydara) airplane'
irrabat 'she hit'
drisan 'they studied' F. Examples of CVV and long syllables:
waladhum 'their son' xaabarc 'he telephoned y o u '
galbic 'your heart' raadooc 'they wanted you (var. raaduucy
maktabkin 'your office' saamaHk 'he forgave you'
nwaxaty 'it was taken' Haacaac 'he spoke with you'
nwakal 'it was eaten' A short syllable is one of the structure CV. Three consecutive
short syllables do not normally occur in GA (i.e., *CVCVCV).
In forms of medium and long syllables, stress falls on the long
syllable, e.g., yitraygoon 'they eat breakfast,' mustasfady 'my
hospital,' Oneenhum 'the two of them,' 9yadlhum 'their children,'
etc.
^ B
34 The Phonology of Gulf Arabic Stress
Examples of this sequence, i.e., CVCVCV in MSA and in the speech Forms with the sequence CVCCVCVC, in which CC is a double
of Arab emigrants change into CCVCV. 1 ° Examples: consonant, have stress on the penultimate syllable:
syara 'tree' killahum (var. kulldhum) 'all of t h e m '
fHama 'piece of coal, charcoal' gassahum 'he cut them'
. bgala 'female mule' But in normal speech such forms are reduced to CVCi C 2 VC: kilhum
Hmfsa 'turtle; tortoise' (var. kulhum) mdgdshum (see 4.3.2 above).
n9aya 'ewe'
irraba 'he hit him'
ktaba 'he wrote it'
9rafa 'he knew him'
wruga 'piece of paper'
Other examples:
maktaba 'library;»bookstore'
madrasa 'school'
nkisar 'it was broken'
minkisir 'broken, having been broken'
9abidhum 'their slave'
nooxaira 'ship captain'
darabitta 'I hit her'
H. Note the following shift in stress:
gaablaw 'they met s.o.' but gaab]6o 'they met him'
yitrayyag 'he eats breakfast' but yitrayguun 'they eat breakfast'
w£lad 'boy; son' but waladhum 'their boy, son'
la9wazat 'she bothered' but la9wazattum 'she bothered them'
9rafaw 'they knew' but 9rafo6ni 'they knew me'
asim 'name' but 'asimha 'her nariie'
simac 'fish' but simacc 'your fish'
'uxut 'sister' but 'uxutta 'her sister'
sxala 'young goat' but sxalatta 'her young goat'
10. Except in neologisms, probably because of the influence of other

speakers, e.g., walada (or waldda) 'his son' and sdjara (or sajara) 'tree.'
^.
PART TWO
T H E
M O R P H O L O G Y
O F G U L F A R A B I C
â^^â
6. VERBS-DERIVATION
As far as derivational systems are concerned, Gulf Arabic verbs

are based on either triliteral roots, i.e., having three radical
consonants, or quadriliteral roots, i.e., having four radical
consonants.
6.1 Simple Verbs
A simple verb, usually referred to as Class I or Form J, is the

base-form from which all the other classes or forms of the triliteral
verbs are derived. The o t h e r classes of the triliteral verb, i.e., Classes
II through X are derived from Class I and they are sometimes
referred to as Derived Verbs or Derived Themes. 1
it
6.1.1 Sound Verbs
Sound verbs are of three patterns, depending upon their stem
vowels as will be explained later on: fa9al, fi9al, and fi9il.2
Examples:
fa9ah la9ab 'he played' 9araf 'he .came to know'
baraz 'he was ready' ragas 'he danced'
sarad 'he ran away' tafal 'he spat'
fi9al: tirak 'he left' tiras 'he filled'
9ibar 'he crossed' fitaH 'he opened'
difa9 'he paid' tibax 'he cooked'
1. See, for example, *T.M. Johnstone, Eastern Arabian Dialect Studies,

O.U.P., London, U.K., 1967, p. 45.
2. / 9, and 1 throughout this study refer to the first, second, and third
radicals of the verb, respectively.
39
Verbs-Derivation 41
40 The Morphology of *Gulf Arabic
Hamzated verbs have the glottal stop (Arabic "hamza") as their
It should be pointed out that the fa9al and fl9al patterns are
used almost interchangeably. Examples: la9ab or U9ab 'he played,' first radical. 3 They are rare in GA, and most often occur without the
ragas or rigas 'he danced,' 9abar or 9ibar 'he crossed,'. . . etc. initialsyllable 'a-. Following are the most common ones:
'akal or kal 'he ate'
fi9il: simi9 ''he r heard' sirib 'he drank'
E
'aja (var. 'ayd) or ja (var. ya) 'he came'
riji9 'he returned'^ ,9imil 'he made'
'axafr or xaiir 'he took'
9jrif "'he "knew' wisil 'he arrived'
The occurrence of the less frequent variant 'akaf'he ate' is due
Verbs of the' fi9il type are unstable in most dialects of the to the influence of MSA and the speech of Arab immigrants ,in'the
Arabian Gulf area; they are sometimes replaced by the fa9al type,
Gulf., The second example above, i.e., ja (var. ya) 'he came' is a
e.g., wisil or wisal'he arrived.'
doubly weak verb. 4
6.1.2 Weak Verbs
6.1.3 Doubled Verbs
Weak -verbs have, one- or more unstable or weak radicals.-Weak Simple doubled verbs are characterized by a final double
radicals in Gulf Arabiq are the glottal stop ' and,the semivowels. ,w> consonant in the stem, i.e., the second and third radicals are
and y. Weak verbs are either defective or hollow. A defective verb is
here defined as one with a final, weak radical. Examples: t identical.
'he entered' gatt 'he threw away'
dass
Haga 'he wanted' 9ata 'he gave' 'he closed (the door)'
nass 'he woke up' sakk
dara 'he came to know' nasa 'he forgot' 'he kissed; he loved'
gass 'he cut* Habb
Haca 'he spoke' baga 'he stayed' 'he bit'
laff 'he turned' 9aVfr
misa 'he walked' sawa 'he roasted'
Hollow verbs are characterized by a medial long vowel da, with
6.2 Derived Verbs
no radical 9:
gaal 'he said' baag 'he stole' 6 . 2 . r Class II
v"aaj 'he became bored' caan 'he was' Class II verbs are characterized by a double middle radical. They
raaH 'he went* saaf 'he saw' are generally transitive and derived from Class I verbs, nouns and
adjectives. If they .are derived from Class I Verbs, they express the
saar 'he left; he walked' taaH 'he fell down' general meaning of 'to-cause s.o. or s.th. to do s.th.' or undergo "an
saad 'he-hunted' saal action expressed by the Class I verb." Examples:
'he lifted'
raad 'he wanted' jaab 'he" brought' 3. MSA verbs with medial or final hamza are borrowed into*GA as hollow
B
or weak verbs, respectively, e.g., MSA sa'al 'he asked' and qara' 'he read' -+ GA
9aaf 'he loathed' naal 'he obtained' saal and qara. MSA nouns, for example, with medial or final hamza undergo
naam 'he slept' xaaf 'he became afraid' other changes in GA: ra'iis 'head, boss,' ra's 'head,' and say' 'thing;s.th.' -*GA
rayyis, raas, and sayy.
4. A doubly weak verb is one that has only one radical; the 9 and /
radicals are missing:
•SJI- _ ^ M
J i
42 The Morphology of Gulf Arabic Verbs-Derivation 43 n.*
illi Class I Class II i Examples of defective Class II verbs are:

Hi fraHak 'he laughed' iraHHak 'he made s.o. laugh' salla 'he prayed' rawwa 'he>showed*
1BI I fJ||[ daras 'he studied' darras 'he taught' xalla 'he left s.th.' Hayya 'he greeted s.o!'
l !
Ill 'In xalas 'it finished' xallas 'he finished s.th.'
9araf 'he knew' 9arraf 'he made s.o. acquainted 6.2.2 Class III
it" 11 with s.th.' Class III verbs are derived mainly from Class I verbs by inserting
naam 'he slept' nawwam 'he put s.o. to sleep' the long vowel aa6 between the first and the second radicals,
ill
9ilim 'he knew' 9allam 'he let s.o. know s.th.' xaabar 'he telephoned' saafar 'he traveled'
Itl
If the Class I verb is transitive, then the corresponding Class II baarak 'he blessed' waafaj 'he agreed'
verb may be doubly transitive, i.e., with two objects: xaasam 'he quarreled Haawal 'he tried'
1
darrashum 'ingiliizi 'he taught them English' with s.o.'
1 saamaH 'he forgave s.o.' jaa'wab 'he answered'
rawwaaw \-yaryuur 'he showed me the shark
1 Haaca 'he, spoke with s.'o.'
Illi Some Class II verbs denote intensity or frequency of action: maasa 'he walked with
s.o.'
Pi. 1 kasar 'he broke' kassar 'he smashed'
Most Class III verbs are transitive:
qatal 'he killed' qattal 'he massacred'
III xaabarni 'he'telephoned me', engaged me on the phone'
taras 'he filled' tarras 'he filled to the brim'
1 Haacaahum 'he spoke with them (m.), engaged them in
A few Class II verbs are derived from foreign words, e.g., cayyak conversation'
'he checked' from the English verb 'to check.'
A few are intransitive: saafar 'he traveled^' Haawal 'he tried,*
Examples of Class II verbs derived from nouns:
etc.
III 9awaar 'pain' 9awwar 'he inflicted pain' Class III verbs as a class do not have one meaning or closely
fanas 'termination fannas 'he terminated s.o.'s related meanings associated with Class I verbs. A good number of
(of service)' or his own services' the'm are "associative," i.e., they express the meaning of engaging or
qina 'singing' qanna 'he sang' associating s.o. in an activity. Thus:
11
xeema 'tent' xayyam 'he camped' Class I Class III
1
fasal 'disappointment' fassal 'he disappointed s.o.' masa 'he -walked* maasa 'he engaged s.o. in walking'
il J
geefr 'summer' gayyafr 'he spent t h e summer' Haca 'he talked' Haaca 'he engaged s.o. in conversation'
iill
i Class II verbs derived from adjectives express the general
meaning of ' t o cause s.th. o r s.o. t o acquire t h e quality expressed by 6.2.3 Class IV
the adjective': This class of verbs is characterized by the prefix 'a-, which is
1
naftiif 'clean' na&daf 'he cleaned' either rarely used or unstable in GA (see Hamzated Verbs above).
kl The few Class IV verbs that are used in GA are either borrowings
gasiir 'short' gassar 'he shortened' 5
from MSA-or emulation of the speech of other Arabs.
wasix 'dirty' wassax 'he made s.th. dirty'
n1 jadiid 'new' jaddad 'he renewed'
in 6. A few verbs are formed by inserting the long vowels oo or ee: sootaf'he
talked, chattered,' reewas 'he reversed, went backwards,' etc. These verbs are
1 5. The phrase ma gassar means 'he did his best' or 'he did not let anybody treated as quadriliterals (see 6.3 below).
down.'
i
1
_£i.
44 45 I
The Morphology of Gulf Arabic Verbs-Derivation
'a9jab 'he pleased' 'alqa 'he delivered (a speech)' Note that the last three examples of Class II verbs are transitive
'axbar 'he informed' 'a91an 'he announced' and the corresponding Class V verbs are intransitive. A few Class V
'a9ta 'he gave' 'a91am 'he told' verbs are transitive:
zzawwaj bint jamiila. 'He married a beautiful girl.'
Instead of Class IV verbs, Gulf Arabs use either Class I or Class
II verbs. Examples: 9ajab, 9ata (Class I), 9allam, xabbar (Class II). ssallaf 10 'alfdiinaar. 'He borrowed 1000 dinars.'
The imperfect tense of these verbs denotes a passive-potential
6.2.4 Class V
meaning:
Almost all Class V verbs are derived from Class II verbs'or by haada ma yitbannad. 'This cannot be shut, closed.'
the prefixing of t-. They are usually reflexive of Class II; they denote 1-wagt yitqayyar. 'The time is changeable, i.e.,
the state of an object as the result of the action of the Class II verb, it is subject to change.'
i.e., the subject does something to himself. Examples:
haada s-sanduug yitbattal. 'This box can be opened.'
Class II Class V
9allam 'he taught' t9allam 'he learned' 6.2.5 Class VI
zawwaj 'he married s.o. zzawwaj 7
'he got married' Most Class VI verbs are formed from Class III verbs by prefixing
to s.o. else' t(a)-:
qayyar 'he changed s.th.' tqayyar 'it changed' Class III Class VI
wannas 'he showed s.o. twannas 'he had a good time' saawar 'he consulted s.o.* tsaawar 'he consulted
a good time' (deliberated) with s.o.'
qadda 'he gave lunch tgaabal 'he met with s.o.' ii
tqadda 'he had lunch' gaabal 'he met s.o.*
to s.o.' 'he had an interview
fassax 'he tore s.th. apart' with s.o.'
t fassax
'he took off his
clothes' Haaca 'he talked to s.o.' tHaacaw 'they (m.) talked with
each other'
Some Class V verbs are passive in meaning:
Class II Class V A few Class VI verbs are formed from adjectives:
bannad 'he shut' tbannad 'it was shut' marine 'sick' tmaarafr 'he pretended to
flamman 'he priced s.th.' 00amman 8 'it was priced' be sick'
1!
wahhag 'he involved s.o.' twahhag 'he was involved' jaahil 'ignorant' jjaahal 'he ignored s.o.'
9awwar 'he inflicted pain' t9awwar 'he was injured' Class VI verbs denote the following meanings:
tarras 'he sent s.th. or s.o.' ttarras 9
'he, it, was sent' 1. reciprocity:
txaabaraw 'they (m.) telephoned each other'
7. See 4.2 above. jjaawabaw 1 2 'they (m.) responded to each other'
8. Ibid
10. Ibid.
9. Ibid.
11. Ibid.
12. Ibid. «
s
Verbs-Derivation Al
46 The Morphology of Gulf Arabic
The irregular initial-hamzated verbs kal (var: 'akal) 'he ate' and
tsaawaran 'they (f.) consulted with each other,'
xafr (var. 'axafr) 'he took' have the following Class VII forms: nwalcal
txaasaman 'they (f.) quarreled with each other'
'it was eaten' and nwaxafr 'it was taken.'' Id
2. pretense: Class VII verbs denote the passive of Class I verbs: The object of
jjaahal 'he ignored s.o. or s.th.; he pretended a Class i Verb becomes the subject of the corresponding Class VII
to be ignorant of s.th.' verb: tiras t-taankVrlz filled the tank.': t-iaanki ntiras 'The tank was
tmaara^r 'he'pretended to be sick' filled.' Another grammatical meaning of a Class-VII verb is that its
jr&aahar 'he feigned, pretended' imperfect denotes a passive-potential sense:
,haa&a mawfruu9 ma yinHaca 'This is a subject that cannot,
This meaning usually obtains with verbs'derived'irom adjectives. shouldn't, be told, talked about.'
3. Other meanings: 'This belly cannot be filled.'
haada 1-kars ma yintiris
tabaarak 1 3 alia 'God, the blesse'd and the exalted' (i.e., It is bottomless.)
tgaa9ad 'he retired' 'Falcons are not to be roasted.'
s-sagir ma yinsiwi
(i.e., It has better uses, e.g.,
Almost all Class VI verbs are derived from transitive, < Class'III
in falconry..)
verbs as in the above examples and they have plural subjects except
in a few cases as cited above: tgaa9ad, tmaarair, and- jjaahal. Xhe
subjects of all the Class VI verbs cited above are animate. In a few 6.2.7 Class VIII
cases there may be inanimate subjects: ,, Most Class VIII verbs are formed from Class I verbs by infixing
s-sayaayiir ssaabagaw. 'The cars had a race.' -/- after the first radical, i.e., between the first and the second
1-kanapaat twaafajaw. 'The sofas matched.' radicals. Examples:
stagal 'he worked' Htifal 'lie celebrated'
6.2.6 Class VII jtima9 'he had'a meeting' ntibah 'he paid attention'
Class VII verbs are formed from transitive Class I verbs by Htaaj, 'he needed' rtaaH 'he rested'
prefixing n-. Examples: Htaaj 'he needed s.th. or s.o.'
xtaar 'he chose, selected'
Class I Class VII ftarr 'he turned around'
htamm 'he became concerned'
tiras 'he filled' ntiras 'it (he) was filled' stika 'he complained'
stara 'he bought'
9araf 'he came to know' n9araf 'it (he) became known' ktifa 'he was content
btida 'he-began'
tirak 'he left' ntirak 'it (he) was left' (with s.t.)'
simi9 'he heard' nsimi9 "it was heard' 'it became' 9tiraf 'he confessed'
stiwa
dara 'he knew' ndara 'it was known' 'he waited for s.o., s.th.' xtilaf 'it differed'
ntitrar
Haca 'he talked' nHaca 'it was said, talked a b o u t ' 'he understood' ftikar 'he thought'
ftaham
baag 'he stole' nbaag 'it was stolen' 'he got into trouble' Htarag 'it, he, got burned'
rtabas
saal 'he lifted' nsaal 'it (he) was lifted' As a class, Class VIII verbs have a reflexive or middle meaning;
dass 'he entered' ndass 'it was entered' they are reflexive of Class I verbs, i.e., they have the meaning of
gatt 'he threw away' ngatt 'it was discarded, doing s.th. to or for oneself:
thrown away'
13. tabaarak, rather than tbaarak, is literary.

48
The Morphology of Gulf Arabic
Verbs-Derivation 49
Class I
Class VIII
sima9 9ata 'he gave' sta9ta 'he sought'
ehe rd
jima9 * » ' Stima9 'he listened to s . t h '
Habb issed' staHabb 'he found s.th. or
he collected' jtima9 < he n a d a
In a s.o. nice, good* i
*w cases Class I and Class VIII verbs have similar t Ji
meanings: Underlying Adjective Class X
sara sa9b 'difficult' stas9ab 'he found s.th. difficult'
'he bought' 5tara .he
zeen 'good, fine' stazyan 'he found s.th. good'
A few Class VIII verbs have a passive meaning-
nbat 'he tied s.th.' rtabat ... g ' . J qani 'rich' staqna(9an) 'he did without 1
nasa <h r • it was tied'
"asa he forgot s.th.' Underlying Noun Class X
nta,a ...
ntasa it was forgotten' ii
6.2.8 Class IX ruxsa permission' starxas 'he had permission;
he sought permission'
Class IX verbs are characterized 'good time'
winsa staanas 'he had a good time;
Almost all of these verbs are derived by a doubled* last radical
from adjectives of color or he enjoyed himself
(physical) characteristic. Examples:
* -i • Hagg 'right, one's due' sta Hagg 'he deserved s.th.'
Adjective
Class IX yinn 'craziness' stayann 'he turned crazy'
Hamar 'refj>
Hmarr 'it turned red'
xatrar Most Class X verbs derived from Class I verbs denote the general
'green' xdarr 'it turned green' meaning of seeking, asking, or demanding for oneself what is
'abyad- 'white'
byadtr 'it turned white' expressed by the Class I verb: staqfar 'he sought forgiveness,' staradd
'aswad 'black' 'he got s.th. back,' etc. From adjectives Class X verbs express the
swadd 'it turned black'
'amlaH 'grey' general meaning of finding or considering s.th. as what is expressed
miaHH * 'it turned grey'
9awar by the underlying adjective: stas9ab 'he found s.th. difficult,' stazyan
'one-eyed' 9warr
'he grew blind in one eye' 'he found s.th. good, fine,' etc.
9a way 'crooked' 9wayy
'it turned crooked, twisted'
6.2.9 Class X
6.3 Quadriliteral Verbs
Class X verbs are characterized by a prefixed sta-. They are
derived mainly from verbs and adjectives; a few are derived from Quadriliteral verbs, sometimes referred to as quadriradical verbs,
nouns.
have four radicals. They can be simple (sound, weak, or
Underlying Verb reduplicated 14 from Class I doubled verbs) or derived. The derived
Class X
9amal ones are formed by prefixing t(a)- to the quadriliteral simple verb.
'he made, did' sta9mal
qafar 'he used' Examples of simple quadriliteral verbs:
ill 'he pardoned, sta q far Sound: la9waz 'he bothered'
forgave (a sin)' 'he sought forgiveness'
naam gasmar 'he played a prank on s.o.'
'he slept' stanwam
jaawab 'he sought sleep' xarbat 'he mixed, messed, s.th. or s.o. up'
'he answered'
(var. yaawab) stajaab 'he responded sandar 'he irritated'
(vzr.stayaab) (to a request)'
14. A reduplicated quadriliteral verb is one in which the first two radicals
are repeated, e.g.,gasgas 'he cut up s.th.'
X _s*_fc • i * ^ ^
ig—• B"-W»
50 1"'
The Morphology of Gulf Arabic Verbs-Inflection 51
Weak: reewas 'he went in reverse' 'he filled s.th.' and ntiras 's.th. was filled.' Note that the last example j
soogar 'he insured s.th.' above, under derived quadriliterals, has the meaning of 'he had (i.e.,
soolaf drank) coffee' in addition to the passive meaning.
'he talked, chattered'
It has already been pointed o u t ' i n 6.2.4 and 6.2.6 that most of
gahwa 'he welcomed s.o.'with coffee' . the negative imperfect .tenses of Class V and Class VII verbs denote a
Reduplicated: passive-potential meaning. The negative imperfect of derived
quadriliteral verbs has a similar meaning:
Class I Quadriliteral
haada r-rayyaal ma yitgasmar. 'This man cannot be tricked,
gass 'he cut off s.th.' gasgas 'he cut up s.tli.' i played a prank on.'
tagg 'he beat; he tagtag 'he tapped s.th.; haada 1-xatt ma yitsoogar. 'This letter cannot be certified,
flogged s'.o.' it tapped' registered.'
A few quadriliteral verbs are derived from nouns as in some of
the examples given above:
Noun 7. VERBS-INFLECTION
Redup. Quadriliteral
gasmara 'joking, kidding' gasmar 'he played a prank Gulf Arabic verbs are inflected for tense (perfect and
on s.o.*
imperfect), person (first, second, and third), gender (masculine and
gahwa 'coffee' gahwa 'he' welcomed s.o.
(var. ghawa) feminine), number (singular and plural), and mood (indicative and
with coffee' imperative). A perfect tense verb is not inflected for mood, i.e., a
rwees 'reverse' reewas 'he went in reverse' perfect tense verb does not have a mood. The first person singular
Examples of derived quadriliteral verbs: form of the verb is not inflected for gender, i.e., there is only one
Quadriliterals form for the person speaking, regardless of sex. Similarly there is one
Derived Quadriliterals
form for the. first person plural. Unlike some other dialects of Arabic,
Ia9waz 'he bothered' tla9,waz 'he was bothered' e.g., Lebanese, Jordanian, Egyptian, etc., GA has separate verb forms
xarbat 'he mixed, messed up' txarbat 'he was mixed up; for the second and third person feminine or plural.
it was messed up'
gasmar 'he tricked s.o.' tgasmar 'he was tricked'
gasgas 'he cut up s.th.' 7.1 Perfect Tense
tgasgas 'it was cut up'
gahwa 'he welcomed s.o. tgahwa 'he had coffee; he The perfect tense in GA corresponds to the following English
with coffee' was given coffee' tenses: simple past, e.g., he came; present perfect, e.g., he has come;
Derived quadriliteral verbs, as far as derivation is concerned, are and past perfect', e.g., he had come.
similar to Class V verbs: both verbs have the prefix t-; the structure
of a Class V verb is of the pattern tCi aC 2 C2 a C 3 ; that of a derived 7.1.1 Sound Verbs
quadriliteral verb is of the pattern t C i a C 2 C 3 a C 4 . As for meaning, The inflections of the perfect tense, usually known as the
most derived quadriliteral verbs are related to quadriliteral verbs in inflectional affixes, are all suffixes. They are the same for all verbs in
the same way as Class I verbs are related to Class VII verbs: both the language, and are listed in the following chart in the right-hand
derived quadriliteral and Class VII verbs denote the passive meaning column. The complete perfect tense conjugation of diras 'he studied'
of transitive simple quadriliteral and Class I verbs, respectively. is given as a model for all sound verbs. There are some variations in
Examples: la9waz 'he bothered' and tla9waz 'he was bothered'; tiras the conjugation of weak verbs, which are given in 7.1.2 below.
& â^^^^^^^^B^B^^^^^^^^ÎS

Verbs-Inflection 53
Classes II, HI, IV, V, IX, X w

Pronoun Verb Meaning Suffix
The conjugation of sound Class II verbs is regular; there are no
3rd p. huwa diras 'he studied' -0 stem changes, e.g.-, the verb ddrras 'to teach' has the following forms
with the inflected suffixes in parentheses. Note the stress marks.
hum drisaw 'they (m.) studied' -aw darras (-0)
hiya drisat 'she studied' -at darrasaw (-aw)
darrasat (-at)
hin dri'san 'they (f.) studied' -an darrasan (-an)
2nd p. 'inta dirast darrast (-0
'you (m.s.) studied' -t
darrastu (-tu)
'intum dirastu 'you (m.p.) studied' -tu darrasti (-ti)
'inti dirasti 'you (f.s.) studied' darrastin (-tin) ;.<
-ti ;< J
darrast (-t)
'intin dirast in 'you (f.p.) studied* -tin darrdsna (-na)
1st p. 'aana dirast 'I studied' Classes III, IV, V, and X are also regular and thus conjugated in
-t
the same way as Class II verbs.
niHin dirasna Sve studied' -na
Classes VI, VII, and VIII have two forms for the third person: the
first one is the regular forms; the other one requires an elision of the
Note the following comments on the above perfect-tense forms: last stem vowel (see 4.3.1). The latter forms are less commonly used;
a. The forms are built on and derived from the 3rd person their occurrence is due to dialect overlap. Note the stress marks. li
singular form of the verb, which is referred to as the stem: diras 'he Class VI: tsaawar 'to consult with each other'
studied.' This stem is used to refer to the verb as a whole, in the same tsaawaraw tsaawarat tsaawaran
way as the infinitive is used in English. Thus, when we say the verb
tsadwraw tsaawrat tsaawran
diras, which literally means 'he studied,' we refer to what
corresponds to the English infinitive 'to study.' 1 5 Class VII: ntiras 'to be filled (e.g., with water)'
b. Note that the stem vowel -/- and the second radical -r- are ntirasaw ntirasat ntira'san
switched before adding suffixes beginning with a vowel: drisaw 'they ntirsaw ntirsat ntirsan
(m.) studied,' drisat 'she studied,' and dri'san 'they (f.) studied,' Class VIII: stagal 'to work'
although the forms dirsaw, dirsat, and dirsan are also heard.
stagalaw stagalat stagalan
c. The first syllable of the first four forms is stressed, while the staglaw staglat staglan
second syllable of the other forms is stressed because of the CVCC
sequence: diras -+ dirast 'he studied' -* ( I studied' (see 5H). Sound quadriliteral and derived quadriliteral verbs are regular
and thus conjugated with no stem changes.
All the verbs cited in 7.1.1 are regular, and thus are conjugated
like diras.
15. From now on the third person masculine singular form of the perfect
tense will be used as the citation form of the verb, i.e., the gloss will always be
'to . . . ' rather than 'he . . . ,'
54
TJie Morphology of Gulf Arabic
^Verbs-Inflection 55
7.1.2 Weak Verbs 1 6
A. Defective * Class III ! VL
Defective verbs have two, stems: one is used befdre the third maasa 'to walk with s.o.' Haaca 't& talk with's.0.?'
person suffixes and the o'ther is used before the other suffixes, e.g., Class. IV ii
the verb, baga 'to want' ha$ the two stems bag- before -a, -aw, -at, -an 'a9ta 'to give' 'alqa 'to deliver (a speech)'
and bagee- before the rest of the suffixes. Below is the full
Class V
conjugation'of the verb baga 'to want':
tQadda , f to have l u n c f jt9assa " 'to have- supper' i(
Pronoun Verb Class VI

Meaning Suffix
,tHaaca 'to talk with'each tlaaga >. 'to "meet with each
huwa baga 'he wanted' L
other* i.fli
% other,: ., ,
hum Class VII
bagaw tHey'On.p.) wanted' -aw ndara 'to be known' nHaca
A_ 'to pe said, talked
hiya bagat -about'
'she wanted' -at
Class VIII ,,r
,hin bagan 'they"(f.p:) wanted' -an, stara 'to b u y ' ntisa. 'to be forgotten'
'inta bageet Class X
'you (m.s.) wanted' -t
sta9ta 'to seek, beg s.th.' staqna(9an) 'to do without' -
'intu bageetu 'you (m.p.),warited' -tu
Quadriliterals
'inti bageeti Vou (f.s.) wanted* -ti
' : gahwa 'to welcome s.o. with coffee' .*
'intin bagee tin" tgahwa 'he had coffee; he'was given coffee' i
Vou (f.p,) wanted' -tin
'aana The verb 'aja (var. 'aya) -»• ja (var. ya) ''to come' is a hamzated
bageet 'I wanted' weak verb. Hamzated verbs.in GA are rare; their variants (see 6.1.2
'niHin above) are more*commonly used. Like any other doubly weak verb,
bageena 'we wanted'. -na jajya has two stem's, j-jy- and jee-fyee-. Below is the full conjugation
of ja/ya:1*
Defective verbs of Classes II through VIII and Class X n and the
quadriliterals are conjugated in the same way as baga above. Pronoun Verb leaning Suffix
Examples of such verbs are:
Class II huwa ya 'he came' -a
rawwa 'to show s.o. s.th.' Hayya 'to greet s.o.' hum yaw 'they (m.p.) came' -aw *
xajla 'to leave s.o. or s.th.' sajla 'to pray'
'to let s.o. do s.th.' hiya' yat 'she came' -at
16. For the definition of Weak Verbs, see 6.1.2 above. hin yan 'they (f.p.) came' -an
17. See 7.1.3 Class IX verbs below.
18. ya, rather than ja, is more typical of GA.
s
56 The Morphology of Gulf Arabic Verbs-Inflection 57

.3
Other verbs that belong to this category are: raad 'to want,' saar
Pronoun Verb Meaning . Suffix 'to walk; to leave,' naam 'to sleep,' xaaf 'to be afraid, scared,' and
9aaf 'to loathe.'
'inta yeet 'you (m.s.) came' -t
Class VII hollow verbs also have the same perfect stem patterns
'intum —tu 'you (m.p.) came' as this subclass of hollow verbs, i.e., nCaaC- and nCiC-. Example:
-tu
nsaab 'to be hit.' Other examples are: nbaag 'to be stolen,* nsaal 'to
'inti —ti 'you (f.s.) came* -ti be lifted, carried,' ngaal 'to be said, mentioned,' and nraad 'to be
wanted, desired.'
'intin —tin 'you (f.p.) came' -tin
Classes VIII and X
'aana yeet 'I came' -t Classes VIII and X hollow verbs have the perfect stems CtaaC-
CtaC-, and staCaaC- staCaC-, respectively. Examples:
niHin —na 'we came' -na Class VIII: Htaaj 'to need, be in need of s.th. or s.o.'
Htaaj Htaajaw Htaajat Htaajan
This verb has another set of forms in the perfect tense. These Htajt Htajtu Htajti Htajtin Htajt Htajna
forms are used before the first and second person inflectional
Class X: staraaH 'to rest'
suffixes: yiit, yiitu, yiiti, yiitin, yiit, and yiina. These forms are in
staraaH staraaHaw staraaHat staraaHan
free variation with yeet, yeetu, etc.
staraHt staraHtu staraHti staraHtin staraHat staraHna
B. Hollow
Hollow verbs are based on roots whose second radical is w ox y, 7.1.3 Doubled Verbs
e.g., GWL 'to say,' SYR 'to leave,' etc. In GA there are hollow verbs The perfect-tense stems of doubled verbs end with two identical
in Classes I, VII, VIII, and X. consonants. The stems of these verbs remain unchanged before the
Classes I and VII third p'erson suffixes; before the other suffixes the long vowel ee is
Like defective verbs, hollow verbs have two perfect tense stems. added, e.g., Hatteet T put.' In this category there are verbs of Class I,
For one such class of hollow verbs, the two perfect stem patterns are VII, VIII, IX, and X. Below are the perfect-tense forms of the verb
CaaC- for the third person endings and CiC-/CuC- for the other dass 'to enter.'
persons. Below are the full perfect-tense forms of the verb gaal 'to dass dassaw dassat dassan
say.'
dasseet dasseetu dasseeti dasseetin dasseet dasseena
gaal gaalaw gaalat gaalan Other examples of Class I doubled verbs like dass are: laff 'to
gilt/gult gittu/gultu gilti/gulti make a turn,' tagg 'to hit s.o.; to flog s.o.,' sakk 'to close, shut,' nass
giltin/gultin gilt/gult gilna/gulna 'to wake up,' and gatt 'to throw away, discard s.th.'
The alternate pattern, i.e., CuC-, is less commonly used. Other Classes II and III verbs are conjugated like sound verbs, e.g.,
verbs that conform to this pattern are: saaf (var. caaf) 'to see,' kaan Class II dallal 'to auction' has the forms dallal, dallalaw, dallalat,
(var. caan) 'to be,* fraaj 'to get bored,' and raaH 'to go.' etc. and Class III Haajaj 'to argue' has the forms Haajaj, Haajajaw,
The other subclass of hollow verbs have the perfect stem Haajajat, etc.
patterns CaaC- and CiC- only. Examples: Class VII ti
taaH 'to fall down' ndass 'to be entered' nHabb 'to be liked, loved'
taaH taaHaw taaHat taaHan ngatt 'to be thrown away' nsakk 'to be shut, closed*
tiHt tiHtu tiHti tiHtin tiHt tiHna
• *TF-
58 The Morphology of Gulf Arabic v

Verbs-Inflection 59
Class VIII
ftarr 'to turn around' Pronoun, Verb Meaning Affixes ii1
mtadd 'to stretch o u t '
htamm 'to be,concerned' Htayy 'tq protest' * ya-in
hin yadrisin 'they (f.) study'
Class IX
1
Hmarr 'to.jturn red' 9wayy 'to turn crooked, ., 'intum tadrisuun 'you (m.p.) study' ta-uUn
twisted'
zragg ''to turn blue' 'intin ' tadrisin 'you (f^p.) study' ta-in
bya&d- 'to turn white'
Class X
i niHin nadris 'we study' na-
staHagg 'to deserve' staHabb 'to ljke'
sta9add 'to be ready' " stamarr 'to continue'*
Note the following comments on the above imperfect-tense
forms:
7.2 Imperfect Tense a. The third person masculine prefix is ya-; for the second
person it is ta-; for the first person singular it is 'a-; for the first
The inflectional affixes of the imperfect tense are .either person plural it is na-.
prefixes or a combination of prefixes/and suffices! Each imperfect b. The third person feminine singular and second person
tense verb is made up of a subject marker and a stem. masculine singular prefixes are identical, i.e., ta-; the second and
third person masculine plural suffixes are identical (-uun) and in
7.2.1 Sound Verbs
addition the feminine plural suffixes are also identical (-in).
Below is a model conjugation of the imperfect verb diras19 'to c. The prefixes ya- and ta- have two other corresponding free
study.'
variants, namely, yi- and ti-. The second person feminine singular
suffix -iin is in free variation with -een and similarly -uun with -oon
Pronoun Verb Meaning Affixes' in the second and third person masculine plural forms, -een and -oon
huwa are preserved in the speech of older and uneducated Gulf Arabs.
yadris. 'he studies' ya-
d. The imperfect tense in GA expresses one or more of the
hiya tadris 'she studies' ta- following meanings:
'inta (i) habitual: 'adris 9arabi kill yoom.

tadris" 'you (m.s.) study' ta- 'I study Arabic every day.'
'inti tadrisiin | 'you (f.s.) study' ta-iin (ii) general truth value ("generic," "dispositional," etc.):
yitkallam 9arabi zeen. 'He speaks Arabic well.'
aana 'adris 'I study' a- (hi) progressive: yadris 9arabi halHiin.
hum 'He is studying Arabic now.'
yadrisuun 'they (m.) study' ,ya—uun
(iv) future: yadris baacir?
'Will he, is he going to, study tomorrow?'
19. From now on imperfect stems are cited between hyphens, e.g., -dris- Some verbs in GA express in the imperfect tense not an action
'to study' as opposed to the perfect stem diras 'to Study,' which is the third or activity but a state, condition or quality; these are called stative
person masculine singular form.
verbs, the imperfect tense of which may have either of the two
60 IT
Verbs-Inflection 61
ip ; !
meanings of (ii) and (iv), e.g., yHasdak 'he envies y o u ' an8 yHasddk"
biduun safck 'he will without doubt envy you.' It has already been pointed out in 6.1.1 that verbs of the fi9il
type ai*e usually f replaced by t h e / a 9 a / type. It should be pointed out
Stem Vowels that their imperfect tense forms are of the yif9aljyaf9al pattern and
Both perfect and imperfect tenses haVe stem vowels. The stem never the yaf9il pattern.
vowel of a triradical verb, whether in the perfect or imperfebt tense, d. If the initial radical of a perfect tense verb is a" velar, a
is the vowel preceding the last radicaj. In MSA and most dialects pf pharyngeal, or the glottal fricative (i.e.,,*, g; H, 9; or h), then the
Arabic the stem vowel "of the imperfect tense" is predictable from the imperfect tense7 form is of the pattern yfa9til (see APPENDIX IV).
perfect tense stem vowel. In GA the predictability of the imperfect Examples: '
tense stem vowels is more difficult due to the past tense alternate
Perfect Imperfect Meaning *•
patterns or variants, e.g., the fa9al and ft9il patterns are usedalmbst
interchangeably (see 6.1.1). However, some general remarks can be xataf yxatif 'to make off with s.th.' j'j'i
made about the formation,of the imperfect tense ..forms. Note the xatab yxatib 'to give a speech'
following:
galat ygalit 'to make a mistake'
a. Perfect tense verbs of the fa9al or fi9al type (see 6 . 1 . ] ) form gasal ygasil i 'to wash'
their imperfect tense verbs according to the pattern yaf9il or yif9al. Halaf 'yHalif 'to take an oath'
Examples:
Hasad yHasfd > 'to envy s.o.'
Perfect Imperfect Meaning y9amil 'to make, do, s.th.'
9amal
diras yadris 'to study' 9iraf y9arif 'to k n o w '
tirak yatrik 'to leave s.o. or s.th.' hid am yhadim 'to destroy, demolish'
baraz yabriz 'to be ready' hairar yha&ir 'to waste s.th.'
sarad yasrid 'to flee; to go away'
ragas e. Past tense verbs with initial w- have the pattern yoo9al for
yargis 'to dance' their imperfect tense verbs:
tiras yatris
'to fill s.th. or s.o. with s.th.' wisal yoosal 'to reach (a place)'
la9ab yal9ab/yil9ab 'to play' wagaf yoogaf 'to stop; to stand up'
difa9 20
yadfa9/yidfa9 'to pay' wizan yoozan/yaazin 'to weigh'
fitaH yaftaH/yiftaH 'to open' Those with initial y- have the pattern yee9al for their imperfect
tibax yatbax/yitbax 'to cook' tense verbs:
yibis yeebas 'to get dry'
b. Some of the perfect tense verbs cited above also have the
fi9al pattern as was pointed out in 6.1.1. yitim yeetam 'to be orphaned'
c. Perfect tense verbs of the fi9il type form their imperfect f. Hamzated verbs (see 6.1.2) have the pattern yaa9il for their
tense according to the pattern yif9al or yaf9ai Examples: imperfect tense forms:
J i
Perfect Imperfect Meaning 'akal/kal yaakil 'to eat'
sirib yisrab/yasrab 'to drink' 'axaTr/xaTT yaaxrir 'to take'
riji9 yirja9/yarja9 'to return'
simi9 yisma9/yasma9 'to hear; to listen t o ' 20. The alternate fotmyaazin is more commonly heard than yoozan.
v W i J T * f -f*rwîF
62 7%e Morphology of Gulf Arabic Verbs-Inflection 63

\A
The Imperative -srab- 'israb 'drink (m.s.)!'
ht\
The imperative is used in giving commands, i.e., in telling or -rja9- 'irja9 ' c o m e b a c k (m.s.)!'
asking someone or a group of people to do sofnething, e.g-., 'iktib
b. Perfect tense verbs whose initial radical is a velar, a
'write! (m.s.)' and 'ixtraw! 'take! (m.p.).' All imperatives in GA have
pharyngeal, or the glottal fricative h usually have the patterns -f9il-
four different forms, reflecting differences in gender and number:
masculine singular, masculine plural, feminine singular, and feminine and -f9al- as above or -fi9l~, especially with suffixed pronouns: 'i9rif
plural. Nearly all the imperative forms are formed from the imperfect 'know,' ixdim 'serve!', igsil *wash!', 'ihdim 'destroy!', 'i9mal 'make; 11
stems of verbs. The masculine singular form of the imperative is the do!', 'ixsar 'lose!', 'ixlas 'finish!'. Note the following forms with
i:
base of all the other forms which are formed by suffixing -/ (f.s.), suffixed pronouns:
-uj-aw (m.p.), and -an (f.p.). Below are the forms of the imperative of 'iHlib'milk (m.s.)!'-• Hilba 2 3 'milk (m.s.) it (m.)!'
the verb 'to study.' The imperfect stem is -dris-: Hilbii 'milk (f.s.) it (m.) or him!'
M
'idris 'study (m.s.)!' Hilbuu 'milk (m.p.) it (m.) or him!'
'idirsi 'study (f.s.)!' (var. Hilboo)
'idirsu 'study (m.p.)!' All forms usually lose initial 7- when a suffixed pronoun is added.
'idirsan 'study (f.p.)!' c. Past tense verbs with initial w- (which have the imperfect
tense pattern a$yoo9al) have the imperative pattern 'oo9al:
Note that 'idris 'study (m.s.)!' becomes 'idirsi rather than idrisi
due to vowel elision and anaptyxis (see 4.1 and 4.3.1). The helping y o o s a l ' h e reaches (a place)' •+ 'oosal'reach (m.s.)!'
vowel -/- is inserted after the first consonant. It should be pointed yoogaf 'he stops; he stands up' -+ 'oogaf 'stop: stand up (m.s.)!'
out that the forms 'idrisi, 'idrisu, and 'idrisan are also heard. In the wizan 'to weigh* has two imperative forms, namely, 'oozan and
speech of Bedouins and nomadic tribes, the prefix 'i- tends to be
'aazin. The latter is more commonly used, however.
dropped: dris, dirsi (var. dirsay), dirsu (var. dirsaw), and dirsan. (See
6.1.2 and (d) below.) d. The imperative of hamzated verbs has two patterns, one with
The following rules pertain to the formation of the masculine the prefix 'i- and the other without it. This latter pattern is more
singular imperatives of sound verbs of Class I. commonly used:
a. 'i- is usually prefixed to the imperfect stems of the patterns xafl-'totake' -+ 'ixfr/xit> 'take (m.s.)!'
-f9il- and -f9al-. k a l ' t o e a t ' -• 'ikil/kil'eat (m.s.)!'
Imperfect Stem Imperative
ill Meaning Classes II-X and Quadriliterals
fq -dris- 'idris 'study (m.s.)!' The imperfect stem vowel of sound verbs of Classes II-IV, VIII,
l\\ -trik- 'itrik and X is -i-. That of the other Classes, i.e., Classes V, VI, VII, and IX
'leave (m.s.)!*
bl -tris- 'itris is -a-. In most dialects the imperfect prefixes are y(i)- and t(i)-,
'fill up s.th. (m.s.)!'
1 j11 -tbax- 'itbax although y(a)- and t(a)- are also heard. The vowels (a) and (i) in the
'cook (m.s.)!'
\ I -19ab- imperfect prefixes are obligatory if they precede a consonant cluster;
'il9ab 'play (m.s.)!' if they precede one consonant their use is usually optional.
411 -srid- 'isrid/'usrud 21
'run away (m.s.)!' Examples of imperfect tense verbs with -/- as a stem vowel:
-rgus- 22
fI 'irgis/'urgus 'dance (m.s.)!'
J
23. As in the proverbial phrase: nguul Boor yguul Hilba 'We say "bull"
""1 21. The alternate forms 'usrud and 'urgusm are also heard, especially among
educated young Abu Dhabians. and he says "milk it!",' i.e., he is being completely unreasonable.
ip"
22. Ibid.
l l
64
Verbs-Inflection 65
Perfect
* CfJCtl
Class II ' , ^Perfect, y9awwir •* y9awruun 'they injure s.o.'
yfannis ->, tfansiin ^you (f.s.) terrrnnate your own,^
,9awwar 'to injure s.o.' ,/Q
s.d. else's, services' ,
'r. t " y9awwir
tannas to terminate pne's services' yfani,jj yitwaafag" -*• yitwaafgan
'they (f.p.) are, will be, if'
'Class III
successful* *
L
xaasam 'f 0 quarrel with s'.o." !« •'
yxaasim Sou*nd quadriliteral? have the stem vowel -/- after the third
waafag 'to agree'
Class IV ywaafig radical. Examples:
gasmar 'to trick s.o/! -* ygasmir 'he tricks s.o.'
a9jab 'to.please s.o.' Ia9waz' 'to bo'ther s.o.'1 -»• yla9wiz 'he bothers s.o.'
yi9jib
'axbar ^ ' 'to,inform s.o.* Sound derived quadriliterals" have" the stem vowel -a- after "the,,
Class VIII l yixbir
thircWadical. Examples: i }[
staga'l ;to work' tgasmar 'to-be tricked' -> yitgasmar 'he is tricked'
yistagil
HtifaJ 'to celebrate' tla9waz' 'to He bothered" -*• yitla9waz 'he is bothered'
Class X . yifftafil
t The Imperative
staqfar "to seek'foregivenesy The imperative forms of sound .verbs of Classes II, III, V, VI,
yistaqfi'r
starts "to ask permission' y]stapx- VIII, X ' a n d ' o f quadriliterals are the'same as the imperfect stems, of
yistarxis
, B x a . p i e s or imperfec, tense verbs W l t h . a . , s k stem ^ those verbs. The imperatives of verbs oJf Classes VII, IX, and of the
derived1 quadriliterals are not usually use'd. Verbs of Class IV 25'Tiave
V- prefixed to the'imperfect stem.
t — , t o have a good'time' y i t w a M a s
twahhag 'to be, involved' '• - t .. Class Perfect * •Imperfect Sjem Imperative ,
Class VI yitwahhag i* a
II,. 9awwsh> 'to injure s.o.' 9awwir!
tsaawar 'to consult with each other' y i & a w a r -^[awwir- 'injure s.o. (m.s.V.'
W a g "to match each other' yitwaafag Ill saafar 'io-travel' saafir!
Class VII
' -s'aafir- 'travel (m.s.)!'
ntiras €
to be filled1 IV 'a91an 'to announce' 'i9Iin!
nwakal yintaras/yintiris
'to be eaten' -9lin- 'announce (m.s.)!'
Class IX yinwakal/yinwikil
V twannas« 'tb enjoy oneself ('i)twannas!
Hmarr 'to turn red' .« ,-twannas- 'enjoy yourself (m.s.)!'
bya&d- yirimarr
to turn white' , .. ^ VI tsaawar 'to c6nsult with s.o.' tsaawar!
Nnf *u * • yibya^-
-tasaa war- 'consult s.o.! 1
9
VII not usually used
d o u b l e t n l l ^ ^ r e d t o ' ^ ^ '^ ~ "•' ^
t
25. See 6.2.3.
24. See 4.3.2.
Bi
P

Ji
i' *ViV
darat tadri 'she knows'
Class Perfect Imperfect Stem Imperative 'they (f.) know' I.
daran yadrin
VIII stagal 'to work' ('i-)stagil! dareet tadri 'you (m.s.) know'
-stagil- 'work (m.s.)!' tadruun 'you (m.p.) know'
dareetu
IX 'you (f.s.) know' r •
not usually used dareeti tadriiri
X starxas 'to ask for permission ('i)starxis dareetin tadrin 'you (f.p.) know'
(to go)' 'ask for permission 'adri 'I know' !«r
dareet
-starxis- (to go) (m.s.)!' 'we know'
dareena nadri
Quad. garbal 'to irritate s.o.' garbil! Note that the third person plural suffixes are identical in both
-garbil- 'irritate (m.s.) s.o.!' stem types. Similarly the second person plural and the second person
Der. feminine singular are also identical. This is due to vowel elision:
Quad. not usually used
yabga 'he stays' + -uun -+ yabguun 'they (m.) stay*
yadri 'he knows* + -uun -*• yadruun 'they (m.) know'
7.2.2 Weak Verbs 2 6 tabgiin 'you (f.s.) stay' + -in -+ tabgin 'you'(f.p.) stay' IB
A. Defective tadriin 'you (f.s.) know' + -in -*• tadrin 'you (f.p.) know'*
The verb baga 'to want' is an interesting verb. With its two
Class I
variant imperfect forms yabga and yabgi/yabi, it behaves
Class I defective verbs have two imperfect stems: -f9a- and -f9i-
inflectionalty like yabga 'he stays' and yadri 'he knows.' Note that
The imperfect prefix is either ya- or yi-. The paradigm below gives
yabi is in free variation with yabgi. *yaba is ungrammatical.
the inflection of the imperfect of both kinds of defective verbs.
The imperfect of the verb ja/ya 'to come* is yaji and is
Perfect Imperfect Meaning
conjugated like yadri 'he knows.'
baga yabga 'he stays' The imperative forms of Class I defective verbs have the prefix
bagaw yabguun 'they (m.) stay' 'i-:
bagat tabga 'she stays' 'ibga 'stay (m.s.)!' 'ibgu/'ibgaw 'stay (m.p.)!'
bagan yabgin 'they (f.) stay* 'ibgi 'stay (f.s.)!' 'ibgin 'stay (f.p.)!'
bageet tabga 'you (m.s.) stay'
MHci 'talk (m.s.)!' 'iHcu/'iHcaw 'talk (m.p.)!'
bageetu tabguun 'you (m.p.) stay'
'iHci 'talk(f.s.)!' 'iHcin 'talk (f.p.)!'
bageeti tabgiin 'you (f.s.) stay'
bageet in tabgin The imperative form ta9aal of the verb ja/ya 'to come' is
'you (f.p.) stay*
bageet 'abga irregular:
'Istay'
bageena nabga ta9aal 'come (m.s.)!' ta9aalu/ta9aalaw 'come (m.p.)!'
'we stay'
ta9aali 'come (f.s.)!' ta9aalin 'come (f.p.)!'
dara yadri 'he knows' The imperfect of verbs of Classes II-1V, VIII, and X 2 7 have the
daraw yadruun 'they (m.) know' stem vowel -i. Examples:
26. For the definition of Weak Verbs, see 6.1.2 above. 27. Defective verbs of Class IX do not occur in GA.
Verbs-Inflection •69
b. The imperfect stems' and the perfect stems of derived h'l

defective verbs are identical except for the final vowel.
'to show' yrawwi 'he shows'
c. 'a- is dropped from hamzated Class iV verbs before the
*tp greet' yHayyi 'he greets'
derivational prefix yi-.
The imperative forms of derived defective verbs ha've no
'to'talktas'.o.' yHaacT 'he'talks to s.o.' prefixes except for verbs of Class IV, which usually have the prefix
'to call to s.'o.' ynaadi 'he calls to s.o.' '/'-. No imperative forms are derived from defective verbs of Class VII.
Examples:
'alqa 'to deliver yilqr- 'he delivers rawwi! (^Class II) 'show (m.s.)!'
(a speech)' (a speech)' naadi! (Class III) 'call to s.o. (m.s.)!'
'axla '.to vacate' yixli 'he vacates 'ilqi! (Class IV) 'deliver (a speech) (m.s.)!' t
; (a.place)', (a place)'
tmassa! (Class V) 'stroll (m.s.)!'
lass-Vlil
tlaaga! (Class VI) 'meet with s.o. (m.s.)!'
stika 'to complain' yrstiki 'he complains'
stiki! (Class VIII) 'compjain (m.s.)!'
ktasa 'to get dressed' yiktasi 'he gets dressed*
sta9tU (Class X) 'beg (m.s.)!'
lass X
r ' E:
yista9ti 'he begs s.th.' '' B. f o l l o w
sta9ta 'to beg s.th.*
yistaqni 'he does without' Class I
staqna 9an 'to do without'
The other classes, i.e., V, VI, and VII have the stem vowel -a for Class I hollow verbs have three imperfect stem patterns: -fuul-,'
their imperfedt forms. Examples: -fill-, and -faal-. Examples:
bass V Pattern'I: -fuul-: gaal 'to say' -* yguul 'he says'
•i yguuluun 'they (m.) say'
tmassa yguul 'he says'
'to stroll' yitmassa 'he strolls'
t9assa tguul *she says* yguulin 'they (f.) say'
'to have ,dinner' yit9assa 'he has dinner'
Class VI tguul 'you (m.s.) say' tguuluun 'you (m.p.) say*
tlaaga tguuliin 'you (f.s.) say' tguulin 'you (f.p'.) say'
'to meet each other' yitlaaga 'he meets with s.o.'
twaaza 'to, be in difficulties' yitwaaza 'he is, will be,, 'aauul T say' nguul 'we say1"
in dffficultie's' Other verbs that belong to this category are: -ruuH- 'to go,' -fruuj- 'to
Class VII get bored,' -buug- 'to steal,' -suuf- 'to see,' and -kuun- 'to be.' The
ndara 'to be-known' yindara 'it is, will be, perfect tense kaan (var. caan) 'to be' has only one imperfect stem:
Ill -kuun-, not *-cuun-
known'
nHaca 'to be talked about, yinHaca 'it is, will be, Pattem II: -fiil-: taaH 'to fall down' -+ ytiiH 'he falls down'
mentioned' talked about, ytiiH 'he falls down' ytiiHuun 'they (m.) fall d o w n '
mentioned' ttiiH 'she falls down' ytiiHin 'they (f.) fall down'
Note the following: ttiiH 'you (m.s.) fall ttiiHuun 'you (m.p.) fall down'
*
I rB a. The final vowel of all defective verbs in the imperfect tense is down'
dropped before suffixes.
m
ttiiHiin 'you (f.s.) fall ttiiHin 'you (f.p.) fall down' xtaar yixtaar 'to choose, select'
down' The perfect and imperfect stems of hollow verbs of Classes VII
'atiiH 'I fall down* ntiiH 'we fall down' and VIII are identical. The inflectional prefix is usually yi- as in the
Other verbs that belong to this category are: -bii9- 'to sell,' -siir- 'to above cited examples. The imperative form of verbs of Class VIII is
become,' -riid- 'to want,' -siil- 'to lift, carry s.th.,' and siir- 'to leave; the same as their imperfect stems:
to go to a place.' rtaaH 'rest (m.s.)!' rtaaHu/rtaaHaw 'rest (m.p.)!'
Pattern HI: -foal-: naam 'to sleep' -+ ynaam 'he sleeps' rtaaHi 'rest (f.s.)!' rtaaHin 'rest (f.p.)!'
ynaam 'he sleeps' ynaamuun 'they (m.) sleep'
tnaam 'she sleeps' ynaamin 'they (f.) sleep' Class X
Class X hollow verbs have -stafiil- as their imperfect stem
tnaam 'you (m.s.) sleep' tnaamuun You (m.p.) sleep* Hf
pattern. T h e derivational prefix is either yi- or ya-. Examples:
tnaamiin 'you (f.s.) sleep' tnaam in 'you (f.p.) sleep' yistariiHuun 'they (m.) rest'
yistariiH 'he rests'
'anaam 'I sleep' nnaam 'we sleep' yistariiHin 'they (f.) rest'
tistariiH 'she rests'
Other verbs that belong to this category are: -xaaf- 'to fear s.o., s.th.; 'you (m.p.) rest'
tistariiH 'you (m.s.) rest' tistariiHuun
to be afraid,' -boat- 'to spend the night,' and -y9aaf- 'to loathe.' 'you (f.p.) rest'
tistariiHiin 'you (f.s.) rest' tistariiHin
The imperative forms of Class I hollow verbs are the same as nistariiH 'we rest'
'astariiH T rest'
their imperfect stems. Examples:
The imperative form of Class X hollow verbs is the same as its
guul 'say (m.s.)!' guulu/guulaw 'say (m.p.)!'
imperfect stem. Examples: stariiH, stariiHi, stariiHu/stariiHaw, and
guuli 'say (f.s.)!' guulin 'say (f.p.)!*
stariiHin.
siil 'carry, lift (m.s.)!' siilu/siilaw 'carry, lift (m.p.)!'
7.2.3 Doubled Verbs
siili 'carry, lift (f.s.)!' siilin 'carry, lift (f.p.)!'
Class I
naam 'sleep (m.s.)!' naamu/naamaw 'sleep (m.p.)!' Doubled verbs of Class I have two imperfect stem vowels: -/- or
naami 'sleep (f.s.)!' naamin 'sleep (f.p.)!' -«-. 2 9 Below are the imperfect forms of the verbs dass ydiss, 'to
enter' and Halt yHutt 'to put, place. 1
Derived hollow verbs that occur in GA are those of Classes VII, yHutt yHutt uun
ydiss ydiss uun
VIII, and X only. 3 8 Examples:
ydissin tHutt yHutt in
Class VII ddiss
ddissuun tHutt tHuttuun
nsaal y in saal ddiss
'to be lifted, carried'
ddissin tHuttiin tHuttin
ngaal yingaal ddissiin
'to be said, mentioned'
ndiss 'aHutt nHutt
nsaaf yinsaaf 'adiss
'to be seen'
Other verbs that have the same imperfect stem as dass are:
Class VIII
sakk ysikk 'to shut, close (the door)'
rtaaH yirtaaH 'to rest'
laff yliff 'to turn (e.g., left)'
Htaaj yiHtaaj 'to need s.th.'
28. Hollow verbs of Class IV are rare in GA; they are mainly borrowings 29. In rare cases the stem vowel -a- is heard, e.g., tagg-ytagg 'to flog, beat
from MSA or 'pan-Arabic' koine forms. s.o./ 9adfr-y9abfr 'to bite.'
.SittZ w ,E*WWBI3WSIB'*'l*T "?WK
xamm ^ximm 'Jo sweep (e.g., the floor)' -sfarr- '* 'to turn y611ow'
-9add y9idd 'to count' -9wayyr " ''to grow crooked*
-^warr- 'to grow; blind' in one'eye" 1
nass yniss 'to™ wake up'
gatt ygitt 'to throw away' The imperative f6rms of these verbs, are the same as their
perfect stems: * , . -» ,
Habb yHibb 'to kiss; to like' <•
dagg ydigg 'to knock' ngatt ' 'beat i% go away (m'.s.)!'
n ftarr ' ' 'turn around (m.s.)!'
sail ysill 'to steal, take away, s.th.'
Class-X doubled verbs have" the imperfect stem vowel -i- for
•9agg y9igg " 'to throw a w a y s.th.'
their imperfect forms. "Below are the imperfect forms of the fverb
Other verbs that have the same imperfect stem as Hdtt are; staHagg 'to deserve.,' ( *' r v
tagg ytugg "' 'to flog, beat* yistaHigg 'he deserves' yistaHigguun it 'they,(m.p.) A
9a&9- y9ua^ ',to bitd' i- , "' deserve 1
jarr yjuh" 'to pull, drag' tistariigg 'she deserves*' r , yistaHiggin 'the^(f.p.)
M deserve'
The imperative .forms of doubled verbs of Class I are the same as
their'imperfect stem: >you (m.s.)'desepve' tistaHigguun 'you '(m.p .>
tistaHigg n
rtt Reserve'
diss 'ehte*r-(m.s.)!' "dissu/dissaw 'enter (m.p.)!'
tistaHiggiin 'you/(f.s.) deserve' tistaHiggin 'ybW(f.p.')
dissi 'enter (f.s.)!' dissin 'enter (f.p.)!' Jf deserve'
T (n
jurr 'pull, drag (m.s.)!' jurru/jurraw ''pull, drag (m.*p.)!' i,
• 'astaHigg T d&erye' nistaHigg 'we deserve
jurri 'pull, drag (f.s.)!' jurrin 'pull, drag (f.p.)!'
The imperfect stem ,of doubled verbs of Classes *VH, VIII, and Other examples:
IX are identical with their perfect stems. Below are imperfect stems yistaHibb' '.to-like s.th.'-
staHabb 1
of some Class VII doubled verbs: it
sta9add "yista9idd
-ndass- 'to be entered' 'to be, get ready'
staradd- yistaridd
-nsakk- 'to be shut, closed' 'to regain, get bacl£ s.th,'
stamarr yistamirr
-n9add- 'to be counted' 'to continue to do s.th.'
The imperative form of these verbs is the 1 same as its imperfect •
-nHabb- 'to be kissed, to be liked'
stem:
-ngatt- 'to be thrown away' 1
sta9idd 'get ready (m.s.)!'
-nxarnm- 'to be swept'
staridd 'get s.th. back (m.s.)!'
Examples of imperfect stems of Class VIII doubled verbs are: stamirr* 'go'on (doing s.th.) (m'.s.)!'*
-ftarr- 'to turn around' No doubled quadriliterals or derived quadriliterals have been
«
-htamm- 'to be concerned; to be interested' recorded. However, borrowings from MSA and the speech of Arab
-Htall- 'to conquer, occupy' immigrants in the Gulf have been heard on formal occasions: sma'azz
(imperfect yisma'izz) 'to feel, be disgusted,' tma'ann (impprfect
Examples of imperfect stems of Class IX doubled verbs are:
yitma'inn) 'to be reassured,' etc.
-zragg- 'to turn blue'
-Hmarr- 'to turn red'
-'JJ
74 The Morphology of Gulf Arabic Nouns-Derivation 75
8. NOUNS-DERIVATION 2. fa91
Verb Verbal Noun
The majority of nouns in GA are derived from verbs, adjectives, 'beating, striking'-
irarab 'to hit, beat* torb
and other nouns. Examples:
tirak 'to leave' tark 'leaving*
saag 'to drive' -*• swaaga 'driving'
ragas 'to dance' rags 'dancing'
'amiin 'honest' -*• 'amaana 'honesty'
tiras 'to fill' tars 'filling'
rayyaal 'man' -* rujuula 'manliness'
fitaH 'tcopen' fatH 'opening; conquering
Below are the kinds of nouns: (a city)'
caxtab 'to tell lies'" cadb 'telling lies; lies'
8.1 Verbal Nouns
fa9l is also a common pattern for triradical doubled verbs:
Verbal Nouns are nouns, the great majority of which are derived 'to catch, get hold zaxx 'getting hold of
zaxx
from verbs, which express or name the underlying notion of the verb, "of s.o. ors'.th.' s.o. or s.th.'
as opposed to concrete nouns, e.g., the verbal noun swaaga 'driving' 'to throw away' gatt 'throwing away'
gatt
denotes the act of driving as opposed to saayig 'driver,' which
sakk 'to close (the door)' sakk 'closing (the door)'
denotes the person whose j o b is driving. Verbal nouns may indicate
an event, a function, a state, or a quality of the underlying verb, as dass 'to enter* dass 'entering; entry'
will be shown below. zagg 'to deficate' zagg 'deficating'
nass 'to wake up' nass 'waking up'
8.1.1 Class I
tagg 'to flog, beat' tagg 'flogging, beating'
The derivation of verbal nouns from Class I verbs is irregular.
There are many patterns of the verbal noun, which might be of use 3. fa9al
to the student, but it is best to learn the verbal noun along with its ganas 'hunting'
ganas 'to hunt'
root verb. The following are the most common patterns 3 0 for Class I
simi9 'to hear' sama9 'hearing'
triradical verbs:
9imil 'to make, do' 9amal 'making; work, j o b '
1. fu9uul/f9uul harab 'running away'
harab 'to run away'
Verb Verbal Noun
harab 4. f9aala
'to break away' h(u)ruub 'breaking away'
zaar 'to visit' zyaara 'yisiting; visit'
riji9 'to return' r(u)juu9 'going back, returning'
saag 'to drive' swaaga 'driving'
sarad 'to run away' s(u)ruud 'running away'
zaad 'to increase' zyaada 'excess; increment'
wisal 'to arrive' w(u)suul 'arrival, arriving'
diras 'to study' d(i)raasa 'studying; studies'
9ibar 'to cross' 9(u)buur 'crossing; a crossing'
baraz 'to be ready' b(u)ruuz 'being ready' 5. maf9ila
9irif 'to know' ma9rifa 'knowledge',
30. The order in which the patterns appear is not proportional to their nazal 'to dwell' manzila 'rank, status'
frequency.
!A
fi
76 The Morphology of Gulf Arabic 77
Nouns-Derivation
6. fa9i
8.1.2 Class II
M!
This is a common pattern for verbal nouns derived from The verbal nouns of verbs of Classes II-X follow predictable
defective verbs:
patterns. The patterns for verbal nduns of Class II verbs are taf9iil for
Verb Verbal ftoun sound verbs, and taf9ila or taf9i9a for defective verbs:
baga 'to want' bagi Verb Verbal Noun
'wanting, desiring 5
misa 'to walk' masi fannas 'to terminate s.o.'s tafniis 'terminating;
'walking'
Haca 'to speak' (or his own) services' termination'
Haci 'talking; talk'
sawa 'to roast' darras 'to .teach' tadriis 'teaching, instructing'
sawi 'roasting'
9awwar 'to inflict pain 1 ta9wiir '(attack of) illness;
7 , fool/feel injury'
Most hollow verbs of Class I with the imperfect stem patterns cayyak 'to check' tacyiik 'checking'
-fuul- or -faal- liave their verbal nouns according to the pattern fool: Hayya 'to greet s.o.' taHiyya 'greeting s.o.;
IP l l l l gaal
'to say' gool a greet ing?
'saying'
II III' I'I
ilji II IB daaj 'to be bored' rabba 'to bring up; tarbiya 'bring up; education*
ôoj' 'being b o r e d '
III Jill! to educate'
II H| baag 'tq steal' boog 'stealing; theft'
iiln Jllll 1 v
s The verbal noun associated with salla 'to pray' is salaa 'praying;
PCI'M âf 'to see' soof 'seeing'
III"! ™ilSl! prayer.'
| f|l naam 'to sleep' noom 'sleeping'
I'IIM xaaf 'to be afraid' xoof
'being afriad; fear' 8.1.3 Class III
IPjIIIII Those with the imperfect stem pattern -fill- usually have/ee/ as Verbal nouns of Class III verbis have two patterns: mfaa9ala for
11
li their verbal noun pattern:
sound verbs and mfaa9aa for defective verbs:
saar
1' 'fllll 'to leave; t o walk' seer 'leaving; v/alking' saa9ad 'to help s.o.' rrisaa9ada 'help, assistance'
L fl -saad t o h u n t ; t o catch seed 'hunting; catching' 'to agree' mwaafaga 'agreement' 1
waafag
§aal
Pi!" J 't0 lift
' seel 'lifting, carrying' Haawal 'to try' mHaawala 'trial, act of trying'
I'll
xaabar 'to telephone' mxaabara 'telephone
8 fi91
I f 1 '
conversation'
till 9alam ''to come t o know' 9ilm 'knowing; science'
Mli J IrJiH Haaca 'to talk to s.o.' mHaacaa 'talking to s.o.'
sada
P l l S 't0 teI1 t h e truth
' sidg/sidj 'telling the t r u t h ; 'to be equal'to;
saawa msaawaa 'equality; leveling'
f | | truth' to level s.th.
[ 1 |jl ribaH 'to gain' ribH 'gaining' (to the ground)'
»"' f i 9. fu91 The verbal noun for saafar 'to travel' is safar 'travel(ing).'
If J sirib 'to drink' surb 'drinking'
/HI 8.1.4 Class IV
M taal 'to last long' tuul 'length' It has already been pointed out in 6.2.3 above, that Class IV
i l 10. fi91a • verbs in GA are rare and that they are usually replaced by either
Class I or Class II verbs. The few. verbal nouns of Class IV verbs
jl'jj trakar 'to mention' Mcra 'remembrance' which are used are literary forms or borrowings from other speakers
lit J 9aas 'to live' 9iisa 'act of living: life' of Arabic. Examples:
111
\ M ft
78 The Morphology of Gulf Arabic Nouns-Derivation 79
Verb Verbal Noun Examples:

'a9lan 'to announce' 'i91aan -'announcement' Verb Verbal Noun
'a91am 'to tell, inform'' l'i91a'am 'information'' nsaraf 'to leave, go away' nsiraaf 'going away, departure'
Verbal nouns of Class IV hollow verbs have the pattern 'ifaala. nkisar 'to be broken, nkisaar 'defeat'
defeated'
'afraa9 'to broadcast' 'nraa9a 'broadcasting'
nfajar Ho expldde' nfijaar 'explosion; exploding'
8.1.5 Class V njalab 'to be turned over' njilaab 'state of being
turned over'
Tnere is no verbal noun pattern peculiar tq Class V verbs. Some
Glass V verbal nouns take Class I patterns; some others' follow the nkafa 'to be satisfied nkifa 'state of being
pattern of Class II verbs, sometimes with changes. Examples: .(e.g., with food, satisfied'
t9allam 'to learn' drink, etc.)'
ta91uum 'learning' (instead of
Doubled and hollow verbs have the patterns nfi9aal and rifiyaal,
ta9liim)
zzawwaj 'to get married' respectively, for their verbal nouns:
zuwaaj 'marriage'
tqayyar ngatt 'to be thrown away' ngitaat 'state of being thrown
'to change' taqyiir 'change' away'
tqadda 'to have lunch' qada, 'lunching (with s.o.); 'dissolution; moral
nHall 'to be solved; to be* nHilaal
lunch' morally degenerated' degeneration'
twannas 'to have a good winsa 'having a good time; ndaar 'to turn to one side' ndiyaar 'turning to one side'
time' good time, pleasure'
8.1.6 Class VI 8.1.8 Class VIII
Most verbal nouns of Class VIII verbs are of <the ftiyaal pattern.
Class VI verbal nouns have two patterns: tafaa9ul for sound
verbs and.tafaa9i for defective verbs. Examples: Examples:
Htifal 'to celebrate* Htifaal 'celebration'
twaafaj 'to agree with tawaafuj 'agreement (with
each other' rtabat 'to be tied up rtibaat 'state of being tied
each other' up with s.o. or s.th.*
t9aawan 'to cooperate' with s.o. or s.th.'
ta9aawun 'cooperation' 'meeting'
txaasam 'to quarrel with jtima9 'to have a meeting' jtimaa9
taxaasum 'quarreling together'
each other' htamm 'to be concerned htimaam 'concern'
tsaawar 'to consult with s.o. or s.th.'
tasaawur 'consultation (with
together' rtaaH 'to rest; to be at ease' rtiyaaH 'state of being at ease'
each other)'
ddaa9am 'to collide' Some Class VIII verbs have verbal nouns derived from their
tadaa9um 'collision'
corresponding Class I verbs: 3 1
tHaaca 'to talk together' taHaaci 'talking together' stika 'to complain' sakwa 'complaint'
tnaasa 'to pretend to have tanaasi 'pretense of having stara 'to buy' mistara 'buying'
forgotten s.th.' forgotten s.th.'
Htaaj 'to need s.o. or Haaja 'need; necessity'
8.1.7 Class VII s.th., lack s.th.'
Verbal nouns of CJass VII verbs are not common. The patterns 31. See 6.2.7 for the similarity in meaning of Class I and Class VIII verbs.
are nfi9aal and nfi9a for sound and defective verbs, respectively.
80 The Morphology of Gulf Arabic No un s-Derivation 81
8.1.9 Class IX
8.1.11 Quadriliterals
Verbal nouns of Class IX are very uncommon. The pattern is The pattern for quadriliteral verbs is C i a C 2 C 3 a C 4 a . Note the
f9ilaal. Examples:
shift in stress. Examples:
Verb Verbal Noun Verbal Noun
Verb
sfarr 'to turn yellow' sfiraar 'act of turning yellow' la9waza 'bothering'
la9waz 'to bother*
9wayy 'to turn crooked' 9wiyaay 'act of turning gasmara 'joking, kidding'
gasmar 'to play a prank
crooked' on s.o.'
8.1.10 Class X xarbat 'to mix, mess, s.th. xarbata 'chaos, confusion'
or s.o. up*
Verbal nouns associated with Class X verbs have three patterns:
stif9aal for sound verbs and doubled verbs, stif9a for defective verbs, Reduplicated quadriliteral verbs also have the same pattern for
and stifaala for hollow verbs. Examples: their verbal nouns:
1. Sound and doubled: stif9aal gasgas 'to cut up s.th.' gasgasa 'act of cutting up s.th.'
[I i starxas 'to seek permission' stirxaas tdgtag* 'to tap s.th.' tagtaga 'tapping'
'state of seeking
permission' Weak quadriliterals have the pattern C t eeC 3 aC 4 a for their
staksaf 'to discover, explore' stiksaaf 'discovery, verbal nouns:
exploration' reewas 'to.go in reverse' reew&sa 'going in reverse' r
staHmag 'to be angry' stiHmaag 'state of being angry* soogar 'to insure s.th.' soog&ra 'insuring, insurance'
staslaf 'to borrow (money)' stislaaf 'borrowing (money)' Derived quadriliterals do not have verbal nouns associated with
sta9mal 'to use, utilize* sti9maal 'use, utilization' them; usually they have the same pattern as for simple quadriliterals:
stajwab 'to interrogate' stijwaab 'interrogation* tl29waz -»• la9waza
staradd 'to regain' tgasmar •+ gasmara
stirdaad 'regaining'
staHagg 'to deserve, be tgasgas -* gasgasa
stiHgaag 'worthiness, one's
worthy o f due'
staHabb 'to like, desire' stiHbaab 'liking, desire' 8.2 Instance Nouns
2. Defective: stif9a
Instance nouns, also known'as nouns of single occurrence, are
staqna 9an 'to do without stiqna derived from verbal nouns or other kinds of nouns by suffixing -a,
'state of doing
s.th.' without s.th.' sometimes with appropriate stem changes. They are usually of the
sta9fa 'to resign' sti9fa patterns fa9la, fi9la, and fu9la. Instance nouns express the meaning
'resignation'
of a single occurrence (or a particular instance) of the underlying
sta9ta 'to seek, beg' sti9ta 'begging' word, or a period or "spell" of such a state. Examples of instance
3. Hollow: stifaala nouns derived from verbal nouns:
sta9aan 'to seek help, Verbal Noun Instance Noun
sti9aana 'assistance, help' Verb
assistance* ragsa 'a dance'
ragas 'to dance* rags 'dancing'
staraaH 'to rest, relax' stiraaHa 'rest, relaxation' surba 'a drink'
sirib 'to drink' surb 'drinking*
stafaad 'to benefit' stifaada 'benefit* yigma 'a gulp'
yigam 'to gulp'
t\
s •ffrj^g^f&mei
1 Nouns-Derivation 83
; 1.1 82
8.3 UnitNou'ns t
J Vefb Verbal Noun Instance Noun
naam 'to sleep' noom , 'sleep(ing)' nooma 'a nap' Unit nouns, indicate an individual unit or an individual item of
HJ
'to die' moot 'death' mo ota" 'a particular the underlying noun., They are' derived' from collective riouns p y
maat
i" ffll suffixing -a, sometimes with appropriate stem changes. r-lbte that
kind of
death' most instance nouns are derived from" verbal nouns'by suffixing -a.
j l * Harag 'to burn' Hariij 'burning' Hariij a 'a fire' Where an instance noun designates-*a single occurrence of the
11*1ill1, lli underlying verbal* noun, a unit noun designates an individual unit pf
'to smoke; doox 'smoking' dooxa- 'a puff of
i 1 daax the underlying, collective noun. Thus the instance noun ragsa 'a
to feel smoke ^ a
dizzy' confusing dance' is derived from the verbal noun rags-'dancing^' and the unit,
state of noun beefrd 'art "egg' is derived from the collective nou'n' beeft 'eggs/
t i -affairs,' Almost alj kinds' of vegetables, fruits, grains, flowe"rs, fruit trees,
:•1
grasses', etc., are collective nouns: Examples of unit nouns:
h« | | | Some jnstance nouns have patterns different from those of'the
' jl corresponding verbal aiouns: At - C C p r - V y C ^ ' - C C a o r - V V C a '
Unit Noun
11
1 tkallam 'to speak' calaam 'talk, cilma ' 'a word' Collective Noun
yiHHa 'a watermelon'
speech' yiHH 'watermelons'
F 1 Habba 'a grain'
S t a 'to work' sugul' '.work' sugla 'a piege Habb 'grains (e.g., '
i I ^
'"'1 of work' of wheat)'
battiixa 'a canta'loupe'
Habb 'to kiss; Hubb 'love; Habba 'a kiss' battiix , 'cantaloupes'
to like' kissing' gmaasa 'a pearl'
gmaas '•pearl'
fllll
'Mil t?,™ rweeda 'a radish'
rweed •'radishes'
xalaal a 'an unripe (green)
Underlying Word Instance Noun xalaal 'unripe (green)
date''
leel 'night (time)' leela 'a"night' dates'
beef>a 'an egg'
Harr 'hot weather; heat' Harra 'jealosy, envy' beefr 'eggs'
jaama 'a sheet'of glass'
'akil 'food; eating' 'akla 'a meal' jaam '(sheets of)
glass'
Instance nouns, unlike verbal nouns, are inflected for diyaaya 'a chicken, a hen J
diyaay 'chicken; hens'
n u m b e r . 3 2 Their dual and sound feminine plural, are formed by 'an apple'-
'apples' tiffaaHa
suffixing -teen.and -aat, respectively: tiffaaH
'oranges' burtagaala 'an orange'
yigma 'a gulp' Habba" 'a kiss' burtagaal
yigmateen 'two gulps' Habbateen 'two kisses' B. -C,VC a - * C , C 2 a
yigmaat '(more than two) Habbaat '(more than two) Examples involving vowel elision-are:
gulps' kisses' 'a piece of cheese'
jibin 'cheese' jibnet
Derived verbs (Classes II-X) and quadriliterals do not usually 'a piece of bread'
xubiz 'bread' xubza
have instance nouns. 'a handful of sand'
ramil 'sand' ramla
'a cupful o f shortening'
32. See 9.2.2 and 9.2.3.1B2. dihin 'shortening' dihna
Hiii
I
fe
84
No uns-Derivation 85
C. fa9al -> f9ala
Most collective nouns of th* Collective Noun Unit Noun
corresponding unit nouns a c c o r 8d taL pt h te , ^ a6 t^ t ^ have
" ^ burr 'wheat' Habbat burr 'a grain of wheat'
e
few cases. Examples: ^ ? ™ ^ or/Wfa in a si9iir 'barley' Habbat si9iir •'a grain of barley'
Collective Noun 'rice' Habbat 9ees - 'a grain of rice'
Unit Noun 9ees
sa9ar 'hair'
s9ara xalag 'cloth' git9at xalag 'a piece of cloth' n
fa Ham 'a-hair'
'coal, charcoal' trira 'corn' Habbat irira 'a kernel of corn'
fHama, 'a piece of coal'
naxal" 'palm trees'
nxala cab r iit 'matches' silb cabriit 'a match stick'
bagar 'a palm tree'
'cows'
bgara 'a cow' G. -i -+ -iyya h!
basal 'onions' (
bsala 'an onion* luumi '(Omani) Jtimes' luumiyya a lime* m
siyar 'trees'
syara 'chick peas' naxxiyya 'a chick pea' !. I'
'a tree' naxxi(y)
qanam 'goats, sheep'
•qnama 'a goat, a sheep' Unit nouns are feminine singular and, like instance nouns, have
A few have the pattern f9ita: a dual form, e.g., beefateen 'two eggs' and a sound feminine plural
warag 'paper' form, e.g., beef aat '(individual) eggs.' j*
wruga
Hatab 'wood' 'a piece of paper'
Htuba. 'apiece of wood'
D. fa9il -* fa91a 8.4 Feminine Nouns
Collective nouns of the pattern fa9il have fa9,la as their pattern In this section we are concerned with those feminine nouns that'
for unit nouns:
refer to female human beings and some animals, which are formed
ramil (var. ramul) from their corresponding masculine nouns by suffixing -a, sometimes
.I sami9 'sand' -ramla 'a handful of sand'
with appropriate stem changes.
'wax' sam9a 'a candle'
tamir (var. tamur) A. In this group belong those feminine nouns that are formed
'dates' tamra 'a date'
from their corresponding masculine nouns by the addition of -a
E. -a -+ -aa
(known as the feminine morpheme) without additional changes.
Collective nouns with an -a ending form their unit nouns"by These are masculine nouns that end with a doubled consonant, a
lengthening the -a. .Examples;
consonant cluster, or a consonant preceded by a long vowel. :
tamaata 'tomatoes' tamaataa 'a t o m a t o ' Examples:
gata 'sand grouse' gataa 'a sand grouse' yadd 'grandfather' yadda 'grandmother'
puteeta33 'potatoes' puteetaa 'a p o t a t o ' 9am m '(paternal) uncle' 9 am ma '(paternal) aunt'
w
calb 'dog' calba 'bitch'
F. With small grains, such as rice, wheat, barley, etc., the word
Habbat *a piece' is used before the collective noun to indicate an 9abd 'slave' 9abda 'slave girl'
individual unit; with other kinds of nouns, words such as git9a seex 'Shaikh' seexa 'wife of a Shaikh'
'piece,' silb 'stick,' etc., are used. a
sbaal 'ape; monkey' sbaala 'ape; monkey (f.)'
rifiij 'friend; companion' riiiija 'companion (f.);
M
mistress'
* « ^ ' T O s i S % ^
zooj 'husband' zooja 'wife'
J&. ifritfTffiB- ^"-+!*ir*-Z~%&farw-Jflg^
¥
86' The Morphology of Gulf Arabic Nouns-Derivation 87
B. This group of nouns'requires vowel elision (see 4.3.1 above) 8.5 Participles as Nouns
before suffixing the feminine morpheme:
yaahil 'child (m.)' yaahla 'child (f.)' Active and passive participles as nouns and adjectives will be
9aagil 'wise person (m.)' 9aagla 'wise person (f.)' d'ealth with under participles and adjectives below (see 10.4 and
xaadim * 'servant (m.)' xaadma 'servant (f.)' 10.5).
C. This"1 group- of nouns requires both consonant elision and 8.6 Occupatipnal Nouns
vowel elision (see 4.3 above) 'before suffixing the* feminine r i
morpheme. Examples: Nouns that -indicate people who have certain occupations or
'mxabbal 'crazy man' vocations are called occupational nouns. Most of the corresponding
mxabja 'crazy woman'
„ " * ** • feminine nouns are( formed by suffixing ~a, the feminine morpheme.
m9azzib '(house) host'
m9azba '(house) hostess' Occupational nouns are of certain patterns, the most frequent' of
Hbayyib 'Honey, dear one (m.)' Hbayba 'honey, dear one"(f-)' which are the following:
* **
mHasna 'barber, hair *h
.mHassin 'barber, hair ' xiA. faa9il
dresser (m.)' dresser (f.)' Occupational nouns of the faa9il pattern are derived from Class
rayyis 'boss, chief (m.)' 'raysa 'boss, chief (f.)'
I verbs:
D. Masculine nouns ending in -u change -u into -w for their Occupational Occupational
corresponding feminine forms: Masc. Noun Fern. Noun
Verb v »"
gatu 'cat (m.)' ,gatwa 'cat (f.)' kaatib kaatba
katab
9u£ru 'member (m.)' 9u?hva 'member (f.)' 'clerk (m.)' 'clerk (f.)'
'to write'
luulu 'pearl' Iiiulwa 'a pearl' xaadim xaadma
xadam
'servant (m.)' 'servant (f.)'
Some others keep the -w and add -ww, as in 9adu 'enemy (m.)' -> 'to serve'
9aduwwa 'enemy (f.).' gaadi gaadya w
gaâ
Jjudge (m.)' 'judge (f.)'
'to pronounce,
E. To this group belong those masculine nouns that end with -i.
judgment'
Most of these nouns are masculine nisba 3 4 (i.e., "relative") nouns. raa9ya
The corresponding feminine nisba nouns are formed by suffixing ra9a raa9i '
'shepherd; owner' 'shepherdess; owner (f.)'
-yya. 'to take care o f
gtari 'Qatari (m.)' B. fa99aal
gtari'yya 'Qatari (£)'
Occupational nouns of the fa99aal pattern are derived from
saarji 'belonging to saarjiyya 'belonging to Sharja (f.)'
Sharja (m.)' verbs and nouns.
Occupational Occupational
bdiwi 'Bedouin (m.)' Underlying
bdiwiyya 'Bedouin (f.)' Masc. Noun Fern. Noun
Word
'arduni 'Jordanian (m.)' 'arduniyya 'Jordanian (f.)' gassaab a
gassab gassaab
qani 'rich person (m.)' qaniyya 'rich person (f.)' 'butcher (m.)' 'butcher (f.)'
"to cut meat'
lagwi 'talkative lagwiyya 'talkative person (f.)' yawwaal na99aasa
ni9iis
person (m.)' 'male dancer' 'female dancer'
'kind of dance'
karraani 'clerk (m.)' karraaniyya 'clerk (f.)' xayyaat xayyaata
xaat
'tailor' 'seamstress'
'to sew'
34. See 10.5.1.3. Haddaaga
Hadag Haddaag
'line-fisherman' 'line-fisherman (f.)'
'to catch fish'
No uns-Derivatioh 89
Underlying Occupational Occupational A. mif9aal

Word Masc. Noun Fern. Noun Verb Instrumental Noun
xabaz xabbaaz xabbaaza fitaH 'to open' -miftaaH 'key'
'to bake' 'baker (m.)' 'baker (f.)' mingaar 'beak'
nigar Ho peck'
cadab car}jraab cairiraaba midwaax 'pipe (smoking)'
daax 'to smoke'
'to tell lies' 'liar (m.)' 'liar (f.)'
nafax 'to inflate; to puff jnimfaax 'bellows; air pump'
simac sammaac sammaaca 'hole digger'
Hafar 'to dig a hole' miHfaar
'fish' 'fisherman; 'fisherwoman;
fish dealer (m.)' fish dealer (f.)' yaddaf 'to row (a boat)' miidaaf 'oar'
9aks 9akkaas 9akkaasa
'photograph' B. mif9al/mif9ila
'photographer (m.) ' photographer (f.)'
sanad 'to support, buttress' misnida 'cushion'
C. mfa99il
naxxal 'to sieve' minxal 'sieve'
Almost all the masculine occupational nouns of the mfa99
gass 'to cut' migass 'scissors'
one or two cases, mfa99al) type are derived from Class II \
Examples: kanas 'to sweep' miknisa 'broom'
\m
Occupational Occupational
C. fa99aala/fi99aala
Verb Masc. Noun Fern. Noun
saar 'to leave; to walk' sayyaara/siyyaara 'car'
Hassan mHassin mHasna
'to cut hair' 'barber (m.)' 'barber (f.)' taar 'to fly* tayyaara/tiyyaara 'airplane'
9azzab m9azzib m9azba
(no hieaning) D. fa91a
'host' 'hostess'
darras Most examples pf this pattern'are of foreign origin,
m(u)darris m(u)darsa
'to teach' 'instructor (m.)' 'instructor (f.)' gafsa 'spoon, ladle' (Turkish)
tarras mtarris mtarsa banka 'fan' (Hindi-Urdu)
! 'to send (a letter 'sender (m.)' 'sender (f.)' garsa 'bottle' (Persian)
or s.o.'
tawwa9 mtawwa9 mtaw9a 8:8 Locative Nouns
'to break in 'religious teacher 'religious teacher
(a horse)' (m.)' (f.)' A locative noun or a noun of place designates jthe place where
the action designated by the underlying word takes place. Trie
following are the most frequently used locative noun patterns:
8.7 Instrumental Nouns
A. maf9ala
An instrumental noun, or a noun of instrument, indicates the Underlying Word Locative Noun
instrument or object with which the act described by the underlying kitab 'to write' maktaba 'library; bookstore'
word can be performed. Most instrumental nouns in GA are.derived
from verbs. The following are the most commonly used patterns. diras 'to study' madrasa 'school'
gabir 'tomb, grave' magbara 'cemetery' >(!•
M
Nouns-Derivation 91
Underlying Word A. faa9il -* fweeîl. u 1 :

Locative Nour1
Diminutive
gassab 'to cut meat' magsaba 'butcher's shop' Underlying Word i !
saalim 'Salim (prop, noun)' sweelim
Hakam 'to rule' maHkama 'Jaw*court'
j sweeliH
j saaliH 'Sarin (prop, noun)'
P- mafQ^l/mifgal i
xaalid 'Khalid (prop, noun)' xweelid i r
sabaH 1 'to bathe' i misbaH 'swimming pool'
naasir 'Nasir (prop, noun)' nweesir/nassuur L \
dafan" -'to'bury' ' mad fan 'burial place'
kweetib j 1
gasal 'to .wash' jnigsaj kaatib 'clerk (m.)'
'sink*
xaadim 'servant (m.)' xweedim
ragad 'to sleep*' •* margad W 11
!
taar 'to fly' mataar i i »
'airport' B. f9aal ^ f 9 y i l
tibax 'to cook' mitbax 'kitchen' f9iil J
1. f9aal - f9ayyil |
C. maf9il' • Hmayyir J i/
Hmaar 'ass; donkey'
yilas i 'to sit (down)' maylis 'living room'*' i
Hsayyin i
3S
Hsaan 'horse' i
siyad 'to kneel' m(a)siid 'mosque' ktayyib
ktaab 'book' i
wadi9 'situation' * maw?ri9 'location'
'guest' 2. f9iil -+ f?ayyil •
vêf madiif ^guest house'
t(a)Hiin 'flour; powder' tHayyin ii
D. fa9Ia bxayyil
b(a)xiil 'stirrgy person (m.)'
Most examples of this pattern are of foreign origin, kbayyir
k(a)biir 'big; old'
cabra 'vender's stand' (Hindi)
s(a)giir 'young; little' sgayyir
xaana 'place; shop' 3 6 (Persian), sxayyif •i
1 saxiif 'thin'
1 •H Hbayyib
Habiib 'loved one, sweetheart (m.)' i
i # t 8.9 Diminutive Nouns
r(a)xiis 'cheap; inexpensive' rxayyis
:*
Diminutive nouns, usually known as diminutives, are derived gasiir 'short; not long' gsayyir
mainly from proper nouns and only a few are derived from adjectives
used as nouns. Diminutives*indicate a small or insignificant .variety of C. feel -> fwayyil •
that which is designated by the underlying word. They also indicate twayyir
teer 'bird' ufl
affection.and endearment. The most commonly used patterns are: xwayyit/xweet A
xeet 'thread (sewing)' I
zeed 'Zaid (proper name)' swayyid !
r
35. Lit., "a place where you kneel down in prayer." zwayyid
zaayid 'Zayid (proper name)'
36. xaana, is rarely used independently: it is usually preceded by some
other kind of noun, e.g., caay xaana 'a tea place' or a 'coffee house' and baqnziin D. -oo 'i
xaana 'a gas station,' especially in Bahrain! and Kuwaiti. Only proper nouns belong to this class of diminutives. Most of
'these proper nouns are feminine with t h e feminine ending -a. -a is
92 Nouns-Derivation 93
omitted before the diminutive -oo suffix. Some of these nouns have m9eeriis '(from mi9ris) bridegroom'
another diminutive pattern, fa99uul, which is used 'only for msee9iid '(from 'umm s'a9iid) (a town in Qatar)'
endearment; those with the -oo suffix imply lack of respect or
disregard.
8.10 Foreign Nouns
saara 'Sara' saaroo/sayyuur Unlike many 'other dialects o f Arabic, GA has a large foreign
tf*
nuura ' '.Nora' nuuroo vocabulary, mainly .Persian, Hindi-Urdu, and English. One of the
9aaysa 'Aisha' main reasons for this linguistic influence is the presence of foreign
9eesqo/9ayyuus
xadiija communities in the Arabian Gulf area. Persian immigrants in trie area
'Khadija' xadnjoo/xadduuy
are mainly laborers, clerks, and well established merchants and
Hissa 'Hissa' Hissoo businessmen. Persian as a first 'language is spoken in many home's,
samma 'Shamma' sammoo especially in Kuwait, Qatar, and Dubai. Most Indians and Pakistanis
faat ma 'Fatima' fatmoo/fattuum are either odd j o b workmen or semi-skilled technicians. The'presence
"
seexa 'Shaikha' seexoo/sayyuux of English linguistic items in GA is explained by the political and
j(
economic interest of th.e British in the area. In addition to
Examples of feminine nouns without the -a ending and
borrowings from Persian, Hindi-Urdu, and English, there are a few
masculine nouns:
borrowings from Turkish, French, Italian, and Portuguese, most of
maryam 'Miry am' maryam qo/maryuum (female) which are present in other Arabic dialects. Only a few of those
zeenab 'Zainab' zeenaboo borrowings remained unmodified; most of them have been modified
(female)
sabaaH 'Sabah' sabbuuH (female) somewhat, b o t h in phonology and morphology. 3 7 In phonology the
jum9a 'Juma' jammuu9 following modifications or sound changes have been observed. The ' i
(male)
naasir examples giVen are from English.
'Nasir*< —-»—-*•— nassuur (male) A. Diphthongs
mHammad 'Mohammad' mHammadoo (male)
1. ai -*- ee/aa
'aHmad 'Ahmad' 'aHmad oo (male) It changes into a
The diphthong ai does not exist in GA. 3 8
9ali 'ali' 9aIIoo (male) vowel, ee or aa. Examples:
9abdalla !AbdalIa' — 9abbuud * (male) seed 'side'
•war teem 'overf/me'
D. fa99aala -+ f9eela 7/cense' seekal 'cycle'
leesan
Nouns belonging to this group are characterized by a doubled 'driver (m.)' leet 'light (n.)'
dreev/il
consonant followed by the long vowel -aa-. Their corresponding waayiv "wire (n.)'
taay'n '(car) tire'
diminutive nouns are of the pattern f9ee9iila:
sayyaara 'car' syeeyiira 2. ow -+ uu/oo
tayyaara 'airplane' tyeeyiira
xajlaata '(cement) mixer' xleeliiia
37. Other morphological and syntactic modifications will be pointed out
E. f9ee9iil/m9ee9iil
below, in the relevant sections.
To this pattern belong some place names and quadriliterals.
38. See 3.1.
fHeeHiil 'Fuhaiheel (a small town in Kuwait)'
bleebiil '(from bulbul) songbird; nightingale'
r'
95
Nouns-Derivation
seekal 'bicycle' blaak 'spark plug'
3. ey -*• ee
kandeesin 'air conditioning' manwar 'man-of-war'
The dipthongs ow and' ey do not exist in GA either. They
sikriim 'ice cream' 'aayil '(motor) oil'
change into the long vowels uu/oo and ee, respectively. Examples:
jalbuut 'jolly-boat' 'isbeer 'spare'(tire)' In morphology, most borrowed verbs are those of Class II and
teebii 'table' kuut 'coat' they are wholly Arabized. Examples:
fannas (from finish) 'to resign; to terminate
kabreetar 'carburetor' noo £ 'note'
one's services'
B( Consonants 'to check'
cayyak (from^check)
Consonants that do not exist in GA are replaced by consonants 'to.close, stop (e.g., work)'
bannad (from Persian bandan)
that share similar articulation features, e.g., point, manner, e,tc. 'to tighten'
Examples: tayyat (from tighten)
'to shoot (e.g., in soccer)'
wilf ai.
sawwat (from shoot)
•'valve' 'is&eer 'spare (tire)'
Below are some of the commonest borrowed nouns.
warteem 'overtime' sirring '(metal) spring'
si&ray 'spray (n.) botil 'bottle' English
dreewil 'driver'
61aa£aat '(spark) plugs'' fcaranda 'veranda' batri 'battery'
taanki '(water) tank'
Hafiiz 'office'
C. Consonant Clusters kalac 'clutch'
39 daxtar 'doctor'
The vowel i is usually interpolated after the first consonant tindeel 'foreman, supervisor'
in a three-consonant spquence; if two consonants are word-initial, 'i- dabal 'double'
batrool 'gasoline'
usually precedes: 'aayil '(motor) oil'
tankar 'tank-car'
sikruu 40 screw' sikraab scrap taayir '(car) tire'
kandeesin 'air conditioning'
sib ring 'spring' siwic 'switch' glaas 'glass (of s.th.)'
peep 'pipe*
heerin '(car) horn' 'isbaana spanner.'41 leet 'light'
kuub 'cup'
sikriim 'ice cream' 'isbeer 'spare (tire)' radeetar 'radiator'
sbaana 'spanner, wrench'
reewas 'to reverse'
D. Metathesis 42
A reversed order of consonants in foreign words is characteristic Persian
bandar '(sea) port'
ofGA: ('i)stikaan 'small tea-cup'
guuti 'can(ofs.th.)'
balanti 'penalty' bugsa 'envelope'
caay 'tea'
E. Syllable Omission baxsiis 'tip, gratuity'
xarda 'change, petty cash'
Sometimes a whole syllable, especially the first syllable, in a cingaal 'fork'
long word is omitted: nooxafra 'ship's captain'
xaasuuga 'spoon'
dariisa 'window'
dirwaaza 'gate*
39. See 4.1. jaam 'glass'
bannad 'to shut, close'
.,''" 40. sikruu is in free variation with sakruub. 'photograph*
'(paved) road' 9aks
\\*. rasta
41. British for wrench. / 9akkaas 'photographer'
sakar 'sugar'
42. Metathesis is here restricted to a reversed order of consonants. hast 'there is'
quuri 'tea kettle'
y
i
•a
96 Nouns-Inflection 97
The MorpHology of Gulf Arabic
Hindi-Urdu sal,aa" 'prayer'

madrasa 'school'
banka 'fan'' juuti- bargiyya " 'telegram'
'shoes,* daayra ' 'department'
t.
beezaat 'money' dabba 43 gataa 'sand grouse'
'(car) t r u n k ' 9asaa 'stick'
darzan 'dozen' siida] 'straight (adv.)' These nouns include foreign nouns: t
saalooria 'soup" "catfi i 1 t
'riote'-3' sbaana, 'spanner, wrench' bugsa 'envelope' (Persian)
"luumi 'lemons' karraani 'clerk" (English)
Turkish if lampa 'light bulb' diriisd 'window' (Persian)
haariila 'small hjubble-bubble' tursi p / banka 'fan' (Hindi-Urdu) xaasuug'a 'spoon' (Persian)
'pickles' if s
44
tooz 'haze, thick dust'- t o o fa saaloona 'soup' (rJinaU-Urdu)'* dirwaaza 'gate' (Persian)
Vail'*
cuula 'Kerosine stove' doorbiin jigaara* 'cigaxett' (Englislfy *' siisa 'empty bottle' (Turkish)
'telescope'
snsa "empty bottle* gafsa It 'should' be pointed olit that a ,few nouns ending, in -a are
'large spoon, ladle' 1
zangiin 'rich man' kirfaaya 'bed' masculine^ Examples: '"
masa 'night (in.)' 9asa, 'dinner, supper (m.)'
mustasfa 'hospital'(m.)' • qada 'lunch (m.)'
9\ NOUNS-INFLECTION Hala* 'rust (m.)' hawa weather; atmosphere (m.)'
nooxaira 'ship's^captain (in.)' xaliifa "Caliph;'male's name'
9.1 .Gender
seeba 'old man (m.)' sfta 'winter (m.)'
Noun's in GX have gender,'either masculine or feminine, and a Among t h e j e m i n i n e nouns that belong here are those that are
few nouns have'both genders. Nouns, including pe'rsoital names, that derived from their corresponding masculine nouns.*s Examples:
refdr to males are masculine, and those referring to females are
Masculine Feminine
feminine. Thus, yuusif 'Joseph,' jaasim 'Jasim,' karaama 'Karama, ( '
E
,and 'alia 'God' are masculine, while seexa 'Shaikha' and maryam calb ' 'dog' * calba' 'bitch'
'Miryam' are feminine. This distinction is important in grammar, rifiij 'companion, friend' rifiija" 'friend; mistress'
since the choice of pronoun depends on the gender of the noun or mumarrifr 'nurse' l
mumarrrd-a 'nurse'
person involved, and it is the function of noun gender that governs
mudiir 'director, manager' mudiira 'director, manager'
the gender inflection pf verbs and adjectives. Nouns referring to
non-living things also.have gender. The following nouns and proper Instance nouns*6 are, derived from verbal nouns or other'kinds
names are feminine in GA: of nouns by suffixing -a, and are feminine in gender:
A. Nouns with the ending -a Verbal Noun Instance Noun
Most nouns with the ending -a or -aa are feminine. These nouns tagg 'beating, flogging' tagga 'a beating'
do not have corresponding'masculine nouns. Examples: surb 'drinking' surba 'a drink (of s.th.y
yaam9a 'university' gahwa 'coffee' 'akil 'food, eating' 'akla 'a meal'
jaafla 'caravan' sayyaara
car
45. See 8.4A for some more examples.
43. santa (also 'suitcase') is more commonly used.
46. See 8.2 for some more examples.
44. tooz is literally Kuwaiti; gbaar is more commonly used in Abu Dhabi
and the rest of the U.A.E.
:fW%.
98 The Morphology of Gulf Arabic Nouns-Inflection 99
Unit Nouns47 end with the suffix -a and are all feminine 4. Females of -most animals:
singular. Mpst collective nouns, 4 8 from which unit nouns are 'hen'
diic 'rooster' diyaaya
derived, are masculine singular, though the English translation may
floor 'bull' bgara 'cow'
be plural, e.g., yiHH 'watermelons.' Examples:
Collective Noun Unit Noun tili 'goat (m.)' sxala 'goat (f.)'
1
! i' tiffaaH 'apples' tiffaaHa 'arf apple' xaruuf 'lamb' n9aya 'ewe'
bagar 'cows' bgara 'a cow' cabs 'ram' yaa9da 'fernale sheep'
Hatab 'wood* Htuba 'apiece of wood' Hsaan 'horse' faras 'mare'

tamaata 'tomatoes' tamaataa 'a t o m a t o ' b(i)9iir 'camel' naaga 'female camel'
B. Some nouns do not have the feminine ending -a, but they Note that itokar 'male' and naBya 'female' can be used for either
are feminine by usage. These nouns include: a male or a female human being or an animal:
1. Double parts of the body: irakar 1-mara huwa r-rayyaal. 'The male of woman is man. •
'iid (var. yad) 'hand' 9een 'eye' d-diyaaya nafl yat d-diic. 'The hen is the female of the rooster.'
riil 'food-leg' 'i&in 'ear' 5. A few common words, including many foreign nouns:
2. Names of cities,"towns, and countries: sicciin 'knife' seekal 'bicycle' glaas '(drinking) glass'
'abu dabi 'Abu Dhabi' dbayy sams 'sun' teebil 'table' catti 'a short note'
'Dubai'
I-baHreen 'Bahrain' naar 'fire' botil 'bottle' sikriim 'ice cream'
9ajmaan 'Ajman'
gitar 'Qatar' leesan 'license' batri 'battery' ,cingaal 'fork'
beruut 'Beirut'
li-kweet 'Kuwait' 1-guds 'Jerusalem'
9umaan 'Oman' l-9een 'Al-Ain' 9.2 Number
labnaan 'Lebanon' landan 'London'
Nouns have three numbers: singular, dual, and plural.
3. Nouns which denote females. Such
nouns have
corresponding masculine nouns of different stems:
Masculine 9.2.1 Singular
Feminine
'ubu 'father' Singular nouns include both count and mass nouns. Count
'umm 'mother'
'uxu 'brother' nouns designate countable entities and mass nouns indicate
'uxut 'sister'
'ibin uncountable nouns. Singular nouns occur in a variety of patterns and
'son (of)' bint 'daughter (of); girl' it is difficult to predict the plural of a noun from the singular pattern
sbayy 'young boy' bnayya 'young girl' except in a few cases, 49 which will be pointed out below. Examples
rayyaal 'man' mara 'woman' of count and mass nouns are:
mi9ris 'bridegroom' Mass
9aruus(a) 'bride' Count
seeba 'old man' m(a)siid 'mosque' laHam 'meat'
9ayuuz 'old woman'
yawwaal 'male dancer' yaahil 'child' sakar 'sugar'
na99aasa 'female dancer*
seeba 'old man' Hatab 'wood'
47. See 83 for some more examples.

49. See 9.2.3.
48. See 8.3 for some more examples.
\m
JOQ
The Morphology of Gulf Arabict
Nouns-Inflection •101
Count
Massx
9ayuuz 'old wo,man' The dual of nisba nouns and other nouns ending in -/ takes ~yy-
Sahab 'gpid' before -een is added:
smica 'a fish*
xmaam' 'garbage' dibyaani 'Abu Dhabian' iHbyaaniyyeen
b(i)9iir 'camel' 'two Abu Dhabians'*
dihin 'shortening, butter' saarji 'Sharja' saarjiyeen 'from Sharja*
9.2.2 b u a r kweeti 'Kuwaiti' kweetiyyeen 'two Kuwaitis'
baHreeni 'Baharaini' baHreeniyyeen •'two Bahrainis'
In English, ^riouns are either 1 singula/ or plural; in GA they are
singular, dual, or pliiraL In general the dual is forrned by adding the' qani 'rich man' qaniyyeen 'two rich men'
' , id
suffix -een, to a masculine n o u n ' a n d -teen,to a feminine noun ending tili 'goat' tili yy een 'two goats'
with ~a. Sometimes this siffixatipn, of the dual encfing requires
appropriate stem changes, as will be shown belowi Nonhuman masculine nouns that end in -a form their dual by
ifi
l.)i I- ,A. Masculine Nouns , " * adding -yeen:
j 9asa 'dinner' 9asayeen
A masculine noun ending .with rvc, where -v- is( any unstressed'
•- vowel except •&-, drops its v when the dual suffix is a d d e d . 5 0 mustasta 'hospital' mustasfayeeri
Examples:
qada 'lunch' qadayeen
'asim, 'name'
'asmeen 'two names' If such a noun has a human referent, it drops its -a and takes the
-sagir- 'fafcori' suffix -teen;
qisim 'sagreen 'two falcons'
'section' seeba 'old m a n ' seebteen 'two old men*
qismeen 'two sections'
tfuhur f
noontime'
& 'I xalifa 'Caliph; male's name' 'xaliifteen 'two Caliphs'
*uhreen 'two noontimes'
If the masculine'noun'ends in -u, it drops its -u and takes -ween:
If such a noun has a before the final consonant, a drops when it
till is preceded by a velar, a pharyngeal, or the glottal fricative (i.e., x, g; 'ubu 'father' 'ubween 'two fathers'
>l 9; or ft):
gatu 'cat' gatween 'two cats*
saxal 'young goat' gadu 'hubble-bubble' gad ween 'two hubble-bubbles'
saxleen 'two young goats'
bagal 'mule' 9utru 'member' 9 utrween 'tw,o members'
bagleen 'two mules'
baHar 'sea* raadu 'radio' raadween 'two radios'
baHreen 'two seas'
sa9ab 'people, nation' Some others keep the -« and add -ww, as in 9adu 'enemy' •+
sa9been 'two nations'
sahal 'meadow' 9aduwween 'two enemies.' Otherwise no stem changes are required:
sahieen 'two meadows'
sahar 'month' rayyaal 'man' rayyaaleen 'two m e n '
sahreen 'two months'
but: galam 'pencil' 'uteel 'hotel' 'uteeleen 'two hotels'
galameen 'two pencils'
walad 'boy' m(a)siid 'mosque' m(a)siideen 'two mosques'
waladeen 'two boys'
xalag 'duster' 9abd 'slave' 9abdeen, 'two slaves'
a xalageen 'two dusters'
seekal 'bicycle'
seekaleen 'two bicycles' B. Feminine Nouns
watan 'homeland'
wataneen 'two homelands' Feminine nouns that do n o t end with -a form their dual by
M.-H adding -een:
50. See 4.3.
102
faras Nouns-Inflection 103
'mare'
faraseen 'two mares'
sicciin 'knife'
sicciin een Singular Plural
seekal 'two knives'
'bicycle' kaatib 'clerk' kaatbiin (alt. kittaab)
seekaleen 'two bicycles'
naar 'fire'
naareen zaayir 'visitor' zaayriin (alt. zuwwaar)
glaas 'two fires'
•'glass' mud arris 'teacher' mudarsiin
glaaseen 'two glasses'
riil 'foot; leg' muslim 'Moslem' musilmiin
riileen iwo legs; two feet'
'two
mudiir 'director, manager' mudiiriin
Otherwise -teen is added unless the singular ends with a -t, in which
case only -een is added:
2. Nisba Nouns 5 3
vaarn9a 'university'
yaam9ateen 'two universities' All nisba nouns end with-/. The plural of these nouns takes •-yy-
madrasa 'school' before -iin is added:
madrasateen 'two schools'
banka 'fan 1 Singular Plural
banlcateen 'two fans'
kirfaaya 'bed* dibyaani 'Abu Dhabian' iHbyaaniyyiin I- .
Mi kirfaayateen 'two beds'
(var. cirfaaya)
(var. cirfaayteen) saarji 'belonging to Sharja' saarjiyyiin f
bint 'girj'
binteen' 'two girls' 9umaani 'Omani' 9umaaniyyiin
9.2.3 Plural baHreeni ' Bahraini' baHreeniyyiin (alt. baHaarna)
gtari 'Qatari' gtariyyiin
There are two kinds of plurals of nouns in GA: sound plurals kweeti
and broken plurals. Sound plurals are of two kinds: sound masculine 'Kuwaiti' kweetiyyiin
and sound feminine plurals. su9uudi 'Saudi' su9uudiyyiin
9.2.3.1 Sound Plurals 3. Occupational Nouns s 4
A. Sound Masculine Most occupational nouns have alternative broken plural forms,
which are more commonly used than the corresponding sound
Most sound masculine plural nouns refer to male human beings masculine forms. Examples:
or a group in which there is at least one male. Sound masculine
plurals are formed by suffixing -On*1 to the singular noun, gassaab 'butcher* gassaabiin (alt. gasaasiib)
sometimes with appropriate stem changes. If the masculine singular 9ayyaal 'male dancer' 9ayyaaliin (alt. 9ayyaala)
noun ends with a -vc, the -v- is usually d r o p p e d , " e.g., muhandis cairfraab Tier' cafrfraabiin
'engineer,' muhandsiin 'engineers.' Sound masculine plural nouns are
of a variety of patterns among which the following are the most sammaac 'fish dealer, fisherman' sammaaciin (alt. samaamiic)
frequent: m9azzib 'host' m9azbiin (alt. ma9aaziib)
1. Nouns of Participle Origin mudarris 'teacher' mudarsiin
9akkaas 'photographer' 9akkaasiin
Active and passive participles, derivation and meaning, are
discussed in 10.4. The following are only examples: 4. Diminutive N o u n s s s
Almost all sound masculine diminutive noun's are of adjective
origin and of the fVayyil pattern. They take the -iin suffix for their
51. Some of these plurals have alternative broken plurals in parentheses. plural forms. Examples:
52. See 4.3.
53. See8.4E.
54. See 8.6 above.
. i f
55. See 8.9 above.
104 The Morphology of Gulf Arabic Nouns-Inflection 105
sqayyir 'little one' 'Sqayriin 'a dance' " ragsaat, 'dances'

ragsa
Hbayyib 'loved one'' Hbaybiin. 'a fire1: Hariijaat, 'fires'
Hariij a )t 4
gsayyir h(alt.
Haraayij) '
'short one'" gsayriin
rxayyis 'cheap, inexpensive' gabga 'a gulp' gabgaat 'gulps'*
rxaysiin
rfayyij The feminine nouns madrasa 'school,' leela 'night, and madiina
'companion, friend' rfayjiin
'city, town' take broken plural'forms, (see 9.2.3:2). The phirai of hnar
B. Sound Feminine "
'year' is the irregular sanawadt (alt. siniin).
Sound feminine plural nouns are formed by adding -adt to the y.. Some masculine nourfs including nouns of foreign origin:••
"singular; if the singular- ends in -a, -a is omitted'before adding -aat. It
is used for the following classes of nouns: ' mataa'r * 'airport',, " t mataaraat « f
f
talab 'application, request' talabaat i ^ '
1. Those referring to female human beings:
aaxtoora '» jawaaz ^passport', •> „ jawaaz4at
'doctor'' daxtooraat [
'seekal I! ''
iribyaaniyya 'Abu'Dhabian' fibyaani^yaat 'bicycle' seekalaat
mumarricra" 'nurse' * 'uteel
mumarridaat i 'hotel' * ,x ' 'uteelaat
na99aasa 'dancer' paa"s
na99aasaat * 'bus' *. * paasa'at
masriyya 'Egyptian' peep
masriyyaat 'pipe' «' bulb
" J(, i/ peepaaf
leefaat
f
ieet; ' 'light(light
A few nouns that belong to this category are irregular, e.g.:
4. Certain masculine nouns endingin -a or -ur „
*'uxut 'sister^ ('a)xawaat
bint 'girl; daughter' banaat -a: '' J,
mustasfa 'hpspital' mustasfayaat
2. Most feminine singular'nouns ending in'-a:
qada 'lunch' qadayaat
saa9a 'hour; clock' saa9aat
9asa 'dinher, supper' 9asayaat
wazaara 'ministry' wazaaraat
Note that such "nouns add -y- before -aat is suffixed.
sayyaara 'car' sayyaaraat (alt. siyaayiir)
-u:
Included here are the following classes of nouns: unit, instance,
verbal, and nouns ofrkrticiple origin. Examples: keelu5 'kilogram! ' * keeluwaJat
yiHHa 'a watermelon' yiHHaat 5 6 raadu 'radio' raaduwaat "
'individual
watermelons' 'pâanu 'piahb' pyaanuwaat
diyaaya 'a chicken; a hen' Note that almost all nouns of tfiis category are of foreign origin.
diyaayaat 'individual
Their plural forms add -w- before -aat is suffixed.
chickens or hens'
bgara 'cow'
bgaraat 'individual cows'
puteetaa 3 7 'a potato' 9.2.3.2 Broken Plurals
puteetaat 'individual
Broken plurals are formed from the singular by changing the
potatoes'
Habbat 9ees 'a grain of rice' internal structure of the word, not by adding suffixes as in the case
Habbaat 9ees 'grains of rice'
of sound plurals. There afe a number of pluralizing patterns, a few of
which can be predicted from the singular pattern, but in most cases it
56. As in dalaad yiHHaat 'three watermelons,' for example.
is very difficult if not impossible to deduce the plural pattern from
57. Note that the ending -aa is omitted before the plural suffix -aat.
Nouns-Inflection 107
Note that this pattern includes nouns and adjectives whose singular
the singular. For this reason, the plurals of nouns should be learned
has,a weak middle radical, e'.g., tawiil 'Jail; long' and toofa 'wall.'
individually as they are encountered. The following are the most
common broken plural patterns of nouns of triradical roots: 3. 'af9aal
1. f9uul f9aal and Ci)f9aal are two variant patterns. The great majority
This pattern has the variant fu9uul. Most nouns of this plural of nouns with this plural pattern have singular patterns fa9l, fu9(u)l,
pattern have singular patterns as f\9l or fa9l. or fa9al.
'aydaad
Singular Plural Singular Plural xaal 58 'maternal.uncle'' xwaal, yadd 5 9 "grandfather'
wlaad
fils 'fils' fluus xatt 'letter* xtuut 9aam 'year' 'a9waam walad 'boy*
'asnaan
malik ''king' mluuk bank 'bank' bnuuk fuut 'foot (measure)' 'afwaat sinn 'tooth'
glaam (alt.
hindi 'Indian' kuub 'cup' 'akwaab galam 'pencil' glaama)
hnuud, rigg 'drilling rig' rguug
beet 'house' byuut hidim -'dress' hduum 'asmaac
yoom 'riay' 'a^yyaam simaac 'fish'
seex 'Shaikh' syuux freef 'guest' Syuuf 'asgaal
riim 'deer*" a'ryaam sugul 'work'
caff 'hand palm' cfuuf Sirs 'tooth' 3ruus 'as9aar
9iid 'holiday, festival' 'a9yaad si9ir 'price'
xasim 'nose' xsuum yifin 'eye lash' yfuun
4.- fawaa9il '
Note that the singular nouns in this category have sound radicals,
An alternative pattern is fuwaa9il. Most singulars of this plural
e.g., fils 'fils' or final (identical), doubled consonants, e.g., xatt
pattern are (1) feminine nouns with the feminine ending -a and are
'letter,' or weak middle radicals, e.g., beet 'house.'
characterized by the long vowel -aa- between the first and the second
2. f9aal
radicals, and (2) nouns with three consonants and a long vowel after
This pattern has the literary variant fi9aal. Most adjectives of the first consonant. Examples:
the fa9iil pattern have this plural pattern. A less commonly used 'camel caravan' jawaafil
jaafla
plural pattern for such adjectives is the sound masculine plural form: 9awaayil
fa9iiliin. 9aayla 'family'
'Qasim' jawaasim 5 0
k(a)biir 'big; old (age)' jaasim
kbaar (alt. kabiiriin) suwaahiin
saahiin 'falcon'
tawiil 'tall; long' twa'al (alt. tawiiliin)
'story, anecdote' suwaalif
s(a)giir 'small; young (age)' saalfa
sgaar (alt. sagiiriin) suwaamis 61
saamsi 'belonging to the
matiin 'fat' mtaan (alt. matiiniin) Shamsi tribe'
flagiil 'heavy' flgaal (alt. eagiiliin) Hawaadifl
Haadfla 'accident; event*
gasiir 'short' gsaar (alt. gasiiriin) duwaayir
daayra 'department'
Examples of nouns that have this plural pattern:
toofa 'wall' twaaf dalla 'coffee p o t ' dlaal 58. Example with a weak middle radical.
•gafsa 'spoon, ladle' gfaas 9ayyil 'child' 9yaal 59. Example with a final (identical) doubled consonant.
Hoota 'sheep pen' Hwaat calb 'dog' claab 60. This means individuals—the name of each of whom is jaasim—or
gars 'loaf of bread' graas rootra 'garden' individuals who belong to the Jawasim tribe.
ryaad-
61. Individuals who belong to this tribe.
gatu 'male cat' gtaaw(a) gadu 'hubble-bubble' gdaaw(a)
saarib 'moustache' suwaarib 7. mafaa9iil

saari9 'street' sawaari9 No variants of this pattern have been recorded. Most singular
taabig 'floor, flat' tuwaabig nouns of this plural pattern have patterns mif9aal, maf9uul or
doosari 'belonging to the duwaasir 6 2 ' mfa99il. Examples:
'subject' mawaaiHi9
Dosari tribe' miftaaH 'key' mafaatiiH maw&nu9
mawaaziin mayhuun 'crazy mayaaniin
gaanim,63 'magnanimous man 1 gawaanim mnzaan 'scales, man'
balance'
jaanib 'side' jawaanib 'appoint- mawaa9iid
masaamiir maw9id
mismaar 'nail'
5. fu99aal ment'
This pattern has the variant patterns of fi99aal and fa99aal. mawaaliid m9azzib 'host' ma9aaziib
miilaad 'birth'
Almost all nouns of this plural pattern are occupational n o u n s , 6 4
8. fa9aayil
and their singular forms are of the faa9il pattern,
This pattern has the variant fi9aayil. Most singular nouns of this
xaatir 'guest' xuttaar yaahil 'child* yahhaal
plural pattern are feminine with the fi9iila (or fa9uula) patterns.
taajir 'merchant' tijjaar saakin 'inhabitant' sikkaan
Examples:
Haakim 'ruler' Hukkaam kaafir 'heathen'' kuffaar gabiila 'tribe' gabaayil sahaada 'certificate' sahaayid
Haajj 'pilgrim' Hijjaaj zaayir 'visitor' zuwwaar jiziira 'island' jizaayir Hagiiga 'truth' Hagaayig
seeba 'old man' suwwaab taalib 'student' tullaab digiiga 'minute' digaayig Hadiiga 'garden' Hadaayig
I 111 6. fa9aa9iil kaniisa 'church' kanaayis 9aruus(a) 'bride' 9araayis
This pattern has the variant fi9aa9iil. Almost all singular diriisa 'window' diraayis namuuna 'kind, sort' namaayin
occupational nouns of the fa99aal pattern have this plural pattern.
Examples: An example of a feminine noun that does not end with -a is
sammaac 'fish dealer, fisherman* 9ayuuz 'old woman' is 9ayaayiz.
samaamiic
xabbaaz 'baker' 9. fi9al
xabaabiiz
Most nouns with this pattern have the singular pattern fi9la or
sabbaag 'dyer; painter' sabaabiig
f9ala. This pattern has the plural variant fu9al if the singular contains
xayyaat 'tailor' xayaayiit u, uu, or oo.
gassaab 'butcher' dooHa 'tree; bay' duwaH
gasaasiib duuba 'barge; ship' duwab
Ham maal 'porter' 'envelope' bugas rukba 'knee' rukab
Hamaamiil bugsa
rayyaal 'man' 'head dress' gitar l-yim9a 'Friday' yima9
rayaayiil gitra
gawwaas 'diver' 'goat skin jirab sigga 'apartment* sigag
gawaawiis jirba
Examples of non-occupational nouns: bag'
wiiza visa wiyaz
siyyaada 'carpet' siyaayiid sayyaara syara 'tree' siyar
'car' sayaayiir Hijar 66
barnuus 'blanket' baraaniis dikkaan snsa 'empty siyas 65 Hijra 'room'
'shop' dikaakiin
bottle'
sicciin 'knife' sicaaciin diinaar 'dinar' dinaaniir 'suitcase, sinat
digma 'button' digam santa
bag'
62. Ibid.
65. This has the variant 'isyas.
63. Replacing the set phrase UHyatin gaanma (lit., "a captivating beard").
64. Sp.ft a f> 66. This has the variant "iHjar.
r Nouns-Inflection
il
10. fa9aalil
quuri 'tea kettle' qawaari guuti '(tin) can' gawaati
Nouns of this pattern have various singular patterns; some have
four consonants and no long vowel (includes: defective roots with kirsi ' chair' karaasi j uu j;i ^shoes' j awaati"
three consonants); some others have three consonants and one Jong Note that the four examples cited above, except for kirsi, have the
vow,el.. medial long vowel -uu6S in the singular, which changes into -awaa- in
da ftar 'notebook' dafaatir the plural. Other examples of this plural pattern:
darzan 'dozen' daraaziri catti ^ 'written note' cataati (var. citaati)
fundug 'hdtel, inn' Habaara 'bustard' Habaari (var. Hibir)
fanaadig,
daxtar doctor' Some nouns of this pattern have the -iyyd ending in t the
daxaatir (alt. daxaatra)
xanyar (var. xanjar) 'dagger' xanaayir (var. xanaajif) singular: .»
» : $\ yuuniyya (var. guuniyya) 'clqjh bag' 6 9 yawaani (var. gawaani]
gahwa (var. ghawa) 'coffee; coffee gahaawi
shop' v ta'agiyya 'skull pap' tawaagi
> \
* tarjama* ' 'a translation* traajim zuuliyya 'rug' '' zuwaali
coo cab 'water spring' cawaacib 13. fi91aan
gunsul 'consul* ganaasil This has the variant pattern fu9laan. The singular patterns of
11. mafaa9il the nouns of this plural are^variqus.,Examples:
gumsaan .looH 'wood board' HiHaan
fio variants of this pattern have been recorded. Almost all gamiis 'shirt'
'gazelle' gizlaan
singular nouns of this plural pattern are locative nouns of t h e maf9al 9awar 'one-eyed 9iwraan gazaal
(or maf9ala) pattern. Examples: man
'brother' 'ixwaan
till 'I'1 mantaga region, manaatig madrasa 'school' madaaris 9amay 'blind man' 9imyaan„ 'uxu
district*' 'neighbor' jiiraan
fJabi 'deer, thbyaa,n jaar
(var. yaar) (var.
magbara 'cemetery' magaabir maktab 'office' makaatib gazelle' yiiraan)
maalad- 'birthday mawaalid matbax 'kitchen' mataabix
biibaan xaliij 'gulf xiljaan
(party)' baab 'door'
widyaan
markaz 'center' maraakiz maHkama'law court' maHaakim ...
xaruuf'lamb* -xirfaan waadi 'valley'
ma blag 'sum of mabaalig masna9 'factory' masaani9 Note that the medial long vowels -aa- and -oo- in the singular nouns
money' baab door,' looH 'wood board,' and jaar (var. yaar) 'neighbor' change
A few singular nouns of different patterns have been recorded. into the long vowel -ii- in the plural forms: biibaan, UiHaan, and
jiiraan (var. yiiraan).
m(a)siid 'mosque' m(a)saayid
14. fu9ul
meelas 'living room; meeting' mayaalis
1
;iii This has the variant fu9l. 70 Most singular nouns of this plural
(var. maylis)
are color adjectives of the pattern 'af9al and fa9al.
[i! miskila 'problem' masaakil
(var. muskila) 67. 'Pairs of shoes.'
12. fa9aali 68. The underlying form of quuri is quwri.
This pattern has the two variants fu9aali and fi9aali. Most 69. As in yuuniyyat 9ees 'a large bag of rice,' usually made of cloth,
singular nouns of this plural pattern are of the pattern fu9li (var. weighing about 160 lbs.
fi9li). 70. The second u infu9ul is epenthetic.
'aswad 'black' suud 'abya6' 'white' bird-

'asfar 'yellow' sufur
'asmar 'brown' sumur Habaara 'bustard' -Hibir
'azrag 'blue' zurg (or zirg)
Hamar 'red' Humur xarrar 'green' xurhor 21. *af9il
Examples of singular nouns of other patterns: ryaal 'riyaal (money)' 'aryil
daar 'house' duur raas 'head' ruus sahar 'month' 'ashir
safiina 'ship* sufun tariig 'road' turug Plural patterns of nouns of quadriliterals roots'. 71
15. f(i)9aala
22. fa9aaliil
No variant forms of this pattern have been recorded. Nouns of A. This has the rare variant pattern fi9aaliil or fu9aaliil. Some
this pattern haye singulars of various patterns. Examples: nouns of this pattern have the singular fi9laal.
gatu 'male cat' gtaawa dugal 'mast' dgaala '(coffee) cup* fanaayiin
finyaan
botil 'bottle' btaala galam 'pen' glaama (var. fanaajiin)
(var. finjaan)
faala 'light meal' fwaala Hijj 'young camel* Higaaga 'woman's dress' fasaatiin
fustaan
'address' •9anaawiin
16. fa9iil 9inwaan
'ape, monkey' sa9aadiin
No variant forms of this pattern have been recorded. Nouns sa9daan
'garden, orchard' bisaatiin
with this pattern have various singular patterns. Examples: bistaan
9abd 'slave' 9abiid Hmaar 'jackass' Hamiir 'fork' cinaagiil
cingaal
'j;
Hurma 'woman, wife' Hariim nxala 'palm tree' naxiil B. Some others have the singular pattern fa9luul:
The following plural patterns (17-21) are of limited 'boat' jalaabiit
jalbuut
membership; they have few examples. (var. yalaabiit)
(var'. yalbuut)
17. fa9aaliin 'box' sanaadiig
sanduug
b(i)9iir 'camel' 'shark' yaraayiir
ba9aariin yaryuur
xalag 'fish trap' garaagiir
'duster' xalaagiin garguur
'sand dune' 9araagiib
18. mafaa91a 9arguub
mHassin 'barber' C. Some others have various singular patterns:
maHaasna (alt. mHasniin)
'crab, lobster' jabaajiib
mataarzi 'bodyguard' gubgub(a)
mataarza (alt. mataarziyya)
'chaos' xaraabiit
xarbuuta
19. 'afaa9il
'cut up piece of gasaagiis
gasguusa
mukaan 'place' 'amaakin paper or cloth'
'ajnabi 'foreign; foreigner' 'ajaanib 'eagle, falcon' suwaahiin
saahiin
(var. 'aynabi) (var. 'ayaanib) duwaaliib
duulaab 'wardrobe'
'asim 'name asaami xuwaasiig
xaasuuga 'spoon'
20. fi9(i)I 'entanglement' saraabiic
sirbaaka
walad 'boy' wild
71. Some of these nouns have already been covered in previous patterns.
114
23. fa9aalila
Note that riileen, 'iideen and fti(i)neen are dual in form b u t in
This has tfte variant fa9aalla: The, nouns that belong to this usage they are either dual or plural.
pattern have a human referent.
C. Some kinship ,nouns designating immediate family
daxtar 'doctor' daxaatra (var. daxaatir) *
relationships: »
nooxaira 'ship's captain' nawaaxfta (var. nawaaxid) 'ubu 'father' 'abbahaat 7 3
'umm 'mother' 'Ummuhaat
9.2,3.3 Anomalous Plurals (
'uxu 'brother' 'ixwaan
Some common nouns have anomalous or "Unusual plural
patterns. £ s is shown below, some of the plural patterns resemble 'uxut 'sister' xawaat 1 4 *'" •
sound or broken plural patterns or a combination of both sound and I i
broken patterns or patterns unrelated to the singular form. D. Qthers
Examples: mara (also Hurfnd) 'woman; wife' Hariim
bantaloon 'pants' banaatliin
A. Some singular nouns, usually of foreign origin, form their 'i
plural by adding -iyya to the singular, sometimes with appropriate jigaara 'cigarette' jigaayir i
stem changes. Mpst of these nouns- end in -i and are nisba or taksi ,t 'taxi' tikaasi
occupational nouns. 7 2 Such nouns are count nouns. taanki 'water tank' tuwaanki
dreewil 'driver' dreewliyya
pooliis 'policeman* pooliisiyya ,» 9.3 1Nunation
karraani 'clerk.'
karraaniyya
9ibri ''passenger' In literary Arabic indefinite nouns have three case endings -un,
9ibriyya
si9ri -an, and -in for the nominative, accusative, and genitive cases,
(kind of fish) si9riyya
I'i'lt mataarzi respectively. 7 5 This suffix n, signalling indefinite no"uns in the
'bodyguard'
mataarziyya literary language, is known in Arabic grammar as tanwiin, which t h e
kweeti 'Kuwaiti'
kweetiyya English term "nunation" stands for. In GA, as in any other dialect oi"
'arduni 'Jordanian' Arabic,- nouns are not inflected for case. In GA, however, some
'arduniyya
indefinite nouns in-a non-final position, in set or idiomatic phrases,
B. Some parts of the body:
riil proverbs and poetry have the ending -in, which is n o t a case
i f
i 'foot; leg' riileen inflection since it only means that the word on which it occurs is not
(var. rijil)
.1 (alt. ryuul) the last word of its sentence (see also 10.6.2C'for nunation in active
(var. rijleen) participles).
(alt. rjuul) Examples in s'et phrases:
'... ' 'iid 'hand'
(var. yadd) 'iid een rayyaalin 9ood 'an old, big man'
0amm rayyaalin zeen 'a good man'
'mouth' 0maarn
weehin yimiil 'a beautiful face'
'ifrin (var. admaam)
'ear'
subi9 *i(i)neen 73. There is also the rare literary form 'aabaa'.
'finger, toe'
'asaabi9 74. There is also the rare literary form 'axawaat.
75. The n common to these three endings occurs only in indefinite nouns
72. See 9.2.3.1 A.2 and 9.2.3.1 A.3.
and adjectives.
116 The Morphology of Gulf Arabic Noun Modifiers 117
liHyatin gaanma 'a good man' noun which must always be indefinite in form. The entire
( l i t , "a captivating, construction is definite or indefinite in accordance with the second
charming beard") element, which can be a single noun, or a noun phrase:
Examples in proverbs and idiomatic phrases: l 'a rice sack' or
yuuniyyat 9ees
-frulmin b-s-saw'iyya 9adlin b~r-ra9iyya. 'a sack of rice'
Meaning: 'Injustice done to "all people equally is preferable to yuuniyyat l-9ees 'the rice sack' or
justice for some and injustice for others.' 'the sack of rice'
wild c-calb calbin midla.76 'a, large rice sack'
yuuniyyat 9ees cibiira
Equivalent to the English saying: Like father like son. 'the man's rice sack'
yuuniyyat 9ees r-rayyaal
Hissin 9aali w-yirja9 xaalb 'the rice sack of the man'
Literally: "(It is) a high voice and it comes back empty." 'the man's sack of rice'
Equivalent to the English proverb: Much cry little wool. The second noun may be another noun construct or a series of
Example from poetry: constructs:
gasir Haakim l-'imaara, 'the palace of the ruler
z-zeen zeenin law ga9ad min manaama of the Emirate'
w-s-seen seenin law gassal b-saabuun
gasir Haakim 'imaarat 'the palace of the ruler
lii .il Equivalent to: The leopard can't change his spots.
buflabi 7 8 of the Emirate of
Meaning: 'A beautiful person is always beautiful even at the
Abu Dhabi'
time he wakes up, and an ugly person is always ugly although he
washes himself with soap.' What determines definiteness or indefiniteness in a noun
construct i s t h e second element. If the second element is definite, the
kill, meaning 'everyone, each person,' is usually used with the -in
first one is "treated as definite"; 7 9 if it is indefinite, the first one is
ending in set phrases:
indefinite also:
killin Haliiba yjiiba,
siyyaadat msiid cibiira 'a big mosque carpet'
Meaning: 'one is brought (or drawn back) by one's own milk.'
siyyaadat li-msiid c-cibiira 'the big mosque carpet 1 '
Equivalent to the English saying:'Like father like son.
If b o t h elements of a noun construct have the same gender,
killin yara n-naas b-9een tab 9a.
structural ambiguity results:'
Meaning: 'I;ach person sees people through his own eyes.'
suug s-simac c-cibiir 'the market of big fish'
Literally: "Each person sees people with the eye of his nature."
'the big market of fish'
yaddat bint tawiila 'the grandmother o f a tall girl'
10. NOUN MODIFIERS 'the tall grandmother of a girl'
This type of structural ambiguity is usually resolved by the use of
10.1 Construct Phrases77
HaggZQ or maal 'belonging to, characteristic o f :
* A noun construct' is a construction composed of two noun
phrases syntactically bound together. The first element consists of a 78. Abu iiabi becomes bu dabi in rapid speech.
79. "Treated as definite" means that if the first element has an attribute,
76. This proverb is always used in a pajorative sense. then the attribute shows definite agreement by having the article prefix /-, as the
77. Construct phrases in this section are restricted to Noun and Elative above examples show.
constructs. Numeral, Non-Numeral, and Ordinal constructs appear under 80. Hagg is usually used with animate or inanimate nouns while maal is
Quantifiers below.
used with inanimate nouns, especially appliances, spare parts, etc.
Nqun Modifiers 11?
118 The Morphology df Gulf Arabic
The first noun is usually a deletable geographical noun, and the
s-suug Hagg s-simac c-cibiir " t h e market of big fish' second tis a proper noun, madiinat dpayy is derived from l-madiina
s-suug c-cibiir Hagg s-simac 'the big-market of fish'* 'asimha dbayy 'the name of the city is Dubai.^
t-taayir maal s-seekal s-sagiir 'trie tire'of trie small'bicycle' 3. Container-Contents *
•t-taayir s-sagiir m'aal^s-seekal 'the small tire pf the bicycle' finyaan gahwa here: 'a cup of coffee' riot 'a coffee cup'
Noun constructs are classified as "verb-derived" (i.e., the quuri caay ' here: 'a kettle of tea' not 'a tea kettle*
underlying structure contains a verb) or, simply, "derived" and 'guuti tarnaat here: 'a cin of tomatoes' hot 'a tomato can'
"ordinary" (i.e., all others). In the following analysis the meanings of
. yuuniyyat 9ees herp: 'a sack of r i c e ' n o t ' a j i c e sack'
ordinary "and derived noun, constructs are'defined in terins of their
underlying 'structures. ',, The first.nounis a.noun denoting sortie kind of recegtable, and the
second is a concrete noun of material, finyaan gahwa is derived from
10.1.1 Ordinary Noun Constructs finyaan minl-gahyva.
l. r possession *. 4. Composition
a. alienable x
* \ a a t i m irahab 'a1 gold ring'
gitrat, r-rayyaal 'the' man's head -dress' i kirsi yild 'a leather* chair'
xaasuugat ftdtra 'a silyer spoon" '
Here r-rayyaal l the g 'man' is a concrete nopn semantically capable
u
o'f owning gitra 'head dress.' The whole phrase is related to l-gitra n9aal blaastiik 'plastic slippers* i
Hagg r-rayyaal 'The .hea'd dress belongs to, is for, "the "man.'* Other barhuus_ suuf
. 'a wool blanket'
examples:
The first noun is a concrete noun, and the second is a noun of
galam 1-walad 'the "boy's pen(cil)' '" , material, xaatim "bahab is derived from: l-xaatim minfrahab 'the ring
•' beezaat 1-kuuii 'the laborer's money' * "' is made of gold.'
juuti 'ubuuy 'my father's shoes' 5. Qualification
9acwat seeba 'the cane of an old man' 'the days of the cold, cold days,'
'ayyaam 1-bard
soogat l-9aruus 'the bride's jewelry' 'the man of truth, truthful man'
rayyaaljs-sidg
b. inalienable ^„
kalaam
1U 9adil. 'true, just talk; straight talk'
weeh 1-bint 'the girl's face' This type of construct reflects a relationship wherein the second
Tranab'C-calh 'the tail of the dog' noun describes the first. ^The second noun is an abstract noun witfi a
non-specified (generic) determiner. The construct formation of TV81
caff 1-yaahil 'the child's palm'
+ N can be paraphrased by N + adjective, e.g., 'ayyaam'li-bruuda-lthQ
raas 1-yaryuur 'the head of the shark' cold days' and rayyaal sidg 'a truthful man.'
warag syara •'the leaves of a tree'
6. Limitation
2. Naming kuub caay 'a tea cup'
madiinat dbayy 'the city of Dubai' syarat burtagaal 'an orange tree'
raas 1-xeema 'Ras Al-khaima' rhadrasat 'awlaad 'a boys' school'
(lit., " t h e head of the t e n t " )
xaliij 9umaan 'the Gulf of Oman' 81. N is the noun head.
'aal nhayyaan 'the Nahayan Family'
waaHat li-breemi 'the Buraimi Oasis'
J. ll
120 The Morphology of Gulf Arabic 121-
Noun Modifiers
dallat gahwa 'a coffee pot' «- 1-baay'ig ybuug s-saa9a.

baayig s-saa?a
maay xoor 'water of a gulf, salty water' 'the watch thief 'The thief steals the watch.'
The second noun limits or restricts the first one. The formation saayig s-sayyaara «- s-saayig.ysuug s-sayyaara.
of N + N can be paraphrased by N is for N or is of the class (or 'the car driver' 'The driver drives the car.'
characteristic) of N.
mtarris 1-xatt +- li-mtarris ytarris 1-xatt.
'the letter sender' 'The sender sends the letter.'
10.1.2 Verb-Derived Noun Constructs
Verb-derived noun constructs have as their first element a verbal b. obj.—subj.
noun, an active or a passive participle 8 i or a locative noun, and as m(u)wafyfraf li-Hkuuma" «- li-Hkuuma twatîf l-muwa^&af.
their second element the agent or the goal of the action. They show 'the government employee' 'The government employes the
the following grammatical relationships: employee.'
1. Intransitive Verb and Subject mdallal 'ubuu <- 'ubuu .ydallila.
Verb-Subject 'his father's spoiled one' 'His father spoils him.'
intra
4. Noun (loc.)—Subj.
kaflrat s-sarikaat s-sarikaat yaktfuruun. maylis s-syuux +-. l^mukaan illi yajlis s-syuux fii
'the great number of companies' 'the place where the "Shaikhs sit'
'Companies become many.' 'the Shaikhs' sitting room'
gillat 1-maay
•*- 1-maay ygill. msiid 9umar «- 1-mukaan'illi'siyad 9umar fii
'the scarcity of water'
'Water becomes scarce.' 'Omar's mosque' 'the place where Omar knelt
tuul 1-wagt
+- 1-wagt ytuul. (for prayer)'
'all the time'
'Time lingers (long).' majra 1-maay *- 1-mukaan illi yajri 1-maay fii
zoodl-Harr
*- 1-Harr yziid., 'the course of the water' 'the place where-water runs'
'the increase of hot weather'
'Hot weather increases.'' The first, N, is a locative nouri, which is derived from the
2. Transitive Verb and Object
underlying intransitive verb:
tafniis 1-kuuliyya 'the firing of coolies' yalas 'to sit'
maylis (lit., "a place for sitting"):
la9wazat n-naas 'the bothering of people' sayad 'to kneel'
msiid (lit., "a place for kneeling"):
tadriib 1-junuud 'the training of soldiers' jara 'to run'
majra (lit., "a place for running"):
tarbiyat li-9yaal 'the bringing up of children'
5. Noun (loc.)—Obj.
Constructs that belong to this category are ambiguous: if tafniis
taffaayat jigaara «- mukaan ykubbuun fii jigaayir
l-kuuliyya is related to X yfannis l-kuuliyya 'X terminates the
'an ash tray' 'a place where they throw away
services of the coolies,' then the grammatical relationship is
Vtra—obj.; but if it is related to l-kuuliyya yfansuun, 'the coolies cigarettes'
terminate their (own) services,' then the construction is related to ma9ra^jawaati <- mukaan y9anruun fii jawaati
Vintra—subj. 'an exhibition of shoes' 'a place where they exhibit shoes'
3. Subject and Object masna9 graas <~ mukaan yisna9uun fii graas
a. subj.—obj. 'a bottle factory' 'a place where they make bottles'
82. See 10.4.

-122 The Morphology of Gulf Arabic Noun Modifiers 123
n „,, 10.2 Elatiye'Constructs 10.3 The Determiner System
1
" '"An elative construct is onef in which the first element is an 10.3.1 The Article Prefix
jelatiye, adjective. 8 3 This form, derived from the corresponding a. Proper Nouns
* adjective, is, termed^ in,Arabic grammar an elative adjective. Ij: is an Proper nouns in GA include'the names of any common nouns
adjective -of- rating, i'eI, ,M trje best" one',""the"; Jvorst one*/' 'the-most such as people, places, books, films, newspapers, etc. Proper nouns
* beautifulbne,' etc. " ' have a particular syntactic role in GA and MSA. They do not need any
•i; "t *i !• «. i <
marking for definiteness, for they are definite by virtue of being
, 'aHsan rayyaal h 'the best man' r
*M # " 'aHsan rrrayaayiil , 'the best s(of the) m e n / * proper nouns. There are two sub-classes of proper nouns — one that
takes the article prefix /- and another that does nots Whether proper
V •*' fyAm,elativeunay bemused .in construct 'with either an'indefinite
nouns appear with or without the article prefix is a matter of lexical
"singular v pr;plurai noun, or a f defihite plural noun:*
etymology, and not a realization of two clifferent states of
'aHsan rayyaal*1 ' ' "the best man' definiteness. It is interesting to note that the article prefix* which
JJt " . . .
'aHsan (jayaayiil 'the*b'est f rnen' appears with some proper nouns is comparable to the the which
s
-' i. "> j
. forms a-part of such*English.phrases as The Rockies, The Mississippi,
l
1 'aHsan r-rayaayiil 'the^ beSsf(of the) men'
v ' i , v *' The Sudan, etc. 84
It: is' tp jbe nptedf.tliat'^n elative used in construct with an
/- has shapes depending upon the environment in which it is
indefinite .noun'is-rendered in English asîf jit<were definite, *asin,the
used: in an initial position before nouns and adjectives beginning
first*1 'phrase* above. 'aHsan, rayyaal 'the, best' man' has" the sanie
with one consonant it is /-; before nouns and adjectives with clusters
meaning,as'that expressed 1 by'trie attributive constructions ^
a T-rayyaal l-'aHsan 'the best man' of two (identical) consonants it is li-: li-kweet 'Kuwait,' li-9raag
'Iraq,' li-sxala 'the young goat, kid (f.).' In a post consonantal
The'last;phrase in,-the examplesf'abpve is ambiguous with respect to
position it is usually pronounced il- as in min il-guuti 'from the can,'
the number, of^,things being, described. It means either 'the best one
fraak il-mukaan 'that place,' ma9 il-9ayuuz 'with the old woman,' but
of the men' (partitive) or 'the Jjfest who are men.'
this transcription will show it as /-. Before a noun or adjective
The gender and number of an elative construct depend upon its
beginning with t,6,d,^,r,z,s,s,s,t,^,l,n,c in a post-vowel position, the l-
referent, regardless of,the fpllowing term:
is assimilated:
haafra 'aHsan r-rayaayiil. 'This is the best man.' t-taffaaya 'the ashtray' d-dalla 'the coffee pot'
hateel 'aHsanVrayaayiil. 'These are the best men.' c-eaay 'the tea' s-sammaac 'the fisherman'
But,if the following term is jndefinite„gender and number concord 0-0alaa0 'Tuesday' f-fabb 'the lizard' *' fi
depends iipon that of the following term:
haaira 'amtan gassaab. 'This is the fattest butcher.' 10.3.2 Quantifiers
haf>eel 'amtan gassaabeen. 'These are the (two) fattest '
.butchers (m.dual).' 10.3.2.1 Numerals
hadeel 'amtan gasaasiib. 'These are the fattest
butchers (m.p.).' 10.3.2.1.1 Cardinals
Cardinals in GA constitute a subclass of nouns and modify only
count nouns. They are divided into the following categories:
83. The elative form of the adjective is of the pattern 'af9al, e.g., 'aHsan
'better,' 'atwal 'taller,' etc. See 10.5.1.4 Elative Adjectives.
84. See the handling of this phenomenon by Verma, Manindra, "A
Synchronic Comparative Study of the Noun Phrase in English and Hindi."
Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of Michigan, 1966.
124
Noun Modifiers
i
a. Cardinalsi
Independent Form
waaHid 'one' and dneen 'two* have the feminine'forms waHda
arid, Binteen. They obligatorily follow, the noun they modify and dalaada 'three sab9a 'seven'
show full agreement with it: 'arba9a 'four' & amaanya 'eight'
rayyaal waaHid xamsa 'five' tis9a 'nine'
'one m a n ' (m.s.)''
rayyaaleen 6 neen(a). sitta 'six' 9asara 'ten'
'two men' (m.dual)
Hurma,waHda Tied Form
'one woman' (f.s.)
Hurmateen 0inteen If the numeral is used with a following noun, that noun must
'two women' (f.dual)
r-rayyaal 1-waaHid plural; the cardinal used has the following forms:
'the one m a n '
r-rayyaaleen li-0 neen 0alaa0 'three' sab(i)9 seven
'the two men'
i-Hurma I-waHda it (var. dalaatt)
'the one woman' <eight'
1-Hurmateen 0-0inteen 'arba9 'four* 6 amaan
'the two women' 'nine'
xam(i)s" 'five' tis(i)9
waaHid and dneen are used I n counting,and in ah 1answer to the
question, How many? Example: sitt 'six' 9as(i)r 'ten'
cam waaHid tabi? 'How many (ones) clo yob want?' The long vowel -aa- in QalaaB 'three' is often shortened to -a- in
waaHid walla flneen. 'One.or two.' normal speech; final 4 is usually assimilated \o a following dental
and final -tt of sitt 'six' is assimilated t b a following t and d. The
They are used in conjunction with a noun for emphasis, as in rayyaal
transcription in this instance shows the word intact, without
waaHid 'one man.' waaHid is often used with nunation; 8 5 i.e.,
assimilation.
waaHdln in,the phrase waaffdim minhum ^ waaHdin* minhum,'one
of them (m.).' The form 'aHad (often Had) is userj in a question or a flalafl86 awlaad 'three boys'
87
negative statement meaning 'anybody, somebody': 0ala0 daxaafir 'threfe doctors'
88
fii Had hini? 'Is there anybody here? 0.ala0 tabaabiix 'three cooks'
0ala0 89 calmaat 'three words' ,
ma fii Had hini. "There isn't anybody here.'
sitt sanawaat 'six years*
fii Had taHat. 'There is somebody downstairs.'
sitt talgaat 'six firings (from a gun)'
VVhen dneen is used with a noun for emphasis, the noun is usually
plural: sitt daraahim 'six dirhams'
cift rayaayiil 0neen(a) T saw two men.' sab9 ayyaam 'seven days'
Hassalt Hariim 0inteen. 'I found two women.' sabi9 9amaayir 'seven buildings'
b. Cardinals 2 The cardinals 3-10 which belong to this category are in a
construct form with the noun they precede, but unlike noun
The cardinals 3-10 have two forms: one used independently constructs such numeral nouns may be.definitized by the prefixation
(i.e., not followed by a noun), such as in counting, and a tied form of the article I- and can oe modified by a demonstrative pronoun,
used in construct with a noun:
pre-posed or post-posed to the whole phrase.
85. See 9.3.

86. (V&r.dalatt)
87. Ibid.
88. Ibid.
89. Ibid.
Noun Modifiers 127
126 Tlie Morphology of Gulf Arabic
tfamaan diyaayaat xamsiin kuuli 'fifty coolies'

'eight chickens, hens'*
0'0amaan diyaayat sittiin dirhim 'sixty dirhams'
'the eight chickens, hens'
d-diyaayaat 0-0amaan sab9iin rub b iyy a 'seventy rupees'
'the eight chickens, hens'
0amaaniin duuba 'eighty barges'
haadi 0-0amann diyaayaat 'these eight chickens, hens'
tis9iin walad 'ninety boys'
0-0amaan diyaayaat haa&i 'these eight chickens, hens'
l-9isriin gubguba 'the twenty crabs, lobsters'
c. Cardinals 3
t-tis9iin teer 'the ninety birds'
The cardinals 11-19 have two forms, an independent form and a Compound numbers from 21 through 99 (except for
tied form:
Cardinals*) are expressed by using the units digit first followed by
Hda9as 'eleven' sitta9as 'sixteen' the tens digit with the conjunction w- 'and' in between:
0na9as 'twelve' sabi9ta9as 'seventeen' xamsa w-9isriin 'twenty-five'
0alatta9as 'thirteen' 0amaanta9as 'eighteen' waaHid .w-xamsiin 'fifty-one'
'arba9ta9as 'fourteen' tisi9ta9as 'nineteen' 0neen w-tis9iin 'ninety-two'
xamista9as 'fifteen'
Gamaanya w-sittiin 'sixty-eight'
The tied form used has a suffixed ar to the independent form:
The noun modified always follows the whole numeral in GA and is
Hda9sar sitta9sar singular:
0na9sar sabi9ta9sar sitta w-sittiin Hijra 'sixty-six rooms'
0alatta9sar 0amanta9sar
e. CardinalSs
'arba9ta9sar tisi9ta9sar
This category' comprises the hundreds 100, 200, 300, through
xamista9sar
900. The word for 100 is 'imya (var. miya) and the irregular dual
The noun counted is singular in form and it is only the numeral that form miiteen is 200. The cardinal is invariable (the construct form of
takes the article prefix: 'imya is 'imyat or miyat) and it can take the article prefix; the noun
Hda9sar b(i)9iir 'eleven camels' modified is singular:
'imyat beet '100 houses'
0na9sar naaga 'twelve camels (f.)'
miiteen jindi '200 soldiers'
sitta9sar Hmisa 'sixteen turtles'
0ala0imyat sirti '300 policemen'
Ii-Hda9sar bi9iir 'the eleven camels'
*arba9imyat garsa '400 bottles'
0-0amanta9sar Hmisa 'the eighteen turtles'
xamsimyat ktaab '500 books'
d. Cardinals 4
sittimyat dreewil '600 drivers'
With 20, 30, 40 through 90, the noun counted is singular in '700 houses'
form as it is after cardinals^. These cardinals are invariable and can sab9imyat beet
take the article prefix: 0amaanimyat diinaar '800 dinars'
tis9imyat fils '900 fils'
9isriin ga9uud 'twenty young camels (m.)'
GalaaOiin barnuus 'twenty blankets' 1-miyat naaga 'the 100 camels (f.)'
*arba9iin syara 'forty trees' s-sittimyat banka 'the 600 fans'
J 28 77ie Morphology of Gulf Arabic Noun Modifiers 129
Compound numbers from 101* through,1 1 9 9 (except* for The'noun after the thousands and the millions is singular:
Cardjnalss) are expressed by pre-posing these cardinals followed by miyat'alf syara " '100,000 trees'
w- to compound .numbers from 21 through 99 as was poinjted out in
Cardinals^: malyooneen difhim '2,000,000 dirhams'
Compound numbers in' which, 'all or ;some r of the 'cardinals
tis9imya w-xamsa \v-tis9iin '995'!
described* above are <used are expressed, acc&rding t o the following
miiteen'w-s'abâ w-0amaaniin '287* ' order: i ,,
U Cardinals 6 . millions + thousands j- hundreds J.+ units
* <•' tens ] t
These are* the thousands and the millions, 'alf90 '1000' has a
i ,, units # tens
dual form 'alfeen and a plural form aalaaf 'thousand's.' T,he
thousands from 1000 through 10',000 are £iven below-with optional • Each major* co'mponent except t h e first one takes the
alternatives (with the exception of 1000 and 2000),,occurring^less conjunction w- 'and.' Examples: **
frequently than t h e forms preceding them: xamsimyat malyoon w-0ala0imyaj 'alf ,w-miiteen w-xamsa
'alf £
1000' ! \ , 500,300,205 .
'alfeen' '2000' xamsimyat malyoon w-0ara0imyat"'alf w-mhêen w-îttaâs
daladaalaaf* 0alaattaalaaf 500,300,216 ' ' -
'3000' u
xamsimyat malyoon w-0ala0imyat 'alfw-miiteen w-sitta w-sab°lin
"araba9aalaaf 'arba9 I ataalaaf '4000'
' ' 500,300;276
x^msaalaaf xamsataalaaf '5000'
In expressing numbers ending in one or rwo, the units digit, i.e.,
sittaalaaf sittataalaaf '6000' one or rwo, is,vnot normally used,but the n o u n nibjiified is repeated:
sab9aalaaf sabi9taalaaf '7000' 'imyat dirhim w-dirhim '101, dirhams'
0amaanaalaaf * flamaantdalaaf '8000' " 'alf leela w-leela' •, '1001 nights'-
tis9aalaaf tisa^taalaaf '9000' 0amaariimyat diinaar w-dinaareen '802 dinars' ,
9asraalaaf 9asartaalaaf '10,000'
! 10.3.2.1.2 Ordinals
Thousands 11,000 through 100,000 are expressed by using the
numeral form 11-1000 plus ^ / / ' 1 0 0 0 . ' Examples: f Ordinals are derived from" cardinals according to the following
Hda9sar'alf '11,000' formula: Cj aaC 2 iGj. In some cases the derivation is'irregular:
sitta w-sab9iin 'alf '76,000' Cardinal^ Ordinal (m.) Ordinab(f)
The word for 1,000/100 is malyoon and its dual form is waaHid 'awwal ''uula s
malyooneen '2,000,000'; the plural is malaayiin 'millions,' used 0neen' 0aa'ni 0aanya
independently as in malaayiin min n-naas 'millions of people' or after 0aali0 0aal0a
0alaa'0a
one of the numerals from three through ten:
',arba9,a raabi9 raab9a
0ala0imyat malyoon '300,000,000'
xamsa xaamis xamsa
xamsimyat nialyoon '500,000,000'
sitta saadis 91 saadsa 92
90. Another less commonly used word is lakk, which is preserved in the
speech of older and uneducated Gulf Arabs. 91. saatt is used less frequently.
92. saattais used less frequently.
Noun Modifiers 131
Cardinal Ordinal (m.) Ordinal (f.) 'awaayil t-tullaab 'the first students'
sab9a saabi9 saab9a 'awaaxir d-dawaasir 'the last (of the) Dosaris'
0amaanya 0aamin 0aamna b. Ordinals*

tis9a taasi9 taas9a For ordinals Qaani-9aasir 'second-tenth,' the fdrm of the ordinal
9asara 9aasir 9aasra is uninflected if the noun following is singular and indefinite; the
A entire construct is definite in meaning:
Ordinals up to the tenth may be post-posed. From the eleventh
upward they are obligatorily post-posed; 'larger ordinals than the xaamis yoom 'the fifth day'
hundredth are rarely used. When ordinals are post-posed, they are xaamis marra 'the fifth time'
used attributively as adjectives, and with adjectival inflection. If, however, the ordinal follows the noun, the entire construction is
Ordinals are divided into t h e following subclasses:
indefinite:
a. Ordinals i y o o m xaamis 'a fifth day'
-The ordinals 'awwal 'first' and 'aaxir 'last' stand in construct marra flaanya 'a second (another) time*
with a definite or an indefinite singular or plural noun according to The members of these'ordinals do not stand in construct with
the following rules:
indefinite plural nouns. If the noun they stand in construct with is
(i) If the meaning is 'the first or last A7,' then N is singular definite plural, then they are inflected for gender; the construct then
indefinite and invariable for gender: 1 has a partitive meaning:
'awwal rasta 'the first paved road' xaamis li-9yaal 'the fifth (one) of the children'
'awwal msiid 'the first mosque' xaamsat n-na99aasaat 'the fifth (one) of the female dancers*
'aaxir bint 'the last girl'
c. Ordinals 3
'aaxir xatt 'the last letter' This class includes ordinals from the eleventh upward. These
(ii) If the meaning is 'the first or last part of N,' then N is ordinals are subdivided into the following subclasses:
inanimate, singular, definite: (i) U-Hda9as 'the eleventh* through Hisi9ta9as 'the nineteenth'
'awwal s-sana 'the first part of the year! and l-9isriin 'the twentieth,' d-dalaadiin 'the thirtieth,' l-'arba9iin 'the
'awwal 1-geefr 'the first part of the summer' fiftieth'.. . etc. These ordinals do not show cardinal-ordinal
distinction in form but they do in word-order: they obligatorily
'aaxir s-saalfa -'the last part of the story'
follow the noun-head. They do not show gender concord:
'aaxir s-saari9 'the last part of the street'
l-b(i)9iir Ii-Hda9as 'the eighteenth camel (m.)'
(iii) The plurals of 'awwal, 'awaayil, and of 'aaxir, 'awaaxir,
I-walad l-9isriin 'the twentieth boy'
may be pre-posed to inanimate, singular, definite nouns that indicate
s-sayyaara 1-xamsiin 'the fiftieth car*
a period of time.' The meaning is 'the first, or last, part of N.'
'awaayil li-sfiri 'the first part of a u t u m n '
10.3.2.2 Non-Numerals
'awaayil s-sana 'the first part of the year'
'awaaxir s-sahar 'the last part of the m o n t h ' 10.3.2.2.1 Partitives
¥t
(iv) The plurals, i.e., 'awaayil and 'awaaxir have the meaning of Partitives include nouns designating indefinite amounts and
i 'the first, the last,' if they precede a plural animate noun: quantities. They do not show any concord with the nouns they
modify, but are related to them in a partitive relationship:
Noun Modifiers 133
'aglab Cardinal Fraction

'most o f
'aktfar ' , 'two' nuss 'half
'most o f 0neen
0il0 'one-third'
mu9dam 'majority, most o f 0alaa0a" 'three'
rub9 'one-fourth'
(I-)qaliil min !a r fewof, a "little o f 'arba9a 'four'
xum's •''one-fifth'
ka0iir min 'a-lot o f xamsa 'five'
suds 'one-sixth'
waayid (var. waajjd) min' 'a lot o f 1 sitta 'six'
sub(u)9 'one-seventh'
l-ka0iir min 'a whole'lot o f ' sab9a 'seven*
0um(u)n 'one-eighth'
They modify a definite plural count noun, or a definite collective or 0amaanya 'eight'
tus(u)9 'one-ninth'
a mass noun. Any of rthese .may be specified "or non-speoified in tis9a 'nine'
meaning: 9us(u)r 'one-tenth'
9asara 'ten'
'aglab r-rayaayiil- 'most (of the) men' The1 fractions nuss 'half,' dild 'one-"third,' rub9 'one-fourth' and xums
'ak0ar n-haxal 'most (of the) palm trees'" 'one-fifth' can be made dual or plural: the dual morpheme is -een and
*injl9dam ,1-mayy 'most of the water' their plural pattern is 'af9aal:
1-ftaliil min 1-baclu 0il0 een 'two-thirds'
'afewof(the)'B&ouins*
l-ka0in\rrnn s-simac nusseen 'two-»halves'
V whole lot offish'
,rub9een 'two-fourths'
Each one of the partitives, on the left%can,be pre-posed Jo any of the
nouns on the right: r-raydayiil '(the) men' (pi., count), n-naxal '(the) xumseen 'two-sixths'
palm trees' (coll.), and l-mayy '(tjie) water.' This, usage is also 0alaa0at 9 3 arba'a9 'three-fourths'
extended to nouns indicating size, e.'g., baHar min c-caMb 'an ocean 'four-fifths'
'arba9at axmaas
of lies,' gatra min l-9ilm 'a drop ,of scienpe, knowledge,' etc.
Higher fractions are usually expressed periphrastically with the
'aglabiyya and 'akdariyya 'majority,, most' belong to this
category of partitives, but they tend to modify a human noun: cardinal numerals and the use of the preposition min 'of, from'.:
' 1 waaHid min sitta 'one-sixth'
'aglabiyyat s-samaamiic 'most of the fishermen' r
'* ak0ariyyat l-muwa3irafiin 'most of Jhe employees' 'arba9a min sab9a 'four-sevenths'
xamsa min sitta9as 'five-sixteenths'
ba9f 'some' modifies either a plural count or a definite
non-count noun. In either case, the noun modified may be translated 0allatta9as min miya 'thirteen-hundredths'
as definite or indefinite: sitta min tis9a w-sab9iin 'six seventy-ninths'
ba9*r r-rayaayiil 'some (of t h e ) men'
ba9d- rayaayiil 'some men' 10.3.3 Intensifiers
ba9d- l-mayy 'some of the water' Intensifying quantifiers include kill 'all, whole, every,' jimii9,
ba9r> 1-yiHH 'some (of the) watermelons' 9umuum 'all, whole, entire,' and nafs 'same (very), -self-.'
The meaning of kill varies, depending upon whether the
10.3.2.2.2 Fractions following noun is definite or indefinite, singular or plural:
Cardinals from 3-5 have fractions derived from them; the

pattern is fu9l, except for 0/70 'one third.' The form corresponding 93. (Var. Qalaatt or Qalatt)
to dneen 'two' is irregular: nuss 'half.'
Noun Modifiers
kill gatu 'each (every) cat' In haafra walad. 'This is a boy.' the demonstrative haa&a 'this'
kill li-gtaawa 'all (the) cats' occurs as an independent noun head of the noun phrase which is the
kill madiina 'each (every) city' entire subject of the sentence. On the other hand, to add emphasis to
kill 1-madiina 'the whole city' the semantic force of the demonstrative pronoun, it may follow the
noun it modifies with the semantic restrictions on i t s concord as
In GA kill may take nunation, -especially in proverbs and set phrases:
mentioned above:
killin ymidd riila 9ala'gadd l-Haafa.
1-mudiir haafta 'this director'
As you make your bed, you must lie in it. (lit., 'tEach person
1-waladeen haêel(a) 'these two boys'
stretches his leg according to his quilt.")
A demonstrative pronoun as a nominal modifier never precedes
killin Haliiba yjiiba.
a noun construct. It modifies either Ni or N 2 . If it modifies N i , it
Like father like son. (lit.., "One is brougjitby one's.own milk.") must follow the entire construct:
The total intensifiers Jimii9„ 9umuum, 'all, whole,, entire' modify biri 1-madiina haada 'this tower of the city'
count and non-count nouns:
If it modifies N 2 , it may precede or follow it:
jimii9 1-karraaniyya 'all (of the) clerks'
biri haatri 1-madiina 'the tower of this city'
jimii9 n-naas 'all (of the) people'
biri 1-madiina haafri
9umuum t-tullaab 'all (of the) students'
Of these two choices the former is the usual order in GA.
9umuum d-duwaayir 'all (of the) departments'
If the two elements of the construct agree in number and
nafs 'same, -self is used with a definite common noun, and is
ambiguous: gender, ambiguity results:
saahiin li-bdiwi haaâ 'the falcon of this Bedouin (m.)' or
nafs r-rayyaal 'the same m a n ' or 'the man himself 'this falcon of the Bedouin (m.)'
nafs 1-Hariim 'the same women' or.'the women themselves' 9acwat l-9ayuuz haafti 'the cane of this old lady' pr
'this cane of the old lady'
nafs li-hduum 'the same clothes' or 'the clothes themselves'
But saahiin haafra li-bdiwi and 9acwat haafti l-9ayuuz only mean 'the
10.3.4 Demonstratives falcon of this Bedouin (m.)' and 'the cane of this old lady,'
respectively.
In addition to the article prefix, another part of the determiner
system of GA occurs in pre-modification position. It is the The other demonstratives are:
demonstrative pronoun. Members of this limited set of pronouns (ha)d-aak 'that (m.)' (ha)Mic 'that (f.)'
precede only specified definite nouns, and must agree with the nouns (ha)d-oolaak 'those (m.p.)' (ha)freelaak 'those (f.p.)'
they precede in gender and number: (ha)îlaak
i ji haatra 1-gasir 'this palace (m.s.)'" 10.4 Participles
(cf: haafragasir.) ('This is a palace.')
haadi d-diriisa 'this window (f.s.)' A participle is a verbal adjective depicting its referent as being in
hatreel(a) 1-gasreen a state as a necessary consequence of the event, process or activity
'these two palaces (m.dual)' designated by the underlying verb. For the purposes of this part of
hazreel(a) 1-Hurumteen 'these two women (f.dual)' the study we are .interested in participles as post-nominal modifiers.
hafreel(a) li-wlaad 'these boys (m.p.)'
haireel(a) d-diraayis 'these windows (f.p.)'
Noun Modifiers 137
i l l i
HI 1i , i
Ij ."1 136 The Morphology of Gulf Arabic i AP
II
II 1 Illlli 10.4.1 Active Participle ' Verb
Kt r gaass 'having cut'
gass, 'to cut'
ij" I 10.4.1.1 Derivation "laaff 'turning' or
laff * 'to 'make a turn'
'having turned'
c i a s s l
K 11 ' 'having flogged,'peaten'
3 'to hit, flog' taagg
Illi Sound: Taa9il tagg 'having thrown away''
AP 1 'to throw away' gaatt'
Vert> ga«
1 1
1! \\"m da9am 'to hit (in a daa9im 'having hit' , Ifamzqted: waa9il
I II 1 car accident)' kal«- 'akal 'to eat' waakil ' 'having eaten,'
I I I la9ab 'to play'* laa9ib 'having played' xad +- ' a«„«- .___
x a * ''to Jake' waaxid- 'having taken'
13 - J 9araf ''to know' *9aarif 'knowing' or | The active participle from the verb ya (var. ja) " t o come' is
'having known'
irregulan yaay (var. /aay)"'coming; ; havihg come.'
W 111| baraz 'to be ready' baariz 'ready'
1 sJ| ragad 'to sleep' raagid 'sleeping' Class II
1 i 1 tiras
' t 0 fl11 ' taaris 'having filled' Sound: mfa9t9il
mtarris 'having filledi
||jj.' Si 9imil 'to make" 9aamil 'having made' tarras 'to fill to.the brim'
mfassil 'having disappointed*
1 i SI wisil" 'to.arfive' waasil 'arriving' or fassal 'to disappoint'
'having arrived' ' tarras 'to send' mtarris 'having stint;
jl H Defective: faa9i fannas 'to terminate s.o.'s mfannis 'having terminated'
1 li. . |j| baga 'to want' baagi 'wanting' or or one's own services'
mxayyim 'having camped'
'having wanted' j xayyam 'to camp*
| !|| Haca 'to speak' Haaci 'having spoken' Defective: mfa99i
il i 1 dara 'to know' daari 'having k n o w n ' mqanni 'having sung' ^
qanna 'to sing'
If • I misa 'to walk' maasi 'walking' or i mrawwi 'havihg shown'
rawwa •'to show'
'having walked' 1 mHayyi 'having greeted*
Hayya 'to greet s.o'.'
• il 1 Hollow: faayi9 i msalli 'having prayed'
salla 'to pray'
j j" i fraaj 'to be bored' fraayij 'bored' ,
\'\ 1* gaal 'to say' gaayil 'having said' ' Class III
I'M:! J iLHII • Sound: mfaa9il
• ;: 1 raaH 'to go' raayiH 'going' or 'having gone'
mwaafij 'having agreed'
j '|| i , 1 daax 'to smoke' daayix 'dizzy' waafaj 'to agree'
mbaarik 'having- blessed'
:
|:",i J taaH 'to fall down' taayiH 'having fallen down' baarak 'to bless'
d
ifi : j l i xaaf 'to be afraid' xaayif xaasam 'to quarrel with s.o.' mxaasim ' ^ W ^
'afraid'
.•' , : ; 1 Doubled: faa99 >t msaafir 'traveling' or
saafar 'to travel'
[i "ij;|| dass 'to enter' daass 'entering' or 'having traveled'
'having entered' mxaabir 'having telephoned'
xaabar 'to telephone'
i ! 1 nass 'to wake up' naass 'having waked up, msaamiH 'having forgiven*
saamaH 'to forgive s.o.'
awake'
138
NounModifiers 139
Defective: mfaa9i
Verb Verb AP'
AP
ft Haaca 'to speak with s.o.' taxaasarn 'to quarrel with mitxaasim 'having quarreled'
•ft' -mHaaci 'having spoken with s.o.' eadh pther'
maasa 'to walk with s.o.'
mmaasi 'having walked with s.o.' friraahar 'to feign, pretend' miSâhir 'pretending'
Class IV
•Defective: mitfaa9i
Sound:' mu'f9il 94
tlaaga 'to meet wkfr'eacri mitlaagi, 'meeting' or 'having
'a9jab 'to please' other' "met' i
mu9jib 'pleasing' or 'having
l pleased' tHaaca 'to talk w i t h ea*ch t, .mitHaaci 'having talked'
'axbar to inform* other'
muxbir 'having informed'
'a91an 'to announce'
mu9Iin 'having announced' Class VII i
'a9Iam 'to tell, inform'
mu91im 'haying inform £d' Sound.; min'fi9il
^Defective: muf9i
ntiras 'to tiq/illed* ' mintiris •Tun:
'a9ta 'to give'
mu9ti 'giving' or 'having^given' n9araf 't;o be known' min9irif 'having-'be'en known'
Class V nsima9 'to,, be heard' fninsimi9 'havjng been heard*
Sound:* mitfa99il Defective: minfi9i
1 " tsallaf 'to borrow money'
mitsallif 'having borrowed' nHaca 'to be said' minHici 'having been said'
tqayyar 'to change*- ncasa 'to be clothed' mjncisi '(being) v plothed'
mitqayyir 'changing, changeable'
twannas 'to have a good time' mitwannis 'having a good time' ndara' 'tofye known" mindiri 'having been'known'
or 'having had a good Hollow minfaa9
time'
tbannad 'to be shut' nbaag 'to be stolen' minbaag 'having been stolen'
mitbannid '(being) shut'
twahhag 'to be involved' Doubled
mitwahhig '(being) involved*
t9awwar 'to, be injured' ntagg 'to be beaten, min tagg '„havin*g been flogged,
mit9awwir 'having been injured' flogged' i beaten'
tcayyak 'to be checked'
mitcayyik 'having been checked' ngatt 'to be thrown away' mingatt 'having been thrown
Defective: mitfa99i away'
tqadda 'to have lunch' ngass 'to tie'cut' mingass 'having been cut'
mitqaddi 'having had lunch*
tHadda 'to defy' (
mitHaddi 'defying' Class VIII
Class VI
Sound: mifti9il
Sound: mitfaa9il Htifal 'to celebrate' miHtifil 'celebrating'
tgaabal 'to meet with s.o.' a„~^,
mitgaabil i.dvmg mer
'having met' xtalaf 'to be different" " mixtilif 'different'
tsaawar 'to consult (deliberate) mitsaawir 'having consulted' stagal' 'to work' mistigil 'having worked'
with s.o.'
stima9 'to listen.' mistimi9 'listening'
94. See 6.2.3 Class IV verbs.
'. "4 r
Defective: mifti9i Verb AP

Kerb sta9fa 'to resign' mista9fi 'having resigned'
! il AP
stara 'to buy' mistiri 'having bought' Hollow: mista9iil
stika 'to "complain' mistiki 'complaining' or staraaH 'to rest, be mistariiH 'restful; comfortable'
'having complained' comfortable'
ntasa 'to be forgotten' mintisi 'forgotten' stajaab 'to respond' mistajiib 'responding'
(var. stayaab) (var. mistayiib)
Hollow: miftaal
Htaaj 'to need' Doubled: mistifi99/mistafi99
miHtaaj 'in need o f
staHabb* 'to find s.th. or f mistiHibb/mistaHibb 'liking s.th.
Htaar 'to be puzzled' miHtaar 'puzzled'
s.o. nice, good' or s.o.'
rtaaH 'to rest' mirtaaH 'comfortable' .X o f
staHagg 'to deserve' mistiHigg/mistaHigg 'worthy
Doubled: mifta99
staradd* '-to get s.th. back' mistiridd/mistaridd 'having
htamm 'to become' mihtamm 'concerned'' gotten s.th.
concerned' back'
ftarr *'to turn around' miftarr 'having turned around' Quadriliterals
Class IX Sound: mfa91il
la9waz 'to bother s v o.' mla9wiz 'bothering' or 'having
mif9all
bothered'
xtrarr 'to turn green' mixfrarr 'green,, greenish'
xarbat 'to mix, mess, s.th. mxarbit ''confusing'
Hmarr 'to turn Ted' miHmarr 'red, reddish' or s.o. up'
byaa^- 'to turn white' mibyata- 'white, whitish' mgasmir 'having played a prank
gasmar 'to play a prank
zragg 'to turn blue' mizragg 'blue, bluish' on s.o.' on s.o.'
9wayy 'to turn crooked, mi9wayy 'having turned Reduplicated: mfa91il
twisted' crooked, twisted' 'having cut up s.th.'
gasgas 'to cut up s.th.' mgasgis
Class X tagtag 'to tap (s.th.)' mtagtig 'having tapped (s.th.)'
Sound: mistaf9il Derived Quadriliterals: mitfa^lil
sta9mal 'to use' mista9mil 'having used' tla9waz 'to be bothered* mitla9wiz '(being).bothered' or
stazyan 'to find s.th. good' mistazyin 'finding s.th. good' 'having been bothered'
starxas 'to have permission, mistarxis 'having had permission' txarbat 'to be mixed up' mitxarbit 'having been mixed up'
to seek permission'
tgasgas 'to be cut up' mitgasgis 'having been-cut up'
Wit Defective: mistaf9i
10.4.1.2 Meanings of Active Participles
stabga 'to keep s.th. mistabgi 'keeping s.th. for
for oneself oneself Most active participles have two dimensions of meaning:
sta9ta 'to seek s.th.; to beg* grammatical and aspectual.
mista9ti 'begging; seeking s.th.*
staqna9an'to do without' mistaqni 9an 'doing without' or
'having done without'
142 The Morphology of Gulf, Arabic *r 'Noun Modifiers 143
a. Grammatical «• (iv) Future ^

'a dancing'girl' r-rqyyaahPyaay, baacir 'the man arriving (who .is going
"bint raags'a
to arrive)'tomorrow'
9ali mtarris 1-xatt., 'Ali is*sendirig> has seiit, '
'the letter..' - li-msaafriyi r-faayHynf' 'the travelers going twjio are ' K
i \ i s
d-dopHa,( soing) to Doh4'
teer mqanni 'a singing^bird' ^' *
v If the ..underlying vert£ is a*flperfect tense, the corresponding
fZaammitqayyir 'a cjianging„changeable
active participle„depicts:
work schedule'
(i) Completea M Action
b. Aspectttal . ' ' ' 1
1-Hurma l-9aamla l-gahwa% '.the w o m a n w h o (has) made
" ' The'aspect-implied b y ' a participle seems'to be in many cases" an ' » '' I! the coffee' " ( ' ' :f 4
individual'1 characteristic of the participle "itself:, ±&, i t ' i s lexically .. n ,! 'jthe driver who (has) t injured
conclitibned. As will ,be- pointed- q,ut below, there are many cases d-dreewil li-mâwwir,raasa his head'
where $ie participle and tfre underlying verb do .not match'.JSpme
1-kuuli li-mfarin|s 'the coolie who (has) terminated,
participles,seem to have a much more aspectual meaning than others,^
his work'
e.g., native r speakers*of GA often/assign more specific aspectual
meanings to* a participle in very common use than t o a, less.commpn weeh miHmarr 'a face t h a t (has)'turned red'
one, e.g\, in r-rayyaal lj-mla9w\z the active parjjcjple, li-mla9wiz, (ii) Resultant Condition
wh^ch is not so commonly used, has the following aspectual"
The aptive participles belonging here convey an aspect riot
meanings' 'the ,man- who 'i$l bothering (somebody) (now); trie
conveyed by either the perfect or the imperfect tense of ^ h e
bothering man ("iterative); trie man that (has) bothered (perfective).'
corresponding verb;: Examples: waagif 'standing, afoot"frpm wagaf
•In r-rayyaal li-mtarris l-xatt, -on the'.other hand, tAe active participle,
'he stood up-'he'sapped!'" and ypogaf \he stops; He stands regularly,' v
l-mtarris, which has a higher frequency of occurrence thanlZ/-m/a9w*z yaalis 'sitting, seated' \rora yilas 'he'sat up, down'ând yiilis/hQ sits
means only '.the man who has sent the letter (perfective).' down, or up (regularl^),' jiaayimt 'sleeping, ( asleep' Trorn naam 'he
If the underlying verb is an imperfect tense, *then the active slept' and, yinaam 'he goes to 1 sleep,-sleeps (regularly).'' *
participle"expresses the following aspects:
If the underlying vert) is,eijher a perfect .or an imperfect.tense,
(i) Concurrent (in progress) } the .corresponding active participle expresses either a progressive or a
i-maay 1-jaari 'the running water' , perfective aspect.-Examples;*
s-saayil guuniyyat l-9ees '(the one) carrying the rice sack' gaaî 9aarjil ' t 'a judge who is, has b.eenjust' ,J;
li-9yaal 1-maasyiin 'the children (who,are) walking' ,, r-rayyaal d-daass * 'the man (who is) entering;
the man .who has entered'
bdiwi raakib b(i)9iir % Bedouin riding a camel'
'f
It was mentioned vin 10.4 that a participle is a verbal adjective1.
(ii) "Iterative (customary, habitual)
Like verbs, an active participle may take a direct object (i.e., a noun,
teer mqanrii .-'a sbng bird' (lit., "a singing a pronoun, or a suffixed pronoun). Examples:
bird")
9ali mtarris 1-xatt. 'Ali is sending, has sent, the letter.'
rayyaalin saadj 'a truthful man'
9ali mtarris hafreel. 'Ali is sending, has sent, these.'
(hi) Dispositional (tending, having the ability,, capacity to act) 9ali mtarsa. 'Ali is sending, has sent, it (him).'
zaam mitqayyir 'a changeable, changing work 9ali mtarris-li xatt. 'Ali is sending, has sent, me a letter.'
schedule'
9yaada mitHarka 'a moveable, moving clinic'
Like adjectives, it follows the noun it modifies and agrees with it in mad9uum 'hit (in a car ma9ruuf 'known'
gender, n u m b e r , 9 5 and definiteness, and is negated by mu(u)(b). accident)'
Examples: mal9uub 'played' ma9muul 'made'
dreewil m9awwirraasa 'a driver who has injured His head' ' matruus 'filled; full' maHci 'spoken'
Hurma m9awra raasha 'a woman who has injured her head' mabgi "desired' magsuus 'cut'
d-dreewliyya li-m9awriin 'the drivers who have injured 'entered' mawkuul 'eaten'
madsuus
ruushum their heads'
malfuuf 'turned; r o u n d ' mawxuuir 'taken'
1-Hariim li-m9awraat ruushin 'the women who4iave injured
From Augmented verbs; the passive participle is formed by the
their heads'
prefixation of m- (or mi- before a two-consonant cluster) before the
1-kuuliyyeen li-mfansiin 'the two coolies who have resigned' first radical of the stem, with a as a stenrvowel (vowel preceding the
1-Hurumteen 1-mitxanninaat 'the two women who are wearing last radical). From quadriliterals, the pattern is mfa9lal. Examples:
perfume' 'left, deserted'
mrawwa 'shown, exhibited' mxalla
gaafri mu(u)(b) 9aadil 'an unjust judge'
mfannas 'terminated' m9awwar 'injured' 1
zaam mu(u)(b) mitqayyir 'an unchanging, unchangeable 'spoken t o '
mjaawab 'answered' m Haaca
work schedule*
miftarr 'turned around' mista9mal 'used'
10.4.2 Passive Participle mistaHabb 'liked, desired' mistaHagg 'having been
worthy o f
10.4.2.1 Derivation 'mixed up'
mla9waz 'bothered' mxarbat
Passive participles are derived only from transitive verbs. Note
Passive participles derived from transitive verbs t h a t take
that active participle forms of verbs of Class VII (which are
prepositional objects always have pronouns suffixed to the
intransitive or passive in meaning) have a passive meaning:, prepositions. The suffixed pronouns have as their antecedents the
taanki mintiris 'a filled, full tank' noun-head of the construction. The participle does n o t show
garsa mingatta 'a discarded, thrown away bottle' agreement with the subject; it remains in the base form (i.e., m.s.):
mintiris 'filled, full' and mingatta 'thrown away' are active participles rayyaal maHkuum 9alee 'a ponvicted man'
3
of the verbs ntiras 'to be filled' and ngatt 'to be thrdwn away, Hurma maHkuum 9aleeha 'a convicted woman'
discarded' in form only, for this form is equivalent to trie passive
gatMyya madri biiha 'a known case'
participles of the underlying triradical verbs: matruus 'filled, full'
from tiras 'to fill' and magtuut 'thrown away, discarded' from gatt gadaaya madri biihum 'known cases'
'to throw away, discard.' In actual practice matruus and magtuut are
usually used rather than mintiris and mingatt. 10.4.2.2 Meanings of Passive Participles
All unaugmented triradical verbs form their passive participles Every passive participle has two dimensions of meaning:
according to the pattern maf9uul. The passive participles of the grammatical and aspectual.
transitive verbs in 10.4.1.1 are:
a. Grammatical
A passive participle depicts its referent as the goal of the action:
95. The dual form is not used; the plural form is used instead (see sayyaara mad9uuma 'a hit car 1
14.1.1A).
baab maskuuk 'a closed door'
Noun Modifiers 147
146 The Morphology ofGulfArqbic
'short' gisir 'to turn short'

ktaab mabyuug 'a book that has been stQlen' gasiir
Class I
guuti mbattal 'a can that has been opened'
'inexpensive' rixis 'to become inexpensive'
raxiis
b. Aspectual Class'I
(i) Perfective kibir 'to grow big, large*
k(a)biir 'big, large'
(var. cibiir) Class I'
•galam maksuur, 'a broken pencil'
matiin 'fat'1' •<- mitin 'to grow fat*
$ ktaab mabyuug 'a stolen book*
Class I
The referent is the goal of the action. It is depicted as being qidim 'to become ancient*
qadiim 'old, ancient' *-
" n a v m g b e e n V-ed." (var. jidim) Class I
(var. jadiim)
)' (ii) Perfective or. Progressive yadiid 'new' yi,did 'to furn nety'
1 (var. jadiid) (var. jidid) Class I
1-miskila l-mabHuu0 fiiha 'the problem tHa't has been
, * (or is being) discussed' yamiil 'beautiful* yimil 'to grow, turn beautiful*
(var. jamiil) (Var. jimil) Class I
l-'imaaraat I-masmuu9 9anha 'the Emirates that have been'
(or are being) heard about' naftiif 'clean' niirif 'to turn clean'
Class I
t-tamaat I-mabyuu9 'the tomatoes sold (now or
regularly)' One or two positive adjectives of this pattern are derived from
s-saya'ayiir.l-majyuuba min 'the cars imported (lit., nouns:
'amriika "brought") from America' fagiir 'poor' «- figar 'poverty'
ii
The referent is depicted as being "having been V-ed" or "being 9ajnb 'strange' *- 9ajab 'strangeness'
V-ed" '• A few positive adjectives are of the fayyil pattern. They ar&
(hi) Potential derived from Class I hollow verbs:,
'to be good, fine'
sayyin makruuh 'a detestable, odious thing' tayyib 'good, fine' +• taab
hayyin 'easy'' *- haan" 'to be easy'
Haakim maHbuub 'a lovable, likable ruler'
bayyin 'clear' «- baan 'to be clear'
The referent is depicted as being "capable of being' V-ed" or
"tending tolbe V-ed." * mayyit 'dead' *- maat 'to die'
&ayyig 'narrow' «- âag 'to become narrow'
< Those of the fa9i pattern have verbal nouns as their underlying
10.5 Adjectives
forms: '
10.5.1 Derivation 'rich' qana 'richness'
qani
qawi 'strong' quwwa 'power, strength'
10.5.1.1 Positive Adjectives
(var. gawi) (var. guwwa)
Most positive adjectives in GA have verbs- as their underlying saxaawa 'generosity'
saxi 'bountiful,
forms and are of the fa9iil pattern. generous'
tawiil 'tall; long' «- taal 'to grow, turn tall' daki 'clever' 3aka 'cleverness'
Class I 'naughtiness*
saqi 'naughty' saqaawa
Noun Modifiers 149
1
hadi 'quiet' «- hudaay 'quietness'
kaslaan 'lazy' <- kisil 'to be lazy'
qabi 'stupid' «- qabaawa 'stupidity 1
bardaan 97
'cold' «- birid 'to get cold' '
A few positive adjectives are derived from other classes of verbs: 98 <- no underlying form t
Harraan 'hot, sweating'
muhimm 'important' +- htamm 'to become concerned' 3
9argaan 'sweating' •*- 9irij 'to sweat'
maynuun 'crazy' *- nyann 'to become crazy' <-
yarbaan 'inflicted with yirib 'to be inflicted with
(var. majnuun) (var. njann) I*
scabies' scabies'
There are positive adjectives of some other patterns: 'very thirsty* +- trimi 'to get thirsty' t
£amyaan t
wasix 'dirty' wasax 'dirt' <-
Hamyaan 'hot, running Himi 'to get h o t '
Haarr 'hot' '*- Haraara 'heat; temperature' a temperature' %
murr 'bitter' <- maraara 'bitterness' juu9aan 'hungry' <- jaa9 'to be hungry'
Hilu 'sweet' Halaawa 'sweetness' naymaan 'sleepy (leg)' *- naam 'to sleep'
Haadd 'sharp (knife)'*' Hadd 'edge' 96
talfaan 'deserted' <- tilif 'to be deserted'
9ood 'big, large; no underlying form rawyaan 'well-watered'' «- riwi 'to be satiated with water'
old' 1,
xarbaan 'out of order' <- xirib 'to be out of order' 1
dijiij 'thin; skinny' no underlying form
1(\ C 1
10.5.1.2 fa9laan Adjectives
Nisba adjectives, sometimes known as relative adjectives,
fa9laan adjectives, as their name indicates, are of the fa9laan indicate something characteristic of, or having to do with what the
pattern. Almost all of them are derived from Class I verbs, e.g., Himig underlying word designates. Most nisba adjectives are derived from
'to get *mad, angry' has the fa9laan adjective Hamgaan which nouns, a few from adjectives, and a small number from,prepositions.
W :l describes someone, a male, as being in, or undergoing, a state of They are formed by suffixing -i to the word, sometimes with
anger.
appropriate stem changes."
The most commonly used fa9laan adjectives are the following: The following are examples of nisba adjectives that require no
ta9baan 'tired' stem changes:
ti9ib 'to get tired'
xajlaan 'embarrassed' 'ardun 'Jordan' -+ 'arduni 'Jordanian'
xijil 'to be embarrassed'
xasraan 'broke' sarg 'east' -»• sarji 'eastern'
xisir 'to lose (e.g., in a game)'
Hamgaan 'mad' saxs 'person' -*• saxsi 'personal, private'
Himig 'to get mad'
gatrbaan 'furious' <- gifib xaliij 'gulf -* xaliiji 'gulf (adj.)'
'to get furious'
sakraan 'drunk' 9umaan 'Oman' ~* 9umaani 'Omani'
sikir 'to get drunk'
sab9aan 'full (of food)' Sahab 'gold' -»• #ahabi 'gold, golden'
sibi9 'to be full of food'
9atsaan 'thirsty' 9itis 'to be thirsty'
galtaan 'mistaken' 97. bardaan 'cold' is used only with animate nouns; baarid is -used with
gilit* 'to make a mistake'
farHaan inanimate nouns. The same distinction in meaning applies, respectively, to
'happy'
firiH 'to be happy' Harraan vs. Haarr 'hot.'
na9saan 'sleepy (person)' ni9is 'to be sleepy' 98. Ibid.
99. See 4.3.1.
96. Such as the edge of a sword.
(150 The Morphology of Gulf Arabic Noun Modifiers 151
markaz ''center' •+ markazi 'central' 'Kalba' 1 0 8 -•* calbaawi 'from Kalba'

calba
foog 'above' -*• foogi 100 'located h i g h e r o r above' 'Zirkuh' 1 0 9 -*• zirkaawi 'from Zirkuh'
zirkoo
Some nisbas require vowel elision when -i is adcled:
*Ul 10.5.1.4 Elative Adjectives
9agil 'mind* "9agli 'mental*'
See 1,0.2 Elative'Constructs above.
'asil 'origin'* -* 'asli ''original; genuine'
s. Depending upon their root structure, elative adjectives are
ramij "'sand' 'sandy' "
-*• ramli dividec- into the following: * '
baHar -'sea' 'naval' A. Sound Roots ' „, '
sahar 'month' i >. -+ baHrf
'monthly' " *' Elatives witlvsound roots are formed on the pattern 'af9al from
raHat 'below' 7*"sahri
'located lower or below' the corresponding positive adjective.- *
-• taHti 1 0 1
Some nouns with, the -a ending Ipse this ending when -/is added: Positive Qlative
s-saarja 'Sharja' matiin •fat* 'amtan Salter'
'from Sharja'
Hagiiga 'fact; t r u t h ' wasix 'dirty' 'awsax ' 'dirtier'
-*• Hagiigi 'factual'
110 'Digger-older'
9aada '.habit; custpm' -+ 9aadi cibiir 'big; old' 'akbar
'habitual; regular'
kanada 'Canada' -* kanadi V (var. k(a)biir)
'Canadian'
'ancient, old' 'a9taj 'older'
1-baHreen 'Bahrain' -*• baHreeni 102 'Bahraini' 9atiij
'skinny, weak' 'a&9af 'skinnier; weaker'
di da9iif
Some other nouns with the -a ending lengthen this ending and a -w- is 'sane' 'a9gal -more sane'
9aagil f
added' before the ,-/ ending^ .Most" such nouns are place names and of 'truthful' 'asdaj more truthful'
saadj
the pattern fa9la or fi9ld. Examples: (var. 'asdag)
, -> basraawi 'from Basra' (var. saadig) 'drier 1
basra 'Basra' 103 'dry' 'ansaf
' -*• barbaraawi' 'from Barbara' naasif 'cleaner'
barbara 'Barbara' 104 'clean' • 'anftaf
-*• leewaawi 'from Liwa' naîif
leewa 'Liwa' 1 0 5 'short' 'agsar
'shorter'
dalma 'Dalma' 1 0 6 •+ dalmaaWi 'from Dalma' gasiir
-> waflbaawi 'from Wathba' B. Weak : Middle Roots
waflba 'Wathba' 10 ' 7
In these elatives the 9 is either a v or a ,w , depending on the
100. Or the less commonly used foogaani. roots of the underlying word:
101. Or the less commonly used taHtaani. zeen 'fine, good' -, 'azyan 1 ' 1 'finer, better'
102. baHraani, the plural of which is baHaarna, is another nisba adjective. seen 'bad' 'asyan 'worse'
It means 'characteristic of the Shiah sect' or 'a member o f the Shiah sect' xaayis 'rotten' 'axyas 'more rotten'
anywhere, not necessarily in Bahrain.
zaayid 'excessive' 'azyad 'more excessive'
103. A city in Iraq.
(var. 'azwad)
104. A place1 name.
105. A place name in Abu Dhabi. 108. A town on the Gulf of Oman.
106. An island in Abu Dhabi. 109. An island in Abu Dhabi.
107. Ibid. 110. For k -+ c see APPENDIX III.
111. Or 'aHsan.
dayyig 'narrow' 'atryag 'narrower' h A few adjectives do not have any of the above elative patterns.
tayyib 'good; delicious' 'atyab 'better; more delicious' The elative of such adjectives is expressed by pre-posing 'akOar
xaayif 'afraid' 'more' (the elative of kadiir 'much, a lot'):
'axwaf 'more afraid'
' i n - - IIL:
damyaan 'ak0ar *•:„_»
'thirstier'
hayyin 'easy' 'ahwan 'easier' iramyaan 'thirsty'
Hamyaan 'hot, feverish' Hamyaan 'ak0ar 'more feverish'
C. Weak-Last Roots yarbaan 'akflar 'scabbier'
yarbaan 'mangy; scabby'
The underlying adjectives in this section end in -/. The elatives 3aruuri 'akflar 'more necessary'
fraruuri 'necessary'
derived from such adjectives are of the 'af9a pattern.
mixtilif 'different' mixtilif 'akflar 'more different*
gaali 'expensive' 'agla 'more expensive'
qawi 'strong' 'aqwa 'stronger'
(var. gawi) (var. 'agwa) 10.5.2 Inflection
qani 'rich' 'aqna 'richer'
10.5.2.1 Gender *
saaHi 'conscious' 'asHa 'more conscious' Adjectives have two genders: masculine and feminine. They
9aali 'high' 'a91a 'higher' differ from nouns in that nouns are either masculine or feminine;
saqi 'naughty' 'asqa 'naughtier' adjectives have two forms, a masculine form and a feminine form,
hadi 'quiet' 'ahda 'quieter' depending upon the noun they modify. The feminine singular form
sixi 'generous' of the adjective is formed from the masculine singular form by
'asxa 'more generous'
suffixing -a, sometimes with appropriate stem changes as described
qabi 'stupid' 'aqba 'more stupid' below.
D. Double Roots 1. Adjectives of the patterns maf9uul, fa9iil (or fi9iil), fa9laan,
In these elatives the second and third roots ,are identical. They or other adjectives that end with either a single consonant prededed
are derived from positive adjectives in which the second and the third by a long vowel or a double consonant preceded by a short or a long
roots are also identical. The pattern is 'afa99. vowel require no stem change when -a is suffixed. Examples:
Haarr 'hot' 'aHarr maynuun 'crazy maynuuna
'hotter'
yadiid 'new' 'ayadd 112
matruus 'full' matruusa
'newer'
(var. jadiid) (var. 'ajadd) 'slaughtered' mafrbuuHa
madbuuH
qaliil 'few; little' 'aqall xasiisa
'fewer; less' xasiis 'low, mean'
xafiif 'light, not heavy' 'axaff 113
'lighter' matiina
matiin 'fat'
murr 'bitter' 'amarr yadiida
'more bitter' yadiid 'new'
Haaff 'dry' (var. jadiid) (var. jadiida)
'aHaff 'drier'
Haadd 'sharp' 'aHadd xasraan 'broke' xasraana
'sharper'
maynuun i 'crazy, mad' 'ayann yarbaan 'mangy, scabby' yarbaana
'crazier'
xasiis 'low, mean' talfaan 'deserted' talfaana
'axass 'meaner'
zeen 'good, fine' zeena
112. Or 'aydad(y%t. 'ajdad). seena
seen 'bad'
113. Or 'axfaf.
9ood 'big; old' 9ooda
154 The Morphology of fculf Arabic Noun Modifiers 155
murr 'bitter' -+ murra bayyin 'clear' -* bayna

Haaff 'dry; -+ Ttaaffa rrayyig 'narrow' -*• Sayga
daass 'entering' -> daassa i msaxxan 'running a temperature' -* msaxna
-2. 'Feminine nisba adjectives are former} from their mfannis 'having terminated' -* mfansa
corresponding masculine forms by changing the suffix,.-/ into -iyya: mtarris 'having sent' -*• mtarsa
'ardum\ 'Jordanian' 'arduniyya mfassil 'having disappointed' -> mfasla
'kw'eeti '.Kuwaiti' kweetiyya mwaafij 'having agreed' -> mwaafja
'asli'" V 'original' 'asliyâ mitwannis- 'having a good time' -* mitwansa
9aadi t 'habitual; regular' 9aadiyya mixt;lif 'different' -» mixtilfa-
dalmaawi 'from Dalma' dalmaawiyya mreewis 'have gone in reverse' -* mreewsa
barbaraawi 'from Barbara' barbaraa wiyya 1 5. Feminine adjectives of color and defect are formed from
3. Adjectives with final weak roots of the fa9i pattern also their corresponding masculine forms according to the patterns fa9la
change -/, into -iyya; those of thp faa9i'pattern change - / i n t o -ya. for sound forms, feela for forms with a medial -y- and foola for
'Examples :i forms with a medial -w-. Examples:
sixi 'bountiful; generohs" Hamar 'red' Hamra
sixiyya ' T >l
hadi 'quiet''' xadar 'green' xafrra
had iyya
qawi 'strong' xaras 'ihflicted with smallpox' xarsa
qawiyya
9aray 'limping, lame' 9arya
•9aafr 'high' 9aalya
9amay 'blind' 9amya
gaali ,i expensive' gaalya
9adab 'having a paralyzed hand' 9a^ba
baagi 'remaining; remainder' ba'agya
gatam 'mute' gatma
maasi 'walking' maasya
baagi 'oppressive;- tyrant' azrag 'blue' zarga
baagya
asfar 'yellow' safra
4. Adjectives11-4 of the patterns faa9il, fayyil, dr other
adjectives, that end with -VC in which -V- is an unstressed v o w e l , : l s asmar 'dark' samra
drop ,V- when -a is suffixed. Those adjectives that end with -CCVC amlaH 'grey' malHa
(usually participles) also drop one of the double consonants when -a
asmax 'mute* samxa
is added (see 4.3.2).
aslag 'cross-eyed' saiga
baariz 'ready' -+ baarza
aslay 'deaf salya
raagid 'sleeping' -• raagda
taaris 'filling' -* taarsa abyafr 'white' bee-r>a
hayyin 'easy' -»• hayna
aswad 'black' sooda
9a war 'one-eyed' 9oora
114. A good number of these adjectives are active and passive participles
115. See 4.3.1. 9away 'crooked, bent' 9ooya
—**
10.5.2.2 Number Major Broken Plural Patterns
Adjectives, like nouns,_ have dual and'plural forms. In G A the 1. f9aal

dual is very rarely used; the plural form is used instead, e.g., 9ayleen Masculine singular adjectives of t h e fa9iil)'fi9iil pattern usually
&9aaf 'two-thin (weak) children' instead of\9ayleen fa9iifeen (see have two plural patterns: a sound pattern, e.g., fa9iifiin 'thin; weak,'
14. h i A). Most plural forms are sound masculine forms; sound as in some of the' above* examples, and a broken patterji- f9aal.
feminine forms are not commonly used (see 14.1.1 A). These Examples: , *•
adjectives include those of the patterns fa9ijl, fa9il, fa°i, fa99, fu99, flagiil 'heavy' v 0gaal (pr-Oagiiliin) ,t
fa9laan,"n\s\>z adjectives, and adjectives Of participle patterns. Some gsaar (or gasijriin)
gasiir '.short'
nisba adjectives and all adjectives of" color and defect have broken
cibiir r 'big; old' kbaar (or kabiiriin)
plural forms. Note that the appropriate ste,rn changes in the
formation of the sound plural forms are the same as those for tjie (var. k(a)biir)
formation of the feminine forms described above. dijiij 'thin' djaaj (or dajiij'iin)
qaliil 'little; few' qlaal (or qaliiliin)
0a9iif 'thin;""weak' -»•* â9iifiin (of ft9aaf)
-> ' tawiiliin (or twaal) matiin 'fat' mtaan (or matiiniin)
.ta'wiil 'tall;'long'
-*• nadiif 'clean' ndaaf (or naftiifiiri),
gasiir 'short' j gasiiriin (or gsaqr)
->• faygiin sagiir" 'small; young' sgaar (or sagiiriin)
frayyig 'narrow'
* ydaad (or yadkdiin)
wasix •'dirty' -> wasxiin yadiid
'new' (or yiddad)
(var. jadiid)
hadi 'quiet' -y had iyy iin
sixi t 'bountiful, generous' -*• sixiyyiin 2. fi91aan
Haarr 'hot' -> Haarriin Most adjectives of defect have this broken plural pattern.
Masculine singular adjectives of defect in CJA are of the patterns fa9al
Haadd 'sharp (knife)' -*• Haaddiin
or 'af9al (see APPENDIX V).
murr 'bitter' -» murriin
9amay 'blind' ->• 9imyaan
hamyaan 'very thirsty' -»• ftamyaaniin ->
9awar 'one-eyed' 9iwraan
gadbaan 'furious' -*• ga^baaniin -*•
9aray 'limping, lame' 9iryaan
9umaani 'Omani' -*• 9umaaniyyiin
9away 'crooked; not straight' -*- îwyaan
(or 9umaaniyya)
* (or 9ooyt
baHreeni 'Bahraini' -> baHreeniyyhn
habal ^weak-minded' -*• hiblaan
(or, baHreeniyya)
gatam 'mute' -»• gitmaan
zirkaawi 'from Zirkoo' -> zirkaawiyyiin
(or zirkaawiyya) 9arrab 'having a paralyzed hand' -> 9ir>baan
baagi 'remaining' -> baagyiin xaras 'inflicted with smallpox' -*• xirsaan
gaali 'expensive' ->• gaalyiin
'asmax 'dumb' -> simxaan
maasi 'walking' -*• maasyiin
'a0ram 'having a split lip' '-»- 0irmaan
9aali" 'high' -»• 9aalyiin
'abâm 'toothless' -»• bi&maan
-158 Pronouns
'aslag 'cross-eyed' -* silgaan characteristic forms of which are the following:

3rd person m.s. huwa 2nd person m.s. 'inta
'aslay 'deaf •+ silyaan
3rd person m.p. hum 2nd person m.p. 'intum
3. fu9ul/fi91/fuul
3rd person f.s. hiya 2nd person f.s. 'inti
Adjectives of color have this broken plural pattern. The singular
3rd person f.p. hin 2nd person f.p. 'intin
form of this kind of adjective is of the patterns fa9al or 'af9al; it is
'af9al unless the first radical is any of the following consonant 1st persons. 'aana
sounds: g,9, \x,H,h (see APPENDIX V). 1 st person p niHin
Hamar 'red' Humur common variants of s(
T h e following are t h e less
xadar 'green' xufrur independent pronouns:
'abyafh 'white' biffr Personal Pronoun Variants
'azrag 'blue' zirg (or zurg) huwa huu,huwwa, 'uhu
'atlas 'dark blue' tils hiya hii, hiyya, 'ihi
'aswad 'black' suud hum humma, 'uhum
'asmar 'dark* sumur 'inta 'int, 'init
"amlaH 'grey' milH 'intum 'intu
'asfar 'yellow' sufur 'aana 'ana, 'aani
4. fa9laawiyya niHin Hinna, niHna, 'iHna
These are nisba adjectives that indicate a national origin or an The forms under Personal Pronouns above are the basic forms
ethnic group. Note that these adjectives have other plural patterns, as of the dialects of GA; those on the right, i.e., the Variants, are also
pointed above. used in Bahraini and Qatari: huwwa, humma, hiyya, 'aani, and 'iHna
basraawi 'from Basra' basraa wiyya are characteristic of Bahraini, while huwwa, hiyya, 'int, and 'iHna or
baHreeni 'Bahraini' Hinna are characteristic of Qatari.
baHreeniyya
Some speakers use only one form, i.e., hum, for both the
calbaawi 'from Kalba' calbaawiyya masculine and the feminine 3rd person plural. The same speakers
leewaawi 'from Liwa' leewaawiyya would also use ''intu for both the masculine and the feminine 2nd
barbaraawi 'from Barbara' barbaraa wiyya person plural. There are no dual forms of personal pronouns in GA;
the plural forms are used instead..
5. mafaa9iil
The independent pronoun is used:
maynuun 'crazy; insane' -+ mayaaniin
1. As the subject or predicate of an equational sentence (see
mxabbal 'dismayed; foolish' •+ maxaabiil 13.1): niHin min rab9a. 'We are from his group (lit., "relations").'
hum waajid zeen. 'They (m.p.) are very good.'
m 11. PRONOUNS 2. As the subject of a verbal sentence (see 13.2) for emphasis:
huwa yabi yaHci wiyyaac. 'He wants to talk to you (f.s.).' 'aana
11.1 Independent Pronouns nasseet s-saa9a xams. 'I woke up at five.' hin dHsan wiyyaay 'They
(f.) studied with me.'
Independent pronouns are free forms. They are inflected for
gender and number. In GA there are ten such pronouns. The most
Pronouns 161
•fji
11.2 Suffixed Pronouns -c and -id for the feminine, -ak and -ic are'used after a verb form that
ends with - W C or -YCi C 2 -or -VCC. Elsewhere -k and -c are used.
Pronouns may be suffixed to- verbs, nouns, active participles, r The second person, plural has two forms each: -kuj-kum for the
and particles. When suffixed to verbs, function as the objects of masculine" and -kuf-kin for the feminine. Thdse forms" are not
those verbs, and when suffixed to nouns they indicate possession. phonetically conditioned-but are used interchangeably. 116
r
''Pi. '
When suffixed to verbs, these bound forms sometimes require
For active participles see -C below, and for particles ^see 12.
PARTICLES below. certain changes in the verbs:
s, 1. C V C V C ^ C C V C
A. Suffixed to Verbs
Sound .verbs of-Class I of the fa9al pattern change into f9al-
The following table shows the personal pronouns and the
correspcmding verb suffixed forms: before -a is suffixed:
Personal Pronoun Verb Suffixed Pronoun 9araf 'heJtnew' ->• 9rafa, 'he knew him'
huwa 'he' ;a tiras 'he filled' , -*• trasa 'he filled it (m.), him'
hum f 'they (m.j ' -hum irabaH' 'he slaughtered' -*- ^baHa 'he slaughtered i t ( m . ) , him'
hiya 'she' -ha
2. -f + h--»-ff-
hin 'they (f.) -hin ,-t + h- -* -tt-
'inta 'you (m.sj.)' -k/-ak The h in the suffixed pronouns -hum, -ha, and -hin changes into
'intum 'you (m.p.)' -ku(m) / or t if preceded b y a verb form 117 that ends with forj (see 4.2).
'inti 'you (f.s.J )' -c7-ic Examples:
'intin " 'you (f.p!!)' saaf 'he saw' •-*• saaTfum 'he saw them (m.)''
-ku, kin
'aana 'saaffa 'he saw her'
T * -ni
niHin 'tie saw them, (f.)'
'we' -na saaf fin
Example: The following examples involve anaptyxis and then assimilation:
fannas > sift T saw' -* *sifthum -*• sifittum 'I saw them (m.)'
'to terminate- someone's services'
fannasa 'fie terminated him' *siftha -*• sifitta 'I saw her'
fannashum *sifthin -*• sifittin 'I saw them (f.)'
'he terminated them (m.)'
fannasha 'he terminated her.' darabt T hit' *3afabthum i •+ farabittum 'I hit them (m.)'
fannashin 'he terminated them (f.)' *tarabtha -» ârabitta T hit her'
fannask 'he terminated you (iri.s.)' *&arabthin -» ârabittin T hit them (f.)'
fannaskum 'he terminated you (m.p.)'
3. CCVCVt -»• CVCCVt
fannasc 'he terminated you (f.s.)' CVCVCVt -+ c v c t v t tf
fannaskin 'he terminated you (m.p.)' A verb form of the fa9alat (or f9alat) pattern changes i n t o
fannasni 'he terminated me' fa9lat before the suffixed pronoun -a is added:
fannasna 'he terminated us'
The suffixed pronouns that indicate the second person singular have 116. -ku is more commonly used (for both forms) than -kum or -kin.
two forms each: -k and -ak for the masculine, and the corresponding 117. Verb form here indicates either a verb by itself or a verb plus subject
marker.
162 Pronouns 163
9rafat 'she knew' 9arfata 'she knew it (m.), him' + -c -> 9rafooc 'they (m. or f.) knew you (f.s.)'
dbaHat 'she killed' #abHata 'she killed it (m.), him' + -ni -»• 9rafooni 'they (m. or f.) knew me'
trasat 'she filled' tirsata 'she filled it (m.), him* etc. etc. etc.
tfalat 'she spit' taflata 'she spit it (m.)' The forms 9arfoo, 9arfooha, 9arfook, etc., or the variants 9arfuu,
If the suffixed pronoun -c is added, the -t of f9alat changes into -c 9arfuuha, 9arfuuk, etc., are also used.
and assimilates (see 4.2). This transcription, however, will-show -tc
instead of -cc: 5. CVCV^ CVCVV
If a verb form ends with a vowel, that vowel is lengthened
9rafat + -c- -*• 9rafatc
before the suffixed pronouns are added. This rule applies to weak
ObaHat + - £ - > • dbaHatc
verbs (both perfect and imperfect) and verbs with the subject
trasat + -c -* trasatc markers -tu, ~ti, and-na. Examples:
It should be noted that the forms 9arfatc, frabHatc, and tirsatc are 'he wanted him'
baga 'he wanted' •* bagaa
also possible. The forms 9arafatic, itabaHatic,. . . etc., are rare. This •+ bagaac 'he wanted you (f.s.)'
rule applies to any other sound form of any other class of verb.
Examples: bageetu 'you (m.p. or bageetuu 'you (m.p. or f.p.)
f.p.) wanted' wanted him'
fannasat + -c fannasatc 'she terminated your (f.s.)
services' -*• bageetii 'you (f.s.) wanted him*
bageeti 'you (f.s.)
xaabarat + -c xaabaratc 'she telephoned you (f.s.)' wanted' -*• bageetiina 'you (f.s.) wanted us'
jjaahalat + -c jjaahalatc 'she ignored you (f.s.)' -*• bageetiihum 'you (f.s.) wanted
staHabbat + -c them (m.)'
staHabbatc 'she liked you (f.s.)'
H la9wazat + -c la9wazatc 'she bothered you (f.s.)' bageena 'we wanted' -*• bageenaa 'we wanted him'
gahwat + -c gahwat c 'she gave you (f.s.) coffee' •+ bageenaahum 'we wanted them (m.)'
gasgasat + -c gasgasatc 'she tore y o u (f.s.) up into -+ bageenaac 'we wanted you (f.s.)*
little pieces' -* bageenaak 'we wanted you (m.s.)'
The forms xaabaratic 'she telephoned you' (f.s.), fannasatic 'she bageenaaku(m) 'we wanted you (m.p.)'
terminated your (f.s.) services'.. . , etc., are also possible.
•+ bageenaakin 'we wanted you (f.p.)'
4. -an -*• -aw -* -oo 'he wants him, it (m.)'
yabi 'he wants* -*• yabii
The third person feminine form of the verb is not used if it is -*• yabiihum 'he wants them (m.)'
followed by a suffixed pronoun; the masculine form is used instead, 'he wants you (f.s.)'
-* yabiic
e.g., 9rafan 'they (f.) knew,' rrbaHan 'they killed,' saafan 'they (f.)
etc. etc. etc.
saw,' etc., change into 9rafaw-, %baHaw-, saafaw-, etc. The -aw of
these masculine forms changes into -oo before suffixed pronouns: Ia9wazna 'we bothered' •+ la9waznaa 'we bothered him*
9rafaw + -a -*• 9rafoo 'they (m. or f.) knew him, it (ni.)* la9waznaahum 'we bothered them (m.)'
+ -hum -> 9rafoohum 'they (m. or f.) knew them (m.)* -»• la9waznaaha 'we bothered her'
+ -ha -* 9rafooha 'they (m. or f.) knew her' -*• la9waznaak 'we bothered you (m.s.)'
+ -k -* 9rafook 'they (m. or f.) knew you (m.s.)' etc. etc. etc.
Pronouns 165
6. - C C - - C Examples:
'throat; mouth' '<-*• Halji 'my throat'
If a verb form ends with a double 'consonant, ,the double Halj
consonant is reduced to one single consonant oefore the suffixed Haljahum 'their (m.) throat'
pronouns -hum, -ha, -hin, -ku(m), -kin (or -ku), -ni, and -na (see Haljak 'your (m.s.) throat'
4.3.2). Examples: Haljic 'your (f.s.) throat'
gatt 'he threw away' -*• gathum 'he threw them (m.) away' etc. etc. etc.
gatha 'he threw-hes away' It should be noted that some speakers use the forms Halijhum,
gathin 'he threw them (f.) away' Halijha, Halijhin, etc., interpolating the anaptyctic vowel-/-.between
the consonant cluster -//- to avoid the occurrence of a
gatku(m) 'he threw you'(m.p.) away'
three-consonant cluster. If -CC is a double consonant, then it is
' gatkin' he threw you (f.p J away'
reduced to one bonsonant and takes the suffixes -hum, -ha, -kin, -na
gatni 'he threw, me away'
(see 4.3.2). Note that this rule is the same as that for verbs (as was
gatna 'he threw us away'
shown above) and particles, as shown below. Examples:
Some speakers interpolate the epenthetic vowel -a- between the verb —
yiHhum '••
'their• (m.)
/— \ .watermelons'
.
and the suffixed pronoun. Thus the1 forms ga\tahum, gat{aha, yiHH 'watermelons'
yiHha 'her watermelons*
gat\ahin, etc., are also possible.
yiHhin 'their (f.) watermelons'
B. Suffixed to f^founs 'our watermelons'
yiHna
As mentioned above, suffixed pronouns indicate possession but: yiHHi 'my watermelons'
when added to nouns. However, in GA possession is more commonly
yiHHa 'his watermelons'
expressed by the use of maal 'belonging to.' Thus, haaSri l-gahwa
maali 'this coffee is mine' is more commonly used than haaffi gahwati yiHHic 'your (f.s.) watermelons'
'this is m y coffee.' The .following are the personal pronouns and the
corresponding noun suffixed forms: 2. As with verbs', if a noun ends with - / or -t preceded by a
vowel, the.h in -hum, -ha, and -hin assimilates into / o r t:
Personal Pronoun Noun Suffixed Pronoun seeffum 'their (m.) summer'
seef 'summer'
huwa 'he* -a seeffa 'her summer'
hum 'they (m.)' -hum/-ahum seeffin 'their (f.) summer'
hiya 'she' -ha/-aha
beettum 'their (m.) house'
hin 'they (f.)' -hin/-ahin beet 'house*
beetta 'her house'
'inta 'you (m.s.)' -k/-ak
beettin 'their (f.) house'
'intum 'you (m.p.)' -kum/-akum
'inti 'you (f.s.)' •v > - v The following examples involve anaptyxis and then assimilation:
'intin 'you (f.p.)' -C/-1C *bisttum bisittum
bist 'robe, dress'
'aana T -kin/-akin *bisttin bisittin
niHin 'we' -i/-y(a) wiliffum
'valve' *wilffum
-na/-ana wilf
NOTE THE FOLLOWING: *wilffa wiliffa
1. If a noun ends with -VCC, it takes the suffixes -ahum, -aha, *wilffin wiliffin
-ahin, -ak, -ic, -akin, and -ana, if -CC is a consonant cluster.
Pronouns
3. If a noun ends with the sequence -CCVC, it takes the + -ha xasimha 'her nose' (or
suffixes -a, -hum, -ha, -hin, -k (or -ak), -ic, -kin, -i, and -na. xasmaha)
margad 'sleeping place' margada 'his sleeping place' + -kum xasimkum 'your (m.p.) nose'
(or xasmakum)
margadhum 'their (m.) sleeping place'
margadhin 'their (f.) sleeping place* + -a simca 'his fish"19
simac 'fish'
margadkum 'your (m.p.) sleeping + -i simci 'my fish'
place' simacc 'your (f.s.) fish'
+ -c
etc. etc. etc.
but: + -ha • simacha 'her fish'
+ -kum • simackum 'your (m.p.) fish'
4. If a masculine noun ends with a vowel, the vowel is usually
lengthened before the suffixes and the third person masculine suffix margad 'sleeping + -a - margada 'his sleeping place'
i"
-a is 0 and -y(a) is used instead of-/. Examples: place' + -i • margadi 'my sleeping place'
mustasfi 1 1 8 'hospital' -*• mustasfii 'his hospital' • margadic. 'your (f.s.) sleeping
+ -ic
-> mustasfiihum 'their (m.) hospital' place'
-> mustasfiiha 'her hospital' but: + -ha *• margadha 'her sleeping place'
-*• mustasfiihin 'their (f.) hospital' + -kum * margadkum 'your (m.p.) sleeping
etc. etc. etc. place'
The form for 'my hospital' is mustasfaay(a). + -a + 'uxta
•+ 'his sister'
'uxut 'sister'
Similarly with qada 'lunch' we have the following forms: qqdaa + 'uxti 'my sister'
+ -i -+
'his lunch,' qadaahum 'their (m.) lunch,' qadaahin 'their (f.) lunch,' -*• 'uxtic 'your (f.s.) sister'
+ -ic -*
etc., and qadaay(a) 'my lunch.' 'uxu 'brother' and gadu
'hubble-bubble' become 'uxuu- and gaduu-, respectively. Examples: + -ha -»• 'uxutta 'her sister'
uxuu 'his brother' gaduu 'his hubble-bubble' + -kum -+ 'uxutkum 'your (m.p.) sister'
'uxuuha 'her brother' gaduuha 'her hubble-bubble' 6. Feminine singular nouns ending in -a add -t- before the
'uxuukum 'your (m.p.) gaduukum 'your (m.p.) suffixed pronoun. Before a suffix beginning with a vowel, we have
brother' hubble-bubble' two alternate forms:
'uxuuy(a) 'my brother' gaduuy(a) 'my hubble-bubble' santa 'bag' +-a -> santa ta 'his bag' (or sanitta)
+ -i -+ santati 'my bag' (or sanit(i)

5. A noun that ends with -VC drops its V when a vowel-initial
+ -ic •+ santatic 'your (f.s.) bag' (or
suffix is added unless V is stressed in the noun stem or in the
sanittic)
resultant form (see 4.3.1 and 9.2.2A). Examples:
+ -ha -+ santatta 'her bag'
xasim 'nose' + -a •+ xasma 'his nose'
+ -kum -+ santatkum 'your (m.p.) bag'
+ -i -* xasmi 'my nose'
+ -ic -+ xasmic 'your (f.s.) nose' + -a •+ Hurmata 'his wife' (or
Hurma 'wife;
woman' Hurumta)
118. mustasfa is more commonly used.
119. (cf. smica 'a fish').
169
Pronouns
Without With
+ -i -*• Hurmati 'my wife' (or
Nunation Nunation
Hurumti) 'having known them (f.)'
9aariffin 9aarfinhin
Hijra room + -a -+ Hijrata* 'his room' (or 'having known you (m.s.)'
9aarfak 9aarfinnak
Hijirta)
9aarfinku(m) 'having known you (m.p.)'
+ -i •+ Hijrati 'my room' (or 9aarifku(m)
9aarfinnic 'having known you (f.s.)'
Hijirti) 9aarfic
9aarfinkin 'having known you (f.p.)'
+ -ic -*• Hijrati c 'your (f.s.) r o o m ' 9aarifkin
(or Hijirtic) 9aarfmni 'having known me'
9aarifni
+ -ha -*• Hijratta 'her room' 9aarfinna 'having known us'
9aarifna
+ -kum -»• Hijratkum 'your (m.p.) room' (Note the ambiguity in 9aarfinna 'having known us. or him. )
If the noun is of-the f9ala pattern, the final -a drops before -a, -i, and • J- * A u„YhP active Darticiple in the examples cited
-ic and only -t- is added: ^ ^ t S . S ^ ^ * - have * . * *
sxala 'young + -a -> sxalta 'his young goat' (f.s.), and / as subjects:
goat' 9aariftinna 'having known him'
+ -i -»• sxalti 'my young goat' 9aarifta
9aariftinhum 'having known them (m.)'
+ :ic -> sxaltic 'your (f.s.) young 9aarfattum
goat' 9aariftinha 'having known her'
9aarfatta
but: + -ha sxalatta 'her young goat' 9aariftinhin 'having known them (f.)'
9aarfattin
9aariftinnak 'having known you (m.sr.)'
Other examples of this pattern are: bgara 'cow,' syara 'tree,' nxala 9aariftak
'palm tree,' n9aya 'ewe,' sxara 'rock,' ghawa 'coffee,' s9ara 'a hair,' 9aariftinku(m) 'having known you (m.<p.)'
9aarfatku(m)
bgala 'female mule;' fHama 'piece of coal, charcoal,* etc. 9aariftinnic 'having known you (f.s.)'
9aariftic
9aariftinkin 'having known you (f.p.)'
C. Suffixed to Active Participles 120 9aarfatkin
9aariftinni 'having known me'
Pronouns suffixed to-active participles are in some respects like 9aarfatni
those suffixed to verbs and in others like those suffixed to nouns. 9aariftinna 'having known us'
9aarfatna
Below are examples of active participles with suffixed pronouns. (Note the ambiguity in 9aanftinna 'having known tu. or him. )
Note that there are two forms of active participle + suffixed
pronoun: one without nunation (see 9.3) and the other with Note the following processes for the formation of some of the
nunation. The latter form has the nunation ending -inn before the forms above:
suffixed pronoun. Both forms are used. (by derivation of active participle)
9aarifta: 9aarif
The verb 9araflto know': active participle 9aarif (feminine suffix)
*9aarifa/-
Without With (third person m.s. suffix)
Nunation *9aarifata
Nunation
*9aarifta (vowel elision)
9aarfa 9aarfinna 'having known him'
9aarifta (stress)
9aariffum 9aarfinhum 'having known them (m.)'
(by derivation of active participle)
9aariffa 9aarfinha 'having known her' 9aariftinna: 9aarif
*9aarifatin (feminine-nunation)
120. Note that such active participles must be used as verbs, e.g., kaatba
here means 'having (m.s.) written it (m.s.)' and not 'its (m.s.) writer (m.s.).'
Pronouns 171
•For ' the suffixation of pronouns to particles, see 12.

*9aarifatinna (third person m.s.-suffix)
PARTICLES below'
*9aarifati'nna (stress)
9aariftihna (vowel elision) 11.3 Demonstrative Pronouns
9aarfattin: 9aarif (by derivation of active participle) The main .forms of the demonstrative pronouns that indicate
*9aarifar (feminine suffix) near objects orpersons are: >
'this (one), that (one)'
*9aarfat (vowel elision) masculine singular: haa%a
haafri ' 'this (one), that (one)'
*9aarfathin (suffixed -hin) feminine singular:
(hafceel, 'these, those'
9aarfattin (assimilation) masculine plural:
(ha)freela
Other examples of acti participle + suffixed pronoun: (hdfreel, 'these,'those'
feminine plural:
Without With (ha)freela
Nunation Nunation The main forms of the demonstrative pronouns that indicate
daassa daassinna 'having entered it' distant objects or persons are:
waakilta waakiltinna 'having eaten it' masculine singular; (hafraak 'tha.t (one)'
mfannishum mfansinhum 'having terminated their (hafaiic 'that (one)'
feminine singular:
(m.) services'
masculine'plural: (hafaoolaak 'those* •"
mfansattum mfannistinhum 'having terminated their
feminine plural: (ha)fteelaaku 'tfjose'
(m.) services'
(hafoilaak
mxaasimhin mxaasminhin 'having quarreled with them (f.)'
mxaasmattin It should be pointed out that- haa-Jha- is a prefixed particle
mxaasimtinhin 'having quarreled with them (f.)'
which has the meaning of 'Ha! Look! There!' It is used obligatorily
mHaaciina mHaacinna 'having spoken with us' in haafta and haafti. In the other forms there is a tendency in GA to
mHaacyatna mHaaciitinna 'having spoken with us' use it with objects or persons that are' pointed out or physically
mla9wizni mla9iwzinni 'having bothered me' present; with other objects its use is optional. The following
mla9iwzatni mla9wiztinni examples show the usage of demonstrative »pronouns: •*
'having bothered me'
haaira seebtin zeena. 'This is a good old man."
The last two forms are derived according to the following:
haafra mm fafri alia. » 'This (thing) is from God's
mla9iwzatni: *mla9wiz-at-ni kindness, graciousness.'
* t
*mla9wiz£tni 'That is a blessed time.'
haîic saa9a mbaarka.
*mla9wz£tni 'This is a very good time.'
haadi Hazza killis zeena.
mla9iwzatni 'These (people), if they had come,
hafreel, lo jaw, caan sifittum.
I would have seen them.'
mla9wiztinni: mla9wiz (base form)
'Those (people), what do
*mla9wzat (vowel elision) iroolaak, s-yabuun?
they want?'
*mla9iwzat (anaptyxis) 'What do those (women) want?'
s-yabin ireelaak?
*mla9wztinni (vowel elision)
friic 'ayyaam cinna fiiha 'Those were days during which
mla9wizti'nni (anaptyxis) we were happy.'
mistaansiin.
'Fill (m.s.) this!'
'itris haaâ!
172 The Morphology of Gulf Arabic Particles 173
froolaak illi 'abiihum. 'Those are the things (m.) I want.' man 'ubuuk? 'Who is your (m.s.) father?'
haaira rizg 1-yoom w-rizg (lit. 'This is today's bread, su 'asma? 'What is his, its (m.) name?'
baacir 9ala Ila (proverb). tomorrow's is from God.') cam t-tamaat? 'How much are the tomatoes?'
cam diriisa fiiha? 'How many windows are there in it?'
12. PARTICLES
ween 1-kuuli? 'Where is the coolie?'
12.1 Interrogatives ceef 1-hawa? 'How is the weather?'
The main interrogative particles in GA are the following: man 'who,' su 'what,' ween 'where,' and mata 'when* can be
man, min 'who' ween 'where' preceded by a preposition:
su(u), s-, (w)ees 'what' lees jiddaam man ga9ad? 'Who did he sit in front of?'
'why'
'ay(ya) 'which (one), ceef, keef wiyya su battal 1-guuti? 'What did he open the can with?'
'how'
what' min ween d-daxtar? 'Where is the doctor from?'
cam, kam 'how much; mata, rriita 'when' 'ila mata yistagil? 'Up to what (time), until when, is
how many' he working?'
Each of the interrogative particles except for 'ay(ya) 'which Notice the use of the preposition min 'from' with mata 'when.'
(one)' can be used independently as a one-word question, and in a min mata 'inta hini? 'Since when have you been here?'
pre- or post-verbal position:
man 'who' and su 'what' can be used after the prepositions Hagg or
man? 'Who?' ween? 'Where?'
maal to mean 'whose; for whom, to whom* and 'for what,'
cam? 'How much?' -mata? 'When?' respectively:
'How many?'
Hagg man haafri s-sayyaara? 'Whose is this car?'
man tabiin? 'Who do you (f.s.) want?'
tabiin man? maal man haaira 1-baanuus? 'Whose is this canoe?'
su tiras? 'What did he fill? haaira s-sikruu maal suu? 'What is this screw (used) for?'
tiras su? man preceded by a noun expresses the meaning of 'Whose . . . ?'
cam yHassil? 'How much does he make, get?* beet man haaira? 'Whose house is this?'
yHassil cam?
9yaal man haaireel? 'Whose children are these?'
'ay(ya) must be used in a pre-'nominal position:
cam 'how many' is optionally preceded by the preposition 9ala
'ay(ya) Hazza? 'What time?' 'on' in the speech of some .Qataris, in which case it means only 'how
'ay(ya) ktaab tabi? 'Which book do you (m.s.) want?' much is, are . . . ?', i.e., in inquiring about the price of s.th.
It can be preceded by a preposition: 9ala cam 1-yiHH? 'How much are the watermelons?'
fi 'ay(ya) daayra tistagluun? 'Which department do you 9ala cam 1-guuti? 'How much is the can?'
(m.p.) work in?* cam can be followed by the preposition min 'from' to mean 'how
Note that *'ay(ya) daayra tistagluun ft? is ungrammatical. many':
min 'ay(ya) balad inti? 'Which country are you (f.s.) cam min Sana cint hnaak? 'How many years were you
from?* (m.s.) there?'
man 'who,' su 'what,' cam 'how many; how much,' ween 'where' and Note the following idiomatic uses of cam:
ceef 'how' can be used as parts of equational sentences (see 13.1):
•174 The Morphotogy1 of Gulf Arabic Particles J75
cam saarlic hini? - 'HowTb.rig-have" you (f.s.) been here?' 12.2 Prepositions
cam mih^hini la-dbayy? » ' H p w f a r ' i s j t from'here to'Dubai?'
All prepositions in GA5 can t a k e suffixed pronouns. In most
, The English phrase how many people? .is expressed by cam cases the suffixation of pronouns fo prepositions is governed by "the
followed 1 \$y"waaHid 'one': t 'same ,rules as for "hduns.'T^hus mirini 'from'me',' ininha *from"ljer,'
* cam waaHid caan hnaak? 'How many'people were,".thefe?' wiyyaay' 'with >me,' niidli 'like* ihe,' mihilhum 'like them (m.)j'
•nil yammic 'by ,ybu (f.s,"),' yamna 'by us,' etc. In a few cases the base
5- 'what' obligatSrily^precedes a verb,'a Jipun, o*r'a particle: forms differ on suffixation, which, involves' fi 'in,' 9ala 'on,' and
s-tabi taakil*? ••• 'What do*yqu (nts)) want to, eat?'" prepositions' of'.the pattern CVC"; except^for./wa^/withr'The suffixed
pronoun that corresponds to t'l'îs iyy after fi' and 9ala: The rest
s-asimha?, " 'What is her name?'
follow the same rules: Jiyy, 'in me,* fiih 'in you (m.s.)J fiic 'in'you
A s-fiijc?" * 'Whal's wrong with you (m.s.)?' (f.s.), ; fiihum 'in 'them,' fiifcum 'in you (m.p'.),",et09a/q 'on'"changes
5- may precede the. noun da9wq 'matter; law suit'- to mean into 9ale-: Valec 'oh 'rfimV 9aleehd 'on her,' 9aleec ' o n ' y o u ( f i . ) , '
'What's the'mafter? . . .' or 'Why . ... ?': " 5 9aleekum 'on you (m'.p"),' etc. Examples of prepositions J of the
"'' 'F" t i t » pattern CYp are:'*V#m ' f r o m / and 9an 'abouJ.',"Before suffixes with
*S;da9wa ga'ali waayid? 'What's the matter! Why is it
1 initial -V, 9ant changes into 9dnn-. "thus 9anna 'about him' 9annak or
^ so'expensive?*"
9ank 'about "you' (m.s.),' 9annic( or Vane 'about you (f.s.)," etc.
,, 'Wh^ is-it,very expensive?'
Srda9w,a ykallif hal-k'iflir? 'Why does ifposf this much?' Similarly mil} ,changes into' minn}. Examples: minna 'from him,'
minna or mihnanq 'from u s / minium 'from you (m.p.),' mincA or
In adqjtjpn tp*su[(4i), s-,, an'd.fw)ees 'what,' the forms $inu(w),
minnic 'from yr3u (f.s.),' etc. ma9 'with' may .also have-the. stem
siphu(w), an^jjinhfty^ also occur, ^specially in, Bahraini. Of these
ma9a-. Thus: ma9i or ma9aay <*wjth me,' mqpic or^ma9qac 'with you
sinhu(w) is either masculine or' feminine and sinhi(y)3- is only
(f.s.),' ma9kin or ma9adkin 'with ybvu (f.p.).'
feminine.
Propositions in QA are divioled into the following groups: ,
Of all the interrogatives, only ween 'where' may take suffixed
pronduns: A. "These are prepositions proper, i.e., they are used only as
prepositions and' are followed by a noun, a suffixed pronoun, a
weenhum? 'Where are they (m.)?'
demonstrative pronoun, r or a particle^ The following are Bthe most
weeha? 'Where-is he?'
common: i
Note the compbund form mneen of min ween 'from where': fi: 'in; on; within» during; by, among,'
mneen inti? 'Where are you (f.s.) from?' cairib fi caiHb . 'lies after lies', liestampjig (other) lies'
v< * « The proverbial phrase xritifixriti hjfs a similar meaning,
sloont 'how' is characteristic of Bahraini a n d Kuwaiti speech. It is
fi iraak 1-yoom , '(on) that day'
rarely used in the U.A.E., usually with'a suffixed pronoun to mean
'to inquire about someone's health': fi s-subuu9 l-maa?H 'during last week' >,
sloonic? 'How„are you (f.s.)?' xamsa fi sitta t 'five by six'
sloonak? 'How are you (m.s.)?' (cf. fii 'there is; 'there are,' caan fii 'there was; there were,' and the
negative nia fii 'there isn't, there aren't,' ma caan fii 'there wasn't;
It is ceef rather than sloon, that is used to express other meanings,
there weren't.') See 13.3, Sentences 15-23.
e.g., ceef riHti? 'How did you (f.s.) go?', ceef yiit hini? 'How did you
(m.s,.) come here?', etc. In such constructions sloon has the meaning
min: 'from; (from) amongj belonging to; of; ago'
of 'why?' or 'how come?'
'aana min dbayy. T am from Dubai.'
min fair! alia 'from God's favor, benevolence'
i - V
min r-rmee0aat 'belonging to, from, the Rumaithi 9ugub: after; in'
tribe' 9ugub baacir 'after tomorrow'
It minhum waaHid battaal. 'One of them is bad.' 9ugb^-d-uhur '(in the) afternoon'
min waaHid la-waaHid 'from, one to another' 'in-an hour'
9ugub saa9a
min yoom la-yoom 'from day to day'
s-gilt min saa9a? wiyya: 'with, in the company o f
'What did you (m.s.) say an hour ago?'
riHt wiyya 9abdalla. T went with Abdalla.'
9ala: 'on, over, according to (one's taste; liking); against*'
sirt wiyyaahum. T went (lit., "walked") with them.'
s-salaamu 9aleec! 'Peace t be upon yoU (f.s.)!' Note the use of wiyya ba9d- 'together.'
9ala xasmi 'gladly, with pleasure'
mid riilak 9ala' ma9: Synonymous with wiyya, though less commonly used.
'As you make\your bed, youjnust lie
gadd IHaafak. on it.'
yamm: 'by, near; beside'
(lit., "Stretch your (m.s.) leg
accprding to your q u i l t " ) yilas yamm s-seex. 'He sat by the Shaikh.'
121
9alakulliHaal 'in any case; however' 1-Hafiiz yamm 1-mustasfi. 'The office is near the hospital.'
ma 9aleek! 'Nevermind! Don't worry!' caan ydmrni. 'He was beside me.'
wiyyaahum wiyyaahum 'with them and against them,
9aleehum 9aleehum midil: 'like, similar to; the same as'
for their own good'
miflil'ubuu. '(He-is) like his father.'
9an: 'about; away from' mifll 1-yoom 'the same as today'
xabbarni 9ank. •'He told me about you (m.s.).'
gaab 9an hala. sarwa: Synonymous with midil, but it is used with human beings
'He went away from his people.'
only, e.g., sarwaac 'like you (f.s.),' sarwaahum 'like them
b-: 'with; by means of; for (at the price of)' (m.p.),' etc.
stiraa b-fluusa. 'He bought it (m.s.) with his money.'
9ind: 'at; close by; in the possession o f
gta9a b-s-sicciin. 'He cut it (m.s.) with the knife.' 9ind li-btuun diMi9 li-9guul. (lit., "At the (time of) bellies
saafar b-t-tayyaara. 'He traveled by plane.' minds get lost.")
cint b-ruuHi. T was alone; I was by m y s e l f tHasla 9ind 1-gassaab. 'You (m.s.) will find it at the
d-darzan b-diinaar 'one dinar per dozen' butcher's.'
9indic 9yaal? 'Do you (f.s.) have any children?'
been: 'between; among'
beeni w-beenak Hawaali: 'approximately, about'
'between me and you (m.s.)'
xatreet waHda min yilast Hawaali sana. 'I stayed about a year.'
'I took one*from among them.'
beenhum. nass Hawaali s-saa9a xams. 'He got up at about five o'clock.'
l-9awar been l-9imyaan 'The one-eyed in the country of Hool is sometimes used to express the same meaning.
baasa. the blind is king.'
121. This is a literary borrowing, -i in kulli is a case ending.

Particles 179
B. These are prepositions that can also be»used,as adverbs-and
gabil saa9a 'an hour ago' '
as nouns. The following are tfie most common:
T
foog: 'over, above; up' yiit hini min gabil. * T have been here before/
foog n-naxal gabil 'alrlsan min ba9deen. 'Before'is better than later.*
'overâbove, palm'trees'
xallna nnjuH foog! Note that nisba adjectives (see' 11:5.1.3) can b&'deHved from this
'Let's go up, upstairs!'
group of prepositions, e.g*. fodgi or fodgaani 'upper,' taHti or
foog 'afBal min taHat. 'Up, upstairs, is better than down, taHtaani 'lower,' etc.,'except for gabi{„ The nisba afjjectiye fj-om warq
downstairs.'
is warraani. " *
taHat: opposite <offoog i
I-jiarraani taHt 1-mudiir. 1 ,-r C. This group qf prepositions can be used as nouns only.
The, cle,rk is under the director.' Examples: t
taHat raasa'xabar. !
He is hiding, withholding s.th.' soob: 'toward, in1 the direction of; place,""direction' "
(lit. "There is news under his head.")
soot), I-bafJar 'toward the* sea'
wara: 'behind; after'
ta9aal soobna! 'Come t o our-place!' ,
wara d-djriijsa ,
'behind the-window' t1 iraak s-soob '(in) that direction'
reewas ya9ni raaH la-wara. 'He reverse/! means he went backwards.' qeer: 'other than, except for; {+ article) the others, Q,ther pepple'
jiddaam 'aHsan min wara. 'The front(e.g., position) is 9atni qeer .haireelj 'Give (m.s.) me some Cvtherw ones!'
better than the back.'
killahurh jaw qeer T h e y all came except fpr Ibrahim.'
The literary xalfh a variant o'f wara.
'ibraahiim.
Jiddaam: opposite of wara yHir^b maal 1-qeer. 'He likes what belongs t a others.'
jiddaam 1-bank*
'infroiitofthe'bank' Hagg: Ibelonging to, for; to, for'
siir jiddaam!
'Go in front!' 1-batri Hagg s-sayyaara 'the battery of the car'
daaxil: 'inside, within' 'The battery belongs to .the car.'
i
daaxl 1-Hijra 'inside the room' s-sayyaara Haggi (or T h e car belongs to me.'
dass daaxil,. Haggati) 'my car'
'He went inside.'
min d-daaxil
'from the inside' xairuu Hagg d-daxtar. T h e y took him to the doctor.'
xaarij: opposite of daaxil gilt Hagg 'ummic., T said to your (f.s.) mother.'
T t q l d y o u r (f.s.) mother.'
\ xaarij beetna
'outside our house' ya rabb thadii Hagg nafsa '(I hope that) you, God, will lead
xaarj 1-jiziira
'outside the (Arabian) Peninsula'- w-Hagg9yaala! him to the true path for (the sake of)
VAi- fi 1-xaarij
'abroad* himself and his children.'
&•
gabil: 'before, prior to; ago' maal: maal is similar in meaning and usage to Hagg. maal, however,
gabl s-salaa cannot be used to express the meaning of to or for, as in the
'before prayer'
last three examples above. Both are often used instead of a
gabl s-saa9a sitt
'before six o'clock' noun construct; maal has a tendency to be used when the first
noun indicates an appliance or is a borrowing. Examples:
Particles 181
12.3 Conjunctions
12.3.1 Coordinating Conjunctions
The main coordinating conjunctions are the following: w-:

'and.' w- corresponds to English 'and.' It has four basic forms,
depending upon-its environment and the rate of speech. Either w- or
'u- is used at the beginning of a sentence or a phrase: w-jaasim? 'And
Jasim?' w- 'inta mneen? 'And where are you (m.s.) from?' w- is
usually used in a pre-vowel initial position, e.g., w-ismi 'and my
name' and medially between two vowels, e.g.,- karaama w-inta
'Karama and you (m.s.).' Otherwise u- is used dbayy u-li-kweet
'Dubai and Kuwait.' Note the use of wa in literary borrowings: 'ahlan
wa sahlan! 'Welcome!' (In this transcription, however, this
conjunction is always shown as w- and-prefixed to the following
item.) Examples:
l-9aruus(a) w-l-mi9ris 'the bride and the bridegroom'
'asma w- 'asim 'ubuu 'his name and his father's name'
raayiH yitfassax w-yilbas 'He is going to take off his clothes
d-disdaasa. and put on the dishdash.'
walla: 'or.' walla, like w-, may join words, phrases, and rarely
sentences. Examples:
'inta walla saalim? '(Is it) you or Salim?'
gabl fr-truhur walla 'before noon or after noon'
9ugb t>-f>uhur
ya walla raaH hnaak? 'Did he come or did he go there?'
ysammuuna bu-xaliifa 'They call him Abu Khalifa or
walla s-seex zaayid. Shaikh Zayid.'
In the last example walla is explanatory.
'aw: 'or.' 'aw is synonymous with walla and is typically used to join
sentences. Example:
gaal 'aw ma-gaal '(whether) he said or not'
fa-: 'and.' fa- is usually replaced by w-, but it usually implies a quick
and logical or natural reaction or consequence. It approaches
the meaning of 'and (my) reaction, or the reaction called for by
the situation . . .' naadaani s-seex fa-gumt. T h e Shaikh called
me, and I got up.'
Particles 183
182 The Morphology of, Gulf Arabic
'ileen: 'till, until.' Veen is a corruption of the literary1 'ila 'an with
lo . . . lb: 'either . . . or'
the same .meaning. It shares with leen the meaning of 'till,
lo liini lo hnaal? 'either here or there' until' only.
**
v lo tag9|d"lo"tsiir." 'Either you (m.s.) stay or leave.'
' s yalla: "'until*thf
ioj.,. . wala: 'neither . . . n o r , (not) either . . <. br' , ntafarta yalla ya.* T waited for him until he came.'
la la, wala 9alee. «. (Meaning:-^Nobody opwes him '
Certain prepositions and' noun's are prefixed to the relative ma
r anything and. he does not owe
j anybody anything/) < to form cdrnpoujid 1 temporal conjunctions. Examples':
la cmgaal wala sicciin < 'neither a'forknor'a'knife'* gabilma: 'before' t _
gabilma gilt, 'ay sayy . . . ' 'Before I said anything . . . '
la yihtibix wala yinsiwf. r (^-»"I* cannot either beVpoked
or roasted.") * '
9ugubrha: 'after' _* v..
la.'p>. wala sometirnes has, the sen„se of a, Tnegative command 9ugubma 9arafta gatteeta. 'After I have known him (well),
(expressed by Jet 4- -Verb) followed by *a consequence or, "result J discarded him.'
(expressed by wala + verb), especially in proverbial phrases:
la tbuug wala'txaaf. (lit., " D o not steal and do not be, ba9dma: 'after' (variant'of 9ugubma)'
f
^ •< t afraid.",)
(Meaning: 'If you do not steal, yoomma: 'the day when; when'»
you should not be afraid.')' ngahwiikum yoomma 'We will give"you coffee ,(a,nd
la tsawwi xeer wala tyuuna.* „- , be hospitable) when you (m.p.)
(lit!- "0,0 not do any good dee'ds
yjiik sarr. come \o our'place.'
to others and no, harm,(evil, comes
(
to you!")
yoom: Synonymous with yoomma.
laakin: 'but' yoom saxxanna l-mayy (lit., "When we heated the water,
cint hnaak laakin ma'cifta. 1 was there but I did riot see him." sirad rJ-diic. the rooster ran away.")
(Meaning: 'Forewarned is '
laakihna msaxxan 'but he is running a temperature' s
forearmed.')
12.3.2 Subordinating Conjunctions wagtma: 'the time when, when'

A. Temporal wagtma tyi,9allimna biiha., 'When you (m.sB.) come, let us
know about it.'
leen: 'until, till; as soon as; when'
,rammasta leen gaal zeeni T talked with him until he said, w-: 'while, when.' As a temporal conjunction, w- precedes an
"Fine, O.K." ' independent pronoun:
leen wisalt riHt d-daxfar. 'As soon as I arrived, I went cifta w-huwa yabci. T saw lum while he was crying.''
to the doctor.'
w-aana kint mreewis 'while I was backing up'
leen toosal yaaxihiunak 'When you arrive there, they will
w-yrawwuunak 1-balad. take you and show you the city.'
lamma: variant of leen, but less cohimonly used.

B. Conditional 122 C. Purpose

lo: 'if.' Variants of lo are 'ifra, 'in, (n-)caan or (n-)kaan, and caan. lajil: 'so that ( . . . might), in order that (. . . might), so as to . . .'
Example's:
sirt-la lajil ysaa9idni. 'I went to (see) him so that
'ida cift rifiijak Hilu (lit., "If you think your friend is nice, he might help me.'
la taakla killa. don't eat him all up at once.") 'astagil lajl aakil. T work so as to eat.'"
(Meaning: 'Don't use up all of your
credit at once.') lajil can also be useel as a preposition:
lo yadri 9meer caan (lit., "If Omayr, had1 known, he sawweet haafra lajilha. 'I did this for her sake.'
sagg 0ooba. would have ripped his clothes.")
(Meaning; 'Ignorance is bliss.') Hatta and Hagg are sometimes used with the same meaning. While
caan yabi dibs 1-Hasa (lit., "If he wants the molasses of Hagg can be used as a preposition (MAC), Hatta cannot in GA.
lHasa. Al-Hasa, 123 he will lick it.") ya Hagg ysuufni. 'He came in order to see me.'
(Meaning: 'Where there is a will
ya Hatta ysuufni.
there is a way;')
loola: 'had. or if it had not been for.' loola can also be used as a D. Others
preposition with the meaning of 'without.' The main conjunctions that express other meanings are:
loolaaha caan ma yiit. 'Had it not been for her, cinn-:l2S cinn- is usually used with suffixed pronouns; it has the
I wouldn't have come.' meaning of 'as if . . . was, were; as if . . . had.'
loola 1-murabbi ma 9araft (lit., "If it had not been for" t h e cinna s-seex zaayid 'as if he were Shaikh Zayid'
rabbi. educator, I would not have known* cinha kweetiyya 'as if she were Kuwaiti'
(my) God.")
loola li-bdiwi caan maataw. 'Were it not for the Bedouin, It is usually followed by a noun or a noun phrase, as the above
they would have died.' examples show.
In some contexts, especially in proverbial phrases, la implies li'ann: ''because'
condition. Examples: 'ariid asrab baarid T want to have a beverage
la-Hasal I-maay bital (lit.,."If water is gotten, or li'anni Harraan. because I am hoj.'
l-9aafur. 124 present, cleansing is nullified.") s-simac gaali 1-yoom li'an 'Fish is expensive today because^
Also: ma fii simac waayid fi there isn't much fish in the market.'
s-suug.
la Hasal 1-maal 9idd 1-baagi (lit., "If money, or wealth is gotten,
faayda. count the remainder as interest.") linn is in free variation with li'ann.
122. See 13.5 CONDITIONAL SENTENCES.
laakin: 'but'
123. An Eastern Province, district, in Saudi Arabia. 'I was there but I did not see him.'
cint hnaak laakin ma
124. Cleansing one's face and hands with sand, in place of water, before cifta.
prayer. In Islam a sick person or a person away from water is allowed to do this
in lieu of ablution with water. laakinna msaxxan 'but he is running a temperature'
125. This is analogous to the literary ka 'anna.

r 186 , The Morphology of Gulf Arabic Particles 187
!l
•* ^madaam;, 'as long as' ' '* 'awwal-ma: 'as soon as'
madaam 'inta hhi , ?As
.As long
lo, as yoy are-here,, < 'awwal-ma toosliin 'as soon as you (f.s.) arrive'
,, 'asuufak'baacir. T i l see,you torh6rrow.'
.you tom6rr,o
'aaxir-ma: 'the last thing (that) . . .'
1
tyalaw: lalthough, though' 'aaxir-ma 9indi 'the last thing I have'
xasmak minnak walaw .(lit.,'"Your (m.s.) nose isia,part;
kaan J9aây. of y"ou although c it is, crooked.") , kil-ma: 'every time (that)'
t v (Meaning: ' 6 o not be ashamed, o f kil-ma truuH s-suug, 'every time (that) she goes
r
«".j * ' your folks.') " to market'
Som„efimes(7Q,f(or,/aw>Pis1,used,with the sanje meaning.
midil-ma: 'in the same manner, way, as; according to; as'
p
<4affl: 'therefore/then"' ,/ ' „ , ' ,r yat miOil-ma r a a H a t 'She came (back) in .the same way
9ayal man fannasa? 'Who terminated him, tben?.' .i« she went.'
I '" *' & * (Meaning: 'She has achieved nothing.')
'' ,huvâ muub hini 9ayal.. »»Therefore, he is/ibt herje/ >t
mi0il-ma tguul maHHad 'According to what you (m.s.) say,
1
'/««-: This conjunction,is usually used with suffixed; pronouns and yigdar yisrab hini. nobody can drink here.'
introduces a direct or ah indirect "speech clause; it bas the mi0il-ma t9arfiin,. . . 'As you (f.s.) k n o w , . . .'
"meaning bf 'that': ^
Less frequently, zeema is used with the same meaning.
gaal inna yab'i ytarris • 'Hd said that he wanted to send
xatt. abetter!"
v* 12.4 Adverbs
ma'gilt 'inhum Jfikaw.
\
s-ma: 'whatever' 'I 4jd not say that they had'le'ft.' Adverbs are words or phrases that modify verbs, adjectives, or
other adverbs. The following are the main groups of adverbs and
xairat s-ma tabi. *
adverb phrases with some examples.
'She took what she wanted.'
'ween-ma: 'wherever' >« A. Time
weena-ma truuHuun 'Wherever you ( m $ . ) go we are 'ams: 'yesterday'
w^yya'akum. with ypu,' wisil 'ams. 'He arrived yesterday.'
mneen-ma:, 'from w.herever' 'ams 1-xamiis. 'Yesterday was Thursday.'
>
s-kiQir-ma: 'however much, as much as' 1-baarHa: 'yesterday' is rarely used. In some Bedouin dialects
1-baarHa means last night.
'ixiri s-kiflir-ma triidiin. T a k e (f.s.1) as much as you want.'"
l-yoom: 'today'
'arxas-ma: 'the cheapest (that)'
fannas l-yoom. 'He terminated his services today.'
haaira 'arâs-ma Hassalt. T h i s is the cheapest I could find.' T o d a y is Monday.'
l-yoom l-'aflneen.
'aHsan-ma: 'the best (that)' baacir: 'tomorrow'
'aHsan-ma ykuun 'the best there is' 'aruuH wiyyaa baacir. T will go with him tomorrow.'
baacir d-dalaafla. 'Tomorrow is Tuesday.'
gabl-ams: '(the day) before yesterday'

gabil subuu9: 'a .week ago' vba9d subuu9: 'in a week's time'
'awwahims: in free variation with gabl ams. gabilsahar: i 'a month ago' ba9dsahar; 'in a month's time'
•I
9ugub baacir: 'the day after tomorrow' >* gabil sana: 'a year ago' ba9d sana: 'in a year's time'
gabil saa9a: 'an hour ago' ba9d saa9a: 'in anjiour's time'
halHiin: 'now,' sometimes this is reduced to 'al-Hiin or simply
l-Hiin.l2& 'alHiin or itaHHiin are rarely used for the same taww-: 'just' is always used with suffixed^pronouns.
meaning.
K tawni yiit. 129 T have just come.'
ween tistagliin halHiin? 'Where are .you (f.s.) working now?'
tawwic kaleeti. 'Yciu^f-S.) have just eaten.'
halHazza: 'now, ab this moment,' from Hazza 'time,' sometimes
reduced io''al-Hazza dr,simply l-Hazza. B. Place
laazim aVuuH halHazza. ' T have to go now.' hini: 'here (var. hni.ând 'ihni) *
£indi' maw9id'. 'ay Hazza? T have an appointment. What time?' hini walla hnaak killa 'Here or there is ail the same.'
'*kam v l-Hazza. 'What time is it?' waaHid.
'ba9deen: 'later on, later' 'ihnaak: 'there' (var. hnaak, hunaak)

27
ba9deen fannast min 'adma. 'Later, I left ADMA." min hini: 'fr,om here'
riHt d-daxtar ba9deeri". T went to the doctor later 6ri.' min hini la-hnaak 'from here to there'
taali: 'later on, afterwards,' used in free variation with 'ba9deen. minjhnaak: »,'from there'
Vmasa: 'at night, in the evening' foog 'up, over,' taHat 'beloWj' jiddaam 'in front,' wara 'behind'. .
etc. 130
l-leela l-mafya: 'last nighf
12
l-'arba9a l-maafi: * 'last Wednesday' C. Others
s-subuu9 l-maafti: 'last week' Among adverbs are also words or phrases tjiat indicate manner
such as quickly, slowly, straight, etc., most of which are phrases
s-sahar l-maafri: 'last month' made up of particle + N; others are adverbial adjectives, and some
s-sana l-mafya: 'last year' others are adverbial nouns not included in 1 2 . 4 A above. Among
adverbs are also some words ending with -an, most of which are 'of
min gabil: 'before' literary origin or borrowings from other dialects. <
Haaceetta min gabil. T have talked to her before.' b-suur9a: 'fast, quickly'
yiitta min gabil. 'I have been to it (f.s.) before.' swayy swayy: 'slowly' '
la-waHd~: 'by (one's) self
126. Hiin means 'time' in literary Arabic. crfri: 'like this, in this manner'
127. Abu Dhabi Marine Areas, Ltd., an oil company in Abu Dhabi.
128: With all the days of the week only l-maadi, regardless of gender, is 129. tawwi is grammatical, but less rarely used.
used.
130. For these and other prepositions and prepositional phrases used as
adverbs, see 12.2 Prepositions.
s£
Particles 191
190 Vie Morphologyôf Gulf Arabic
siida*: 'straight, straight on, direct(ly)' referred to their meanings and usages, which are usually in NOTES
ON TEXT in the individual lessons.
tayyib: 'well, fine'
Examples:
zeen: 'well, fine'
bass: 'enough! only'
tarhaam: 'exactly, perfectly' 'Enough! What is this talk?'
bass! s-halHaci?
9adil: 'right, correctly' 'Give (m.s.) me sugar only.'
9atni sakar bass.
siwa: 'together'
waayid: 'a lot; very' (var. waajid) ya: 'oh' (vocative particle)^
ya mHammad! 'Mohammad!'(5VI) 1 3 1
yitkallam waayid. 'He talks a lot.'
kadiir: 'a lot, a great deal' yareet: 'would that'
killis: 'very,' is used only in a pre- or post-adjective or adverb yareet agdar aHaaciiha. T wish I could talk'to her.'
position:
'o-: 'oh!'
zeen killis 'very good, well' 'Oh, this is the real problem.'
'o-haairi d-dooxa ba9ad.
killis zeen 'very good, Well'
swayy: 'a little' 9aad: 'well now; anyhow'
walla haairi 9aad miskila. 'Well now, that's a prdblem.'
marra: 'once, one time'
9aad 'aana s-darraani? 'How would I know anyway?'
marrateen: 'twice' (var. marteen)
marraat: 'sometimes,' in free variation with ba9% l-'aHyaan. haak: 'Here you are! There! Here!' haak has a singular referent;
saa9a 'one hour,' saa9ateen (var. saa9teen) 'two Jiours,' etc. s-saa9a haakum has a plural referent.
xams 'at five o'clock,' s-saa9a Binteen 'at two o'clock,' s-saa9a waHda haak li-fluus! 'Here is'the money; take (m.s.,
'at one o'clock,' etc. f.s.) it!'
'awwal sayy: 'first of all' haakum! 'Here ypu (p.) are!'
daanisayy: 'secondly' 9ayal:132 'then, therefore'

daayman: 'always' ruuH twannas 9ayal. 'Go (m.s.) have a good time, then.'
'abdan: 'never' (var. 'abadan) used with a negative particle. 'Well, if that is so, if that is the
9ayal caan ciiH.
'awwalan: 'first(ly)' case.'
'axiiran: 'lastly, at last' nzeen: 'wellj o.k., fine'
nzeen, s-raayak fiiha? 'Well! What do you (m.s.) think
12.5 Other Particles of it (f.s.), her?'
nzeen, s-asawwi biiha? 'O.K. What shall I do with it
Among particles are also words or phrases that serve other
(f.s.), her?'
functions, such as interjections, exclamations, and polite formulas; a
few belong to special grammatical categories with no English 131. The numbers and Roman numerals ,refer to units and sections,
equivalents. Also included here are the negative particles. respectively, in the Basic Course.
Some of these words and phrases have already been explained in 132. 9ayal, without a previous context, is an interjection.
A Basic Course in Gulf Arabic by the same author. The reader is
r ^ £ j
'illar 2 then, wellfindeed* massaak alia b-l-xeer: 'Good evening' (Unit 3)

'ilia 9abdalla weena? 'Then, where is Apdalla?' nsaalla: 'God willing; yes (Sir)' ( 1 4 V 3 , Unit 19)
'ilia 9indahum kill sayy. 'Indeed, they have everything.' Haapr: 'Yes (Sir), certainly' (25 V2)
ha: 'well, well then,' |s> more-emphatic than 'ilia or nzeen, especially tfadpal: 'Please!' (Unit 8)
in a, question. l-Hamdu lillaa: 'Praise be to God!' (Unit 12)
ha s-tabiin? 'Well, what d o ^ o u (f.s.) want?' ma9 s-salaama: *'Bye!' and 'alia ysallimk "(Units 7 and 20)
ha,g-gilt? 'Well, what do'you (m.s.) thinlc?' sbaall l-xeer: 'Good morning!' (Units 7 and 20)
*. '(lit., "Well, what did you (m.s.) say?") fii: 'there is; there are' (16 V4, 29 V3)
labbeek: 'Here I am! At your service.V'ldbbeek is 'from literary See also 29 V3 for the'perfect Icaan fii 'there was; there'were'
Arabic labbaikp, with the same meaning1. It has a further and the negatives ma fii and ma kaan fii.
use v in GA, which is similar to English 'I beg your pardon! ya9ni: 'that is to say, namely' (34 V3")
Excuse me!' in a conversation between'two people. s-da9wa: 'What's the matter?! What's wrong?!'
walla:" '.honestly; by golly! really!?' (Unit 12) s-fiik; 'What's wrong with you (m.s.)?'
wallaahi: This has a similar meaning to walla, but it is more mu(ub) cm: 'Isn't it so?' (34 V4)
emphatic. ,K cid: This is probably a corruption of the MSA particle qad
ball: 'yes; right' , i 'certainly,' preceding a perfect tense verb.
'ii: 'yes; right,' used in free variation with ball
na9am: used ip free variation with 'ii or ball
'ii na9am: 'yes, indeed,' more emphatic than 'ii.
9adil: 'Right you are! Correct!'
la: 'no,' in an answer to a question.
la: + imperfect signals a negative command.
mat (neg. part.) negates a verb*
muub: neg. part, negates a noun, an adjective, an adverb, or a
phrase." (var. mu(u) and mub)
Hayyaak alia: 'May'God preserve your (m.s.) life!' is used as a
response to marHaba 'Hi' or fi maan illaa (Unit 3)
'Good-bye,' or even ceef Haalak? 'How are you
(m.s.)?'
ya tawiil l-9umur: 'you, the long-lived one,' taal 9umrak is in free
variation. (Unit 34)
9iidak mbaarak: 'Happy holiday!' (Unit 36)'
kil 9aam w-inta b-xeer: 'Happy New Year!' (Unit 36)
fi maan illaa: 'Good-bye! Bye!' (Unit 3)
ill
ii. ,.'
:•' i
PART THREE
T H E
S Y N T A X
O F G U L F A R A B I C
13. MAJOR SENTENCE TYPES
13.1 Nominal Sentences
A nominal sentence is one that does not have a finite verb. The
subject may be a noun,or a pronoun; the predicate may be a noun,
an adjective, or a prepositional phrase.
1. 'ubuuy sammaac. 'My father is a fisherman,

a fish dealer.'
2. huwa gassaab min labnaan, 'He is a butcher from Lebanon.'
3. 'intum maiaafziyya? 'Are you bodyguards?'
4. sugli tindeel 9ala 'My job is "foreman" over
l-9ummaal. the workers.'
5. haadi gasmara. T h i s (f.) is kidding, joking.'
6. hatreel baHaarna. T h e s e are (Shiite) Bahrainis.'
7. byaat gtari. 'Byat is Qatari.'
8. niHin kweetiyyiin. 'We are Kuwaitis.'
9. xasma tawiil. 'His nose is long.'
10. d-draam matruus. T h e barrel is full.'
11. haaira muub zeen. T h i s is not good.'
12. 'intum zeeniin? 'Are you fine (i.e., in good
health)?' n
Sentences 1-8 show predicates of different kinds of nouns and 9-12
are examples of adjectival predicates.
A special kind of nominal sentence called 'equational sentence'
is included in this section. An equational sentence is here defined as
one in which the subject and predicate are interchangeable, or can be
197
198 The Syntax of Gulf Arabic Major Sentence Types 199
switched. 1 In an equational sentence the subject and the predicate 24. 'aHarr-ma 9indi 'abrad-ma 9indak.
are definite. Examples:
'Your hottest (i.e., most serious) matter is my coldest (i.e.,
13. seexhum hadif. T h e i r Shaikh is Hadif.' least serious) matter.'
haadif seexhum. 'Hadif is their Shaikh.' 25. 9abdalla sadiiqi.
14. ra'iis l-'imaaraat s-seex 'Abdalla is my friend.'
T h e President of the U.A.E. is
zaayid. Shaikh Zayid.' 26. 9abdalla m9azbi.
s-seex zaayid ra'iis 'Abdalla is the person responsible for me.'
'Shaikh Zayid is the President
l-'imaaraat. of the U.A.E.' 27. 'ubuu fi 1-beet.
15. 'ibraahiim I-mataarzi 'His father is at home.'
Haghum. 'Ibrahim is their bodyguard.' 28. beeta yamm s-siinama.
1-mataarzi Haghum 'His house is by the cinema.'
'ibraahiim. 'Their bodyguard is Ibrahim.' 29. 'aana wiyyaak.
T am with you.'
Elatives and ordinals as parts of construct phrases (see 10.2 and
10.3.2.1.2) may be found in equational sentences: 30. l-9irs 9ugub baacir.
T h e wedding is after tomorrow.'
16. hatreel 'aHsan kuuliyya These are the best workmen
9indi. I have.' 31. rub9at s-si9ri2 b-flamaan. 3
'80 fils per rub'a (about 2 lbs.) of fish.'
'aHsan kuuliyya 9indi T h e best workmen I have are
haireel. these.' Sentence 25 is considered here an equational sentence, though the
reverse, sadiiqi 9abda\\a, implies that Abdalla is my only friend,
17. 'atyab s-simac 1-hamuur. 'The most delicious kind of fish
is the hamuur.' which is not normally implied by 9abdalla sadiiqi. Sentence 26, on
the other hand, is an equational sentence, as there is usually one
1-hamuur 'atyab s-simac. T h e hamuur is the most delicious person, at one time, that is responsible for someone else, i.e., a host
kind offish.'
for a guest, a car owner for a hired cab driver or chauffeur, etc.
18. huwa 'awwal mudiir. 'He is the first director.' Sentence 31 is used in pricing; it literally means 'a rub'a of this kind
'awwal mudiir huwa. T h e first director is he.' of fish is for 800 fils.' Other examples are: dorzan l-mooz b-xamsa
OTHER EXAMPLES: dirhim 'five dirhams per dozen bananas,' yuuniyyat l-9ees b-miiteen
19. iraak l-yoom 'atwal min sahr s-soom. dirhim 'two-hundred dirhams per sack of rice,' gal\at s-siHH b-diinaar
T h a t day is longer than the month of fasting (i.e., Ramadan).' 'one dinar per large basket of dates,' etc. Either the subject or the
predicate of the above cited sentences can be used with modifiers:
I 20. 'aHsan-ma fi l-muwaa9iin 1-quuri.
T h e best among the pots and pans is the kettle.' 'ubuu l-9ood sammaac. 'His big (or old) father is a
21. 'a9taj suug fi bu dabi snug s-simac. fisherman, a fish dealer.*
T h e oldest market in Abu Dhabi is the fish market.' 1-qird fi 9een 'umma gazaal. 'Beauty is in the eye of the beholder.*
22. s-saarja flaalifl 'imaara. ( l i t , " A monkey in the eye of its
'Sharja is the third Emirate.' mother is a gazelle.")
23. 'aaxir bint mooza. I-yaryuur Hayawaan baHri T h e shark is a big sea animal.'
T h e last girl is Moza.' cibiir.
2. s-si9ri is a kind of fish.

1, See Co well, op. cit., p. 405. 3. Oamaan is short for Qamaanya rubbiyya 'eight rupees' 800 fils in
Bahrain, or eight dirhams in Abu Dhabi, or the equivalent of eight riyals in
Qatar.
200
The Syntax of Gulf Arabic Major Sen tence Types 201
13.2 Pseudo-Verbal Sentences B. fii

A. 9'md, ma9, and I- The particle fii 'there is; there are' is also a pseudo-verb:
The prepositions 9ind, ma9, and /- are used with suffixed 15. fii gahwa waayid.
pronouns to form verb-like constructions with the general meaning T h e r e is a lot o( coffee.'
of 'to have; to own.' Examples: 16. fii tamaat fi li-greenhooz l-9ood.
T h e r e are tomatoes in the big greenhouse.'
1. 9inda 9aayla cibiira. 'He has a big family.'
17. fii xeer waayid fi bu ftabi.
2. 9indana 9aadaat mixtilfa. 'We have different' customs.* T h e r e is'a great deal of wealth in Abu Dhabi.'
3. 9indahum xeer waayid h
T h e y have.a lot of .wealth at 18. ma fii gahwa waayid.
1-beet. horne.' T h e r e isn't much coffee.'
4. .ma 9indahum yihhaal.
T h e y do not have (any) children.' The perfect of fii is kaan (var. caan) fii 'there was; there were' and
5. ma 9indic sooga?
'Don't you (f.s.) have (any) the negative of the perfect kaan fii is ma kaan fii. kaan is uninflected.
jewelry?'- Examples:
6. ma9ha waladeen'.
'She has two children.' 19. kaan fii gahwa waayid.
7. ma9kum sayy? 'There was a lot of coffee.'
'Do you (p.) have anything?'
8. ma ma9a fluus waayid. 'He doesn't have much money.' 20. ma kaan fii tamaat fi li-greenhooz l-9ood.
9. 'ila beet qadhm. 'He has an old house.' T h e r e weren't any tomatoes in the big greenhouse.'
10. ma lana fiiha sayy.
'We c-o not have anything (OF C. hast
any benefit) in it (f.s.).'
The noun possessed or owned is indefinite and almost always follows In addition -to fii, the particle hast (from Persian) is also used
with the same meaning in Qatari:
the prepositional pseudo-verbs as in the examples above; if the noun
is definite, pseudo-verbs"cease to have a verb-like quality; they form a 21. hast gahwa?
part of an equational sentence: 'Is there (any) coffee?'
11. 9inda l-9aayla. /I-9aayla 9inda. The negative is either ma hast 'there isn't; there aren't' or ma miis,$
T h e family is with him.' usually placed before the noun:
12. ma9ha I-waladeen. / 1-waladeen ma9ha. 22. ma hast gahwa.
T h e two boys are with her.' T h e r e is no coffee; there isn't (any) coffee."1
A prepositional pseudo-verb is negativized by the particle ma, .which 23. ma mils gahwa.
negates verbs, 4 as in examples 4, 5, 8, and 10. Examples 11 and 12 The reversed order of the subject and predicate in examples 22 and
are negativized by mu(u)(b): 23, i.e., gahwa ma hast and gahwa ma miis is rare.
13. mub 9inda l-9aayla. / l-9aayla mub 9inda. Kuwaiti 'aku and the ^negative maaku6 correspond to fii (or
'The family is not with him.' hast) and ma fii (or ma hast) in meaning and usage. Qatari hast and
14. muu ma9ha 1-waladeen. / 1-waladeen muu ma9ha. the negative ma hast (or ma miis) are usually kaan fii and ma kaan fii;
T h e two boys are not with her.' kaan hast and ma kaan hast are used rarely. However, the Kuwaiti
negative forms kaan 'aku and kaan maaku (or ma kaan 'aku) are less
4. See 18. below.
5. Probably a corruption of literary ma min say' 'not anything; not a
single thing.'
6. 'aku and maaku are also Iraqi.
= ^
commonly used in Qatar and Bahrain, and are used rarely in Abu is kaan (var. caan) followed by fii, as in sentences 2>and 3. mark
Dhabi. ' \ mariifra caanat 9indi lA had a sick wife' is acceptable hut it is very
rare. In sentences,9 and l"0 the verb may be inflected (for gender, i.e.,
Hasaldt and' nbaagat. If the noun "precedes, however, gender
13.3 Verbal Sentences agreement is compulsory: da9ma Hasalat and fluus nbaag&tônXy.
A verbal sentence is one that contains a finite verb. There are B. I f the subject is definite, it ma;y either precede or follow the
two kinds of verbal sentences: verb, although j,t has'a tendency to precede the verb.
A. If the subject of the sentence is indefinite, it normally Examples: Definite Subject + 'Verb
follows the verb. Examples:
11. buftabi taqayyarat.
1. caanat 9indi mara mariiira. 'Abu Dhabi has chahged.' A
T had a sick wife.'^(lit., " A sick wife was with me.") 12. _z-zawaaj ykallif waayid. * t. *<
2. kaan fii 'afraaH yoom waaHid. 'Marrjage, getting married, costs a lot.?-
T h e r e were (some) celebrations for one day.' 13. l l mi9ris-y;dj'a9„mablag^Hagg s-sooga. «
3. maa caan fii ghawa. T h e bridegroom pays a (certain) sum.for the jewelry.'
T h e r e wasn't (any) coffee; there was no coffee.' 14V n-naas,fi 9iid'l-Hiyy«yilibsuun 'aHsan hduum.
4. tiyi balaawi min taHat raas 1-Hariim. 'People, during.the Sacrifice (lit., "Pilgrimage".) Feast, wean the
'(Some) problems* are caused by 'women!' (lit., "(Some) best clothes.' •
problems come from under the heads of women.")
15. 'aal-nhayyaan Hkamaw bu fpabi min zamaan.
5. yaani xatt minna. T h e Al-Nhayyan (Tribe) have ruled Abu Dhabi for a long time.'
'I had a letter from him.' (lit., " A letter came to me from 16. 'aana ma gilit-la. "
him.") T did*tiot tell him.,' {
6. nsaalla ma Hasal sayy. 17. huwa ma! ygassir. \
'I hope nothing happened.' 'He 'does his best;"he does not let anybody down.'
7. ma baga sayy qeer guuti waaHid. 18. 'inta-tabi 'tamsi walla 9indak sayyaara? '
T h e r e was nothing left except one can.' 'Do you want to walk, or do you have a car?'
8. tala9 batrool fi dbayy.
'Petroleum sprouted, came out, in Dubai.' Examples: Verb + Definite Subject,
9. Hasal da9ma fi s-suug. 19. yiHtafluun n-naas b-l-9irs.
'An accident took place in the market.' T h e people celebrate the wedding.'
10. nbaag minna fluus. 20. ba9d cam sahar ti9miik li-fluus w-titzawwaj qeeri.
'(Some) money was stolen from him.' 'In some months money will blind you and you will marry some
other one.' (lit., "other than me-"*) "
11. yaahum walad sammoo mirsid.
'They had a baby boy (whom) they named Murshid.' (lit., "A 21. saadni li-qruur.
T was trapped by conceit.'
baby boy came to them (whom) they named Murshid.")
Sentences 1-3 have kaan (var. caan) 'to be' as .the verb. Note that 22. bassarc alia b-l-xeer.
(lit., "God brought good news of benevolence to you.")
kaan followed by fii means 'there was; there were.' For stylistic
purposes an indefinite subject may precede the verb, unless the verb 23. sallamk alia.
'God protected you.'
24. sabbaaHk alia b-l-xeer!
11. latiifa raadatta 'umha tzawwijha Hagg yuusif.
'Good morning!' (lit., "God bade you good morning.") 'Latifa's mother wanted to marry her to Yusif.'
25. hadaakalla!
12. l-payyaal xaiHiw Hagg s-seex.
'May God'lead you to,the true faith!' T h e y (m.«) took the (male) dancer to the Shaikh.'
The subject may 'precede the verb' in sentences 19-21; sentences
13. n-na99aasaat 9aazmin/i/n 1-Haakim. •
22-25 are polite formulas in which the verb always precedes the
T h e ruler;has invited the (fema.le).dancers,'
subject.
14. li-bdiwi xairu minna bi9iira.
'They too& the Bedouin's camel.'
13.4 Topical Sentences 15. li-9yaal riHna wiyyaa/zwm.
'We went with the children.'
A topical sentence is made u p of two main parts: a topic which In sentences 1-5 the comment is a nominal sentence in which the
is usually a noun or a pronoun and a comment on the topic; the pronoun is suffixed to the subject; in 6-10 the comment is a
comment is either a nominal sentence (see 13.1) or a verbal sentence pseudo-verbal sentence with a pronoun suffixed to a preposition or
(see 13.3). The comment includes a pronoun suffixed to the noun or
fii 'there is; there are'; in 11 and 12 the comment is a verbal sentence
particle in a nominal sentence 6r pseudo-verbal sentence or suffixed
with a pronoun suffixed to the verb; in 13 the pronoun is suffixed to
to the verb or preposition in a verbal sentence. The referent of the
the active participle (with nunation) 9aazmin 'having invited,' which
suffixed pronoun is the noun or pronoun in the topic. In the
has the function of a verb; and in 14 and 15 the pronoun is suffixed
following examples the referent and the suffixed pronoun are
to a preposition in the verbal sentence which is the comment.
italicized:
Note that the suffixed pronouns in sentences 1-5 indicate
1. 9ali 'ubuu sammaac. possession; those in 11-13 function as objects either of the verbs
'Ali's father is a fisherman.' raadat 'she wanted' and xafru 'they (m.) took' or the active participle
2. niHin ma9aaziib«a syuux. (with nunation) 9aazmin 'having invited.'
'Those responsible for us are Shaikhs.' Either the topic or the comment can be used with modifiers. In
3. t-tindeel sugla mub hini. the following examples the modifiers are in parenthesis:
T h e forman's job is not here.' 16. 9ali (l-gassaab)(min 1-baHreen) 'ubuw (I-9ood) sammaac.
4. li-9yaal tarbiyattum sa9ba. 'Ali (the butcher)(from Bahrain)-his (olfj) father is a
'Raising children is difficult.' fisherman.'
5. 'abu ftabi xterha waayid. 17. s-seex (tawiil l-9umur) 'ila gasreen (kbaar)(fi dbayy).
'The wealth of Abu Dhabi is abundant.' 'The Shaikh (the long-lived one) has two (big) palaces (in
6. l-seex 'ila gasreen. Dubai).'
» i
T h e Shaikh has two palaces.'
7. 'uhum 9indahum fluus waayid. 13.5 Conditional Sentences
'They (m.) have a lot of money.'
8. r-rmeedaat 'ilhum taariix tawiil. A conditional sentence in GA is one which has an ;/- clause and
T h e Rumaithi tribe has a long history.' a result or main clause. The //- clause is introduced by such particles
as 'i&u, (n)caan, var. (n) kaan, lo (rarely law), and 'in which all mean
9. gitar fnha manaaiHr yamiila.
if Conditionals in GA are of three types:
T h e r e are beautiful sights in Qatar.'
10. l-Hariim ma9aa/*/« Ii-9yaal.
T h e children are with the women.'
:£
Major Sentence Types 207
ii-1 206 The Syntax'of Gulf Arabic
13.5.1 Open Conditionals 13. 'r&a bageet s-saHiiH 9allamtak bii.

Tf you wanted the truth, I would tell you.'
In open conditionals,i f the verb usually'expresses" possibility, i.e.,
a condition that may or may not be fulfilled. The verb-in_Dthe if 14. neaarfJya riHt sallarht 9alee.
Tf he, came, I would go to greet him.'
clause can be perfect or imperfe'c'f, depending upon the* meaning; in
the result clause it can be perfect) imperfect or imperative.- J h e 15. to gilt-lak ma saddagtani. •* >
particles used* in open' conditiorials"are ifta* (n)caan,var.fn)kaan, with Tf I told you, you would not believe me.' ]"
a following perfect' or imperfect tense verb, -and lo; 'in with a 16., 'in HassanXyiit wiyyaa.
following imperfect tense verb. Examples: Tf I -found him", \ would come with him?
1. 'ii>a sift rifiijak Hilu la .taakla killa., 17. lo-sawwa cifri caan zeen„ t
'Don't use up all of your 'credit at once.' 1 (lit., "If you think Tf he did like this, it would be fine.'
your frjendjs nice, don't eat hini u p all at once.")
13.5.3 Unreal Conditionals .. 1
2. "irra cint mista9jil 'ixifr taksi.
Unreal conditionals express a 'contrary-to-fact 6r rejected'
'If you are-inâ hurry, talce a taxi.'
condition. The verb in -the if- clause is in the, perfect tense' with "or
3. 'f9a taaH l-bi9iir kaflrat sicaaciina. withput the verb' caan (var. kaan) 'to be' and in the main clause it'is*
'\yhen it rains; it pours.' (lit., "If the camel falls down, its knives in* the perfect tense with caan (var. kaan). caan. (yarj kaan) is
are p l e n t y . " )
uninflected in such constructions. The caan + perfect tense verb
4. 'lira truuH 1-barr tsuuffum. * construction is equivalent to the English conditional perfect, i.e.,
Tf you go to the desert, you,will see them. i? would or should have + past participle. Examples:
5. ncaan 9indak'fluus waayid 9atni sayy.
18. 'iira yiit caan-'Hassalta. **
'•If you have a lot of money, give me some.' Tf you had come,-you would have found him.'
W*' 6. caan sift sayy la tguul sayy.
19. 'i&a'kaan bageeta kaan Hassalta.
Tf you see anything, don't say anythipg.' 'If you had wanted it, yo'u wouloVhave gotten it.'
7. lo tab"i s-saHiiH"a9almak bii"
20. lo cifta caan gilt-la. *
'If you'want the truth, I will tell it to you.' Tf I had seen him, L would have told him.'
8. lo 'asuufa 'aguul la. , 21. 16 ma tta99amat caan taaHat mariiira.
Tf 1 see him!, I will tell him.' 'If she had not been inoculated, she would have fallen ill.'
9. lo tiyi hini 'aHsan. *
22. lo riHt kaan Hassalta.
Tf you come'here,'it is better.' Tf I had gone, I would have found him.'
10. 'in tsuufa guul-la. 23. lo sima9ti 1-xabar caan tirti min 1-faraH. •'
Tf you see him, tell him.'
Tf .you (f.s.) had heard the news, you would have been
11. 'in truuH hnaak tis'taanis. overjoyed.'
Tf you go there, you will have a good time.'
24. ncaan sawwa ruuHa ciiri kaan maHHad 9rafa.
12. widdi 'aruuH baacir caan crdi
Tf he had made himself (to look) like this, no ,one would have
'J would like to go tomorrow if it is so.'
known him.'
13.5.2 Unlikely Conditionals 25. lo bageet s-salaa caan Hassalitta.
In unlikely conditionals, the verb usually expresses a condition 'Make hay while the sun shines.' (lit., "If you had wanted
which presumably cannot be fulfilled now. The verbs in the if- clause prayer, you would have gotten it.")
and the main clause are in the perfect tense. Examples: The particle leen is occasionally used to mean 'if in unreal
conditionals:
Major Sentence Types 209
20i The Syntax of Gulf Arabic
26. leen Hassalta caan Habbeet 'iida. 36. la tbuug w-la txaaf.
Tf I had found him, I would have kissed his hand.' Tf you do not steal, you won't have anything to fear.'
27. leen stagalt caan 9ateetak cam dirhim. 37. la tiftaH jeebak w-la tsuuf 9eebak.
Tf you had worked, I would have given you some money.' (lit., "If you do not open your pocket, you won't see your
If leen is followed by an imperfect tense verb, it tends to introduce a vice.")
temporal clause (see 12.3.2.A): Sometimes la is used with a perfect tense verb:
leen toosal ruuH l-'uteel. 'When you arrive, go to 38. la gaab 1-gatu 'il9ab ya faar.
the hotel.'
'While the cat's away, the mice will play.' (lit., "If the cat is
leen yistagil yistagil zeen. 'Whenever he works, he absent, play mouse!")
works'well.'
Sayings and proverbial phrases in GA abound with conditional
In all of the above cited conditional sentences, the if- clause has sentences, as in examples 1, 3, 25, 30, 34, 36, 37, and 38. Other
a verb except for example 5, which has the pseudo-verbal
examples are:
construction 9indak 'you, have.' Examples of other pseudo-verbal
constructions occur: 39. 'iira Hajjat 1-bagar 9ala gruunha.
(lit., "If cows go to pilgrimage on their horns.") 7
28. ncaan 9aleek fluus sidha. 40. lo yadri 9meer caan sagg 0ooba.
Tf you owe money, pay it back.' (lit., "If Omayr knew, he would rip his dress.*') 8 Ignorance is
29. 'i#a minna ma 'abgaa. bliss.
Tf it is from him, I don't want it.' 41. 'in taggeet 'uuji9 w-in 9asseet 'isbi9.
30. lo fii xeer caan ma hadda t-teer. (lit., "If you beat s.o., beat him hard; and if you dine s.o.,
Tf it (e.g., the sparrow) had been of any use, the bird (of prey)
satiate him.") 9
would not have discarded it.' (It is a worthless thing.)
42. 'in dakart 1-kalb wallim l-9asaa.
A participle is occasionally used in the if- clause: (lit., "If you mention the dog, have the stick ready.") 1 0
31. lo msawwi ruuHa xunfus caan 'afdal.
Tf he turned himself into a beatle, it would be better.' Tf he 14. CLAUSES
had turned himself into a beatle, it would have been better-'
32. Io m9arris caan ma tabb ihni. 14.1 Noun Clauses
Tf he had been married, he would not have come here.'
A noun clause has the function of a noun. It may serve as:
33. 'ifta mista9jil 'ixifr taksi.
Tf you are in a hurry, take a taxi.' A. the subject of a sentence:
34. 'f&a muub saayir l-yoom, ysiir baacir. 1. yamkin yigdar yaji baacir.
'Whatever will be will be.' (lit., "If it does not happen today, it 'It is possible that he can come tomorrow.'
will happen tomorrow.'*) 2. yamkin s-simac muub zeen.
35. ncaan 9aazminni zeen. 'It is possible that the fish is not good,'
Tf he has invited me, fine.'
7. i.e., it is an impossibility.
The negative particle la 'no; n o t ' is sometimes used with the
effect of a conditional particle. The verb in the main clause is also 8. One of the Mamelukes used to have sexual intercourse with his
negated by la and expresses a negative command: master's (Omayr's) wife while Omayr was away. The master's wife usedô say
this.
9. i.e., if you do anything, do it well.
10. i.e., bad people should be treated in a manner befitting them.
•210 The Syntax of',Gulf Arabic Clauses 211
3.' muub sa9b 9aleek truuH wiyyaahum?
antecedent is definite, the relative clause is intrdduced.py the relative
ta'J'it difficult for ypu to go with them?' particle 'illi, u less'frequently /-. 12 'illi 'who(m), that, which' is
4. ,muub zeen tla9wizhum. invariable, -i.e., ,it is not inflected for gender qr number. If the
'It is not good (for yqu) to'bottier them-' antecedent js indefinite, 'illi is not normally -used in GA, although
I5T. muub |lf 9adil 1-baHreen win§a? some speakers dof rarely use it in this way. A relative clause is either
Tsn't'it, true that BaHrain is fun?' verbal or nominal (see X 3.1).
6. riHt hnaak mub ciiH? _ t fc Eiam'pTes' of Definite 'Relative Clauses l

'Isn't it true that-you werit there?,' (lit., "Yo'u went'there, didn't
you?'*-) ' " > 1. haaira-r-rayyaal illi ya hrii. T h i s is the man who came
*7. li-fluus tjiib l-9aruus mub ci3i? here.'
' i ; Is/i't it true that moriey'talks?' (lit., "Money'brings the "bride, 2. hadeel 1-banaat r-raaHan". T h e s e are thp girls who went.'
doesn't it?")"",,
3. haa*i r-'rasta Hi twaddi I-9een. T h i s is the road that leads
to 'Al-Ainl'
B. The object of a verb: * <•
4. l-kuuliyya Hi fannasaw 'the workers who resigned'
9. gaal ma yigdar-ymuH. * *
'He said he could not go:' <» * 5. s-saarig illi baa%s-saa9a 'the thief who-stole the watch'
,10. 9araft 'innamubyaay. 6. t-tiffaaH 1-yiji min labnaan 'the apples that come from
T knew.that he was not coming.' Lebanon'
11. sama9t 'inhurn rammasaw s-seex. * 7. 1-bint illi titzawwaj 'the girl w"ho marrjes'
T h e a r d that they had talked to the Shaikh1.' 1-binaaya' fji.9ala yimiinak 'the building (which is) off
12. xafafyiji wiyyaay. your right'
'Hejefused to come with me.' ' ' 9. t-tamaat 1-min s-sa9diyyaat 'the tomatoes (that' are) from
Sadiyat' 1 ?' *
C. the object of a preposition:
10. l-matHafillifil-9een 'the museum (which is) in
13. Hassalta min //// baqga.
Al-Ain'
T got it from the one who stole,it,'
14. Haafri Hagg illi ma yirHam nafsa. The antecedents in the above examples, r-rayyaal 'the man,' l-banaat
'the girls,' r-rasta 'the road,' etc., are definite and also the subjects of
T h i s is for (i.e., the penalty of) the one who does not care for
h i m s e l f (lit., "This is for the one who does ncH have mercy the relative clauses. The relative clauses in examples 1-7 are verbal,
upon himself.") while those in examples 8-10 are nominal.
15. haaira 'aHsan min //// stareenaa. Examples of Indefinite Relative Clauses,
T h i s is better than that which we bought.'
11. 9indaha lisaan yilgi waayid. 'She has a tongue t h a t chatters
Noun clauses functioning as objects of prepositions are usually a lot'
introduced by the relative //// (see 14.2) in GA. r T—•——i r
11. '//// has two forms: illi and Hi. illi is used in a post-consonant position
14.2 Relative Clauses and Iti is used in a post-vowel position.
A relative clause modifies a n o u n , a proper name or a p r o n o u n 12. A relative clause introduced by 'illi is a definite relative clause;
(including a demonstrative pronoun). The noun, proper name, or otherwise it is an indefinite relative clause. /- here is identical with the article
prefix, 'illi tends to be used in formal and deliberate speech, while /- is normally
pronoun modified by a relative clause is called the antecedent. If t h e
used in informal and rapid speech.
13/ An island in Abu Dhabi.
212 The Syntax of Gulf Arabic Clauses 213
12. haaira haci ma yingaal halHiin. T h i s is talk which carinot, li-msaafriin illi riHt 'the passengers (that) I went,
28.
should not, be said now.' wiyyaa/iuhi traveled, with'
13. saalfa ma laha 'awwal wala taali 'a s t o r y that does not have Ugassaab illi stareet 'the butcher (whom) I bought
29.
a beginning or an end* minna 1-laHam the meat from'
14. haaira filim ydaHHic. T h i s is a film that makes 'the university (which) I
30. l-yaam9a Hi dirast fiiha
one laugh.' studied at'
15. 'abga'beet gariib min 1-baHar. T want a house (that is) Another type of relative clause in GA is one in which a suffixed
by the sea.' pronoun referring to the antecedent is attached to a noun. Such a
16. rayyaal seeba ma la mafliil 'an old man who has no equal' relative clause is similar to an English relative clause introduced by
17. tHassil binaaya jiddaamak. 'You will find a building whose, of which, etc., as shown in the examples below.
in front of you.' 31. t-taksi r-raa9ii Hamad
If the antecedent is the object of the relative clause, the verb in 'the taxi whose owner is Hamad'
the relative clause has a suffixed pronoun referring to the antecedent 32. 1-bint illi 9yuunha jamiila
and agreeing with it in gender and number; if the relative clause has a 'the girl whose eyes are beautiful*
verb + preposition, the suffixed pronoun is attached to the 'the girl with the beautiful eyes*
preposition. 33. 'aal nhayyaan illi rayaayiilhum fi kill mukaan
'Al-Nhayyan whose men are in every place'
Examples:
34. 1-beet illi biibaana xu§ur
18. s-safiir illi sifta fi 'the ambassador (whom) I saw 'the house whose doors are green'
beet s-seex in the Shaikh's house'
35. s-sayyaara t-tawaayirha qadiima
19. l-banaat illi sifittm 'the girls (whom) I saw' 'the car with the old tires'
20. 1-yiHH illi Hassalta 'the watermelons (that) 36. kaan waaHid rayyaal 9ood liHyita beefra.
I found'- "There was an old man whose beard was grey (lit., "white").'
21. 9allimna b-li-Hcaaya Hi Tell us the story (which) 37. Hurma zeena sa9arha tawiil
gilitta. you told.' 'a beautiful woman whose hair is long*
22. bint tazawwajfta ba9deen 'a girl (whom) he married 'a beautiful woman with long hair'
later on' 38. sikant fi beet masaaHta kabiira.
23. fluus mHassilha min 'ubuu 'money (that) he got from T lived in a house with a large area.'
his father' 39. 9inda sayyaara moodeelha qadiim.
24. haaira sayy 'alia kaatba T h i s is something (that God 'He has an old model car.'
ba9ad. has foreordained (lit., 40. kaan fii 9ayuuz 'awlaadha xamsa.
"written"), however.' 'There was an old woman who had five sons.'
25. 'aHsan 9amal tsawwi/ fi 'the best deed, work, (that)
Hayaatak Relative Clauses as Nouns
you might do in your lifetime'
Another type of relative clause that does not modify a noun, a
26. sayy t9awwad 9a\ee 'something (that) he got
proper name, or a pronoun occurs in GA. Such a relative clause has
used t o '
the function of a noun, i.e., it may function as the subject or
27. huwa hi yiit wiyyaa. 'He is the one (whom) I predicate of a sentence, or the second term of a noun construct, or
came with.'
the object of a verb or a preposition, 'illi, in a relative clause
214 The Syntax of Gulf Arabic Clauses 215
functioning as the subject of a sentence, has f an indefinite iheaning, The relative^ .clauses-tin examples 41-50 function as subjects of the
corresponding t o ' ' h e who,' 'the one who,' 'those who,"''whoever,' sentences.
'^hat which",' etc. The verb of the relative clause is, third^person
masculine singular. This type of relative clause is frequently found in Other examples of relative clauses as noujis: »
proverbial and idiomatic phrases. Examples: *> 51. mHammad illi raaH.
'Mohammad is the one who went.'
41. 'illi ma y9arf s-sagir yiswii.
ilia j jail j)-oagl» yiswu. 52. 1-mudiir illi baag.
Don'
l't kill the goose tfyat Jays the golden egg. (lit., "He who
doesn' T h e director is the one who has stolen.'
sn't know the falcon will roast it.")'
42. 'illi saar saar. 53. li-fluus illi tjiib'l-9aruus.
Don't .cry, over spilled milk. (Jit., ^'What has happened has Money talks, (lit., "Money is that .whicfi'brings the bride!")
happened.") 54. s-seex illi sirna.wiyyaa.
43. 'illi yaanf kafaani. T h e Shaikh is the "Che we went with.'
I am satisfied, '(lit., "What has come'to me has been enough for 55. ya weel illi ma ysuum. /
me.") " ' ' . 'Woe unto the one who does "not1 fast.'
44: 'illi fi 1-jidir ytal9a l-millaas.14" ( . 56. haafri jazaat li-ybuug.
(lit., "What is in the kettle will oe'taken out by the ladle.") T h i s is thewpunishment of the one who .steals.'
45. 'illi'ma yitla9 9ala T 'ubuu nagal. t 57. .haairi Haal illi ybuug.
Like father like son. (lit., "He who does not take after his T h i s is the fate r(lit., "condition") of the one who steals.'
father,'i.e., in looks and, behavior, is a bastard.") 58. 9atni Hi tibgaa. (
46., 'illi ma ynuus l-9anguud yguul Haamiir. 15 *Gjve me what you like.'
(rli£., "He who cannot reach the "duster of grapes says, Tt is 59. xuS- illi hni. ,
sour ')
T a k e what is here.'
47. 'illi ma la 'awwal ma la taali.1-6
60. difa9 illi 9alee.
(lit., *'He who has*no beginning has no end.")
'He paid what he owed.'
48. 'illi yibga s-salaa ma tfuuta.
61. yixtaar 1-yabii.
Make hay while the sun shines, (lit., "He who wants to pray
'He chooses the one he wants.'
won't fail to do so.")
49. 62. haairi Hagg 1-yiji 'awwal. ».
'illi ma yjiiba Haliiba ma yjiiba"z-zuur.
T h i s is for the one who comes first.'
You can lead a horse to water, but you can't make it'drink, (lit.,
"He who is not brought by his own milk won't be.brought by 63. zoojta l-'uula yaabat-la bass darzan yahnaal!
force.") 'He had only a dozen children by his first wife!'
50. 'illi ma yitla9 9ala 'ubuu nagal. In examples 51-54, the relative clauses function as'predicates of the
The child is father ,of the man. (lit., "He who does not take sentences; in examples 55-57", they are used in construct with the
after his father is a bastard.")
nouns weel 'woe,' jazaa 'punishment,' and Haal 'condition.' In
14. It is used, for example, to describe a person who tries hard to hide or examples 58-61, they function as objects of the verbs 9ata 'to give,'
conceal a certain quality or behavior; one day it will be uncovered. xufr ' t a k e / difa9 'he paid,' and yixtaar 'he chooses'; and in examples
15. From the fable of the fox ascribed to Aesop. The proverb conveys the 62 and 63, they are governed by the prepositions Hagg 'belonging t o '
meaning of a disparagement of s.th. that has proved to be unattainable. and bass 'except for, only.'
16. It is used, for example, to describe a person who professes loyalty and In the foregoing examples the relative clauses in 24, 31, and 59
sincerity after he has proved to be disloyal and unfaithful. have the participles kaatib 'having written,' raa9i 'having owned;
!
I
216 The Syntax of Gulf Arabic Major Phrase Types 217
ojvner,' and daass 'having entered.' Other'examples with participles 7. dass w-huwa yqanni.
follow: 'He entered singing.'
64. 'illi msawwi ruuHa xunfus 'He entered while he was singing.'
'the one who has turned himself into a beetle' 8. Hassalattin w-hin yin9isin jiddaam s-seex.
65. 'She found them dancing in front of the S h a i k h /
suug s-simac 1-matruus rayayiil w-Hariim
'She found that they (f.) were dancing in front of the Shaikh.'
'the fish market which is full of men and women'>
66. r-raakib butbuta C. a pseudo-verbal sentence (see 13.2) introduced by w- 'and':
'the one riding a motorcycle' 9. saafar w-9inda maal waayid.
'the one on a motorcycle' 'He traveled, having acquired 'a lot of money.'
67. l-9ayyaala Hi gaa9diin yargusuun b-1-bindig 10. tirak w-ma9aa 9aayala cibiira.
'the (male) dancers who are dancing with rifles' 'He left with a large family.'
11. yaw bu dabi w-fiiha xeer waayid.
14.3 Haal Clauses 'They came to Abu Dhabi and (i.e., at the time when) it had a
lot of wealth.'
A Haal clause is a clause of manner or circumstance; it
12. xaireet d-dalla w-ma caan fiiha gahwa.
describes, for example, the manner in which one' did something, the
T took the coffee pot and (i.e., at the time when) there was no
manner how something happened, one's condition when something
happened, etc. A Haal clause can be: c'offee in it.'
A. a nominal sentence (see 13.1) introduced by w- 'and': D. a verbal sentence introduced by an imperfect-tense verb.
The same sentences* under B above can be* used without w-
1. das? w-galba taayir min 1-faraH.
with the same meaning:
'He entered with an overjoyed heart.' (lit., "He erftered and his
heart was flying from joy.") "• 13. dass yqanni.
2. ya w-huwa raakib b(i)9iir. 14. Hassalattin yin9isin jiddaam s-seex.
'He came riding a camel.' (lit., "He came and (or while) he was
riding a camel.")
3. Hassalta w-huwa msawwi ruuHa xunfus. 15. MAJOR PHRASE TYPES
T found that he had turned himself into abeetle.' (lit., "I found
him and he had turned himself into a beetle.") 15.1 Noun Phrases
4. saarli mudda w-aana yaalis hni yammak.
T have been sitting here by you Tor a (long) while:' A noun phrase consists of a noun and one or more modifiers.
5. saar-lana mudda w-niHin naatriinak. For this section of noun phrases, see 10. NOUN MODIFIERS above.
'We have been waiting for you for a (long) while.* Below are the major kinds of noun phrases in GA:
6. lawees ddiss s-sugul w-inta msaxxan?
'Why do you go to work, seeing as how you are running a 15.1.1 N + N ( + N + N . . .)
temperature?' diriisat I-Hijra 'the room's window'
B. a verbal sentence (see 13.3) introduced by w- fo'llowed by an diriisat Hijrat 1-beet 'the window of the room
independent pronoun followed by an imperfect-tense verb: of the house'
diriisat Hijrat beef Saalim 'the room's window of
Salim's house'
Major Phrase Types 219
218 The Syntax of Gulf Arabic
2. WNAdj. Adj.
The constriict phrases above can also be used with Hagg or maal
'belonging t o ' with the same meaning: suug s-simac 1-yidiid n-nadiif 'the clean new fish
d-djriisa Hagg I-Hijra * market'
diriisajt 1-Hijra Hagg 1-beet or suug s-simac n-nafriif 1-yadiid
or: d-diriisa,Hagg Tlijrat 1-beet dallat H-ghawa s-sagiira 1-yidiida 'the small new coffee
pot'
.diriisat'Hijrat 1-beet Hagg saalim
or dallat li-ghawa 1-yadiida s-sagiira
•or: f diriisat'i-Hijra Hagg beet saalim
or:- d-diriisa Hagg Hijrat beet,<saalim 3. vVrÂdj. Adj.
'* *or:- d-diriisa Hagg 1-Hijra Hagg, beet saalim
makaatib s-sarika l-'amriikiyya 'the new offices of
•i' the American company'
1-yidiida
15.1.2 JV"(+N) + Adj. (+Adj. . . .)
,l gasr 1-Haakim l-9aadil l-ba9iid 'the distant palace of
msiid 9ood 'a big mosque'
the just ruler'
li-msiid l-9ood 'the big mosqu.e''
If twp, adjectives or more are used to modify the noun-head, N, but *makaatib s-sarika 1-yidiida l-'amriikiyya
'usually there are no restrictions on the order1 of those adjectives: *gasr 1-Haakim,l-ba9iid l-9aadil
calb''aswad kabiir ''a big black dog' In other words, the pattern N N Adj. Adj. is ungrammatical. The
calb kabiir 'aswad " directions of modification are parallel, i.e., either the Jwo adjectives
modify the same noun, or the first adjective modifies the second
Both adjectives 'aswad 'black! and kabiir 'big'mo'dify the head, calb,
noun in the construct and the second modifies N, the noun-head^. Of
'dog.'-
the three logical possibilities of the modification patterns above, 3. is
Sometimes, the last in a string of attributive adjectives, may*
rare.
apply to the whole preceding* phrase. This occurs mainly, in .set
phrases, titles, of proper names":
15.1.3 Quantifier + A'
l
d-diiwaan l-'amiiri 1-qadiim the old Emiri Court'
The position of Quantifier can be filled by Numeral (cardinal I 7
i 1-xaliij l-9arabi 1-qani 'the rich Arabian Gulf or ordinal), Non-Numeral (partitive, fraction, intensifier, or
18
As has already been mentioned in Construct Phrases (see 10.1), demonstrative), or Elative Adjective. Examples:
an adjective coming after a noun construct may modify either noun xams Hariim 'five women'
depending "on sense ] and agreement. Thus, the following three xaamis Hurma 'the fifth woman'
patterns of modificati6n are established:
ba9iH-Hariim 'some (of the) women'
1. N N Adj. Adj.
suug simac xaayis raxiis 'the market of cheap 17. Except for waaHid 'one' and dneen(a) 'two.'
rotten fish'
18. See 10.32 for more examples and the rules governing the pre-posing and
or suug simac raxiis xaayis post-posing of these modifiers.
makaatib s-sarika l-'amriikiyya 'the offices of the new
I-yadiida American company'
or makaatib s-sarika 1-yidiida l-'amriikiyya
220 The Syntax ofjGulf Arabic Major Phrase Types 221
0il0 1-Hariim 'one-third of the women' If coorclinate niodifiers are used, they( behave as one unit
kill 1-Hariim 'alljof the) wpmen' syntactically, i.e.^t'he" coordinate modifiers as ,a unit can precede,of
haireel l-Hariim 'these women' fpllow other modifiers, T*he order within coordinate modifiers is free.
'aythal Hurtna 'the most beautiful woman' masruu9> ^tijaari w-'iqtisaadi 'amriiki
•'aymal 1-Harijm "* 'the.most beautiful (of the) women' 'iqtisaadi w-tijaari
V
' i n American commercial arid economic project'
The noun-head, N, carwbe^the first elefnenfin a* noun construct,
giving the phrase N N,(e.g*., kaatifrs-sarika' 'the c o m p a n y ' c l e r k . ' T h e
OR
plural form of this noun construct^ i.e., kuttaab s-sarika 'the
company'clerks,' c a n . b e modified b ( y.a pre-nomihal* non-numeral. masruuy i "amriiki .tijaari w-'iqtisaadj'
l
Exahjplesi t 'iqtisaaa^ w-tijaari^'
*'mu9r>am kuttaab s-sarika 'most of the.company clerks''
•ba9fr ' 'some of the company clerks' 15[. 1.4 A ^ A d ^ t - N
nuss » 'half (of) the company clerks' 1 ,*"
l
° JciLl" t 'all (of) the company clerks' The constructiori N +' adj. + pi is not common in GA. ,Noun
The non-numeral is objigatonly pre-posed, -either to a noun phrases *of such a construction aife descriptive cliches,or stereotyped
construct*, as sjiown above, or to a n elative construct: expressions. The whole 'construction functions as an adjectjve: the
t v
second .term, which is, always a'definite hoUn, restricts or specifies
kill-'aHsan kuttaab s-sarika ' all (of) the best company clerks' the item of reference pf the adjective, the first term. Such phrases are
This last phrase can be*fnodified'only post-nominally by cardinals, known as false zt/aa/a'qonstructions in literary Arabic. Examples:
tawiil 1-lisaan 'long-tongued'
ordinals, "and all the subclasses of .positive adjectives. There-are no
restrictions on the order o f t h o s e post-nbminal modifiers: ' ' l 9arnay 1-galb 'blind df;heart' n
'abyair 1-weeh 'white-faced'

kill kuttaab s-sarika l-9asara z-zeeniin
9ariid; c-catf 'broad-shouldered'
z-zeeniin l-9asara
9airab I-yad'd 'paralyzed o,f fjand'
'all (of) the good ten companyxlerks'
maksuur 1-galb 'broken-hearted'
The number J,qf possible phrases can be worked out by a tawiil I-9umur 'long-lived''
mathematical progression. Let M stand for a,post-nominal modifier,
and M,. M2 M 3 . . . etc., stand for the first, the second, the third The N + Adj. construction is more commonly used, e.g., lisaana
modifiers.. . . etc. If three modifiers are used, we can* have the tawiil, galba 9amay, yadda 9afrbq. etc.
following six possible phrases:
15.1.5 N + Participle + N
M, M2 M3 Ni, M 3 M2 M2 M3 M,
rayyaal msawwi ruuHa. xunfus 'a man who has turned himself
M2 M, M3 M3 Mj M2 M3 Mj M, into a beetle'
If four modifiers are used, we can have 24 possible phrases; if five are li-bdiwi r-raakib bi9iir 'the Bedouin'riding a camel'
used, we can have 120, etc. If n stands for the number of modifiers, t-tindeel li-mfannis l-kuuliyya 'the foreman who has fired
then the number of logical possibilities is: the workmen'
n ( n - l ) ( h - 2 ) ( n - 3 ) , etc. li-sbayy d-daass 1-Hafiiz 'the young boy entering the
office'
Wkz
222 The Syntax of Gulf Arabic
Major Phrase Types 223
The Participle in such constructions requires a complement which
functions as its object. 15.3 Adverb Phrases
15.1.6 A^ + Prepositional Phrase 15.3.1 Time

Among adverb ^phrases of time are those that are introduced by
bdiwi min gabiilt s-seex 'a Bedouin from the Shaikh's tribe'
an adverbial particle of time (see 12.4.A). Examples:
9ayyaal min d-duwaasir 'a (male) dancer from the Dosaris'
ybannid gabl s-saa9a xams. Tt closes before five o'clock.'
sammaac min 'ahl 1-firiij' 'a fisherman from the neighborhood'
cifta gabl ams. T saw him the day before yesterday.'
Hyuul min irahab 'bracelets of gold, gold bracelets'
nsiir 9ugub baacir. 'We will leave after tomorrow.'
barnuus min suuf 'a blanket of wool, a wool blanket'
cint hini min gabil. 'Thave been here before.'
baHar min 1-hamm 'a sea of grief
zooj min s-suwaahiin Others are made up of two nouns compounded together, e.g., sabaaH
'a couple of falcons'
ams or 'ams s-sabaaH 'yesterday morning,' 'ams l-masa or 'ams fi
15.1.7 N + s- l-leel 'last night,' etc. Some others are made up of the demonstrative
ha- and a noun, e.g., ha-l-Hiin 19 'now' and ha-l-Hazza20 'now, this
In this type of noun phrase s- is prefixed to a verbal noun with a
time.' A few are made up of N + Adj., e.g., s-subuu9 1-maaM 'last
suffixed pronoun which refers to N. Examples:
week,' s-sana l-maa%ya 'last year,' etc.,
rayyaal s-kubra 'a very old, big man' or
'What an old, big-man!* 15.3.2 Place,
Hurma s-kuburha a very old, big woman' or
Adverb phrases of place are usually introduced by an adverbial
What an old, big woman!'
particle of place (see 12.4.B). Examples:
bint s-Halaatta a very beautiful girl' or
riHt soob 1-baHar. T went toward the sea.'
What a beautiful girl!'
saari9 s-tuula yilasna yamm s-seex. 'We sat by the Shaikh.'
a very long street' or
What a long street!' yximm taHt 1-xeel. 'He sweeps under the horses.'
fluus s-ku0urha a whole lot of money' raaH la-wara. 'He went in reverse.'
tawni yiit min hnaak. T have just come from there.'
\
15.2 Adjective Phrases 15.3.3 Haal21
l
ya.raakib butbuta. 'He came on (lit»., "riding") a
An adjective can be modified by such particles (see 12.4.C) as motorcycle.'
waayid (var. waajid), killis 'very,' kadiir 'a lot, a great deal,' swayy 'a
little,' etc. Examples: dass Hamgaan. 'He entered in anger.'
yaana mbaarik. 'He came to congratulate us.'
waayid zeen 'very good, fine'
yruuH maasi kill yoom. 'He goes every day on foot.'
Iagwiyya killis 'very talkative'
tsaafir b-ruuHHa. 'She travels alone.'
Haaff kafliir 'very dry'
gasiir swayy 'a little short'
19. ha-l-HUn in this transcription is shown as halHiin, sometimes reduced to
As adjective modifiers, waayid, killis, kaOiir, and swayy can be 'alHiin or l-Hiin in rapid speech.
either pre-posed or post-posed to the adjective modified. No other 20. ha-l-Hazza is transcribed as halHazza, sometimes reduced to 'al-Hazza or
adjective modifiers have been recorded. l-Hazza in rapid speech.
21. See 14.3.
*.
226 The Syntax of Gulf Arabic Verb Strings 227
16. saarat tHaawil tadris. 'She got to the point where she The verbs that belong to this subgroup express a desire, an ability, or
tried to study.' an effort to do something. Like the verbs in 16.6 above they can be
17. saarat tHaawil taji tadris. 'She got to the point where she followed by one, two, or more verbs in the imperfect tense.
tried to come to study.' Examples:
27. baga yaji. 'He wanted to come.'
caan (var. kaan) can be prefixed to any verb string to switch it
from present to a past time-frame: 28. baga yaji yadris. 'He wanted to come to study.'
yruuH 'he goes' caan yruuH 'he used to go' 29. baga ygarrir yaji yadris. 'He wanted to decide to come to
study.'
raaH 'he went' caan raaH 'he would have gone*
30. baga yistarxis yaji yadris. 'He wanted to get permission to
Other examples: come to study.'
18. caan yibga yaji yistagil. 'He wanted to come to work.' raad, gadar, Haawal, or jarrab may occur in the same position as
19. cint aHaawil 'aji 'astagil. T was trying to come to work.' baga. Unlike caan, these verbs cannot be followed by a perfect tense
20. caan raaH. 'He would have gone.' verb:
21. caan riHt. T would have gone.' 31. *bagaja.
22. caan dirasna. 'We would have studied.' 32. *baga ja yadris.
caan in such strings is invariable. The meaning expressed (in Like ifall, the imperfect tense of these verbs can be used:
18-22) is that of a result clause i n a conditional sentence (see 13.5). 33. yigdaruun yajuun yadrisuun. T h e y can come to study.'
23. caan raaH diras. 'He would have gone and studied.' 34. triid taji tadris. 'She wants to come to study.'
24. caan gaam ragad. 'He would have gone (lit., "stood"up") Haawal and jarrab are not used interchangeably in all positions. As
and slept.' far as meaning is concerned, Haawal expresses the idea of 'making an
25. caan raaH yadris. 'He would have gone to study.' attempt to do s.th.'; jarrab expresses the idea of 'making an effort to
26. caan gaam yargid. 'He would have gone (lit. "stood u p " ) ' do s.th.' with the implication of testing or trying it out. Thus:
to go to bed.' 35. baga yjarrib yadris. 'He wanted to try to study.'
Examples 23 and 24 can be paraphrased: caan raaH w-caan diras and 36. baga yHaawil yadris. 'He wanted to try to study.'
caan gaam w-caan ragad, respectively. The imperfect tense verbs in 37. baga yjarrib s-sugul. 'He wanted to try out the job.'
25 and 26 express purpose. Among the verbs in this section only
invariable "caan can be followed by a perfect tense verb. The but:
imperfect of caan, ykuun, is not used as the first verb in a verb string. 38. *baga yHaawil s-sugul.
16.3 ga9ad, gaam

16.2 baga, raad, gadar, Haawal, jarrab
ga9ad 'to begin, start to do s.th.'
baga 'to want, like to do s.th.'
gaam 'to begin, start to do s.th.'
raad 'to want to do s.th.; to feel like doing s.th.'
ga9ad and gaam express similar meanings. Like itall, saar, baga,
gadar 'to be able to do s.th.'
raad, gadar, Haawal, and jarrab, they can be followed by one, two, or
Haawal 'to try to do s.th.' more verbs in the imperfect tense. Examples:
jarrab 'to try to do s.th.'
W*
228 The Syntax of Gulf Arabic Verb Strings ,i2£
39". .gaam (or ga9dd) yacTis. 'Hejbegan to study-.' „ saar v baga '*• ,•
J
'40. gadm (orVtfiW^'yHaawil'yadris! l H e started to try to s t u d y / tall • •raad ' '•
41, gaam (or ga9ad) yHaawil yaji * 'He, started'to try to'co'me gadar» " ! ^
yadris. to study.' Haawal
1
If followed by a pe'rfect terise verb', ga9ad and gaam cease to" function it
as auxiliaries; they become finite verbs with dijferenfmeanings:* jarrab. •u i'
42.* ga9ad-sodlaf. ''He sat "down and chatted.!
gaam *
43 s gaam sirib. 'He'stoorj up and had anTirik.' • jJVl t' IV .1
" J.
f 3. if the imperfect is a,verb of ^motion; it may beTollowed by ,i<
44". gaam ragas. 'He got Up and danced.'
ah imperfect verb with .the"graminatical meaning"of purpose: t] ,<
Like -frail and Jlje verbs in 1 6 . 2 / t h e imperfect tense of gatyad and
gaam can be used to imply 1 a state condition, or habitual, action: j
caan saar yibga yaji' yadris. | 'He. would'JiaVe begumto want
45'. yguum (or yag9id)'yadris '•He studies every day.' to "conie to stu,dy.' . »
kill yoom. i—=—7^7
46. yguum (or yag9id) yadris 'X t « %He( comes.' ^
'He will study tomorrow.'
baacir. X X 'He wants'to'come.'
The progressive meaning is expressed only by tlie ^prefsenf participle X X 'He gbt'in the haît of coming.'
f
of ga9ad, i.e.,gaa9id. Examples; '[ , X x» 'He used, to cb'me.' '»
4 7 . ' gaa9id yadris. 'He is studying.' x. x X .'He.wanted, t o come.'
,' .' 'H^ would have started coming.'
out: X X
48. *gaayim yadris. \ X X. t 'He began to want,t6 ccSnie.'
According t o the preceding discussion, in 16.1-16.3, we can say

thaf:
1. a perfect tense verb may be preceded by caan; if if is a verb Qomplement (after
Time'Marker Main
of motion, it 'may be followed by another verb, in which case the Modal Auxiliary verb of motion)
caan Yerrj
perfect tense verb expresses completed action and the imperfect
tense verb expresses purpose: x , )• * Perfect Perf. (compl. action)
Tmperf. (purpose)
raaH. 'He went.'
caan raaH. 'He would have gone.' X X X . Imperfect Irnperf (purpose)
1 •I
raaH diras. 'He went apd studied. '
caan raaH diras. 'He would have gone and studied.'
caan raaH yadris. 'He would have gone to study.' Note: Tne position of Main Verb on the.chart above can be filled by
a verb 'phrase modal +• verf>, so that we might get a sentence
2. an imperfect tense verb may be preceded by any like:,
combination of the following, but in the following order: caan saar yibga yHaawil ydall yistagil.
caan modal auxiliary imperfect 'He would have wanted to try to keep on working.'
or: (caan) (modal) (auxiliary) imperfect
230 The Syntax of Gulf Arabic Verb Strings 231
caan saar yigdar yHaawil ydall yistagil. 60. laazim saar. 'He must have gone.'
'He would have been able to try to go to work.' 61. laazim ya ysallim 9aleek. 'He must have come to greet you.'
62. laazim raaHat rgadat. 'She must have gone and slept.'
16.4 laazim 63. laazim raaH stagal ams. 'He must have gone and worked
yesterday.'
This section deals with verb strings that are formed with the
64. laazim Haawlaw yittasluun T h e y must have tried to contact
help of the auxiliary laazim. laazim is uninfected and expresses one
fiik. you.'
or more of the following meanings: 'should,' 'must,' 'have to,' 'ought
to' if followed by one, two, or more imperfect tense verbs. The imperfect of caan, ykuun, may follow laazim in examples 60-64
Examples: with no change in meaning. In such cases, ykuun, like any other verb
49. laazim aruu'H asuufa. T have to go to see him.' in the verb string, agrees with the same subject:
50. laazim tistaHi min nafsak. 'You ought to be ashamed of 65. laazim ykuun ya ysallim 'He must have come to greet you.'
yourself 9aleek.
51. ha.lHiin kill waaHid laazim 'Nowadays everyone has to go 66. laazim ykuunuun raaHu T h e y must have gone and worked
yruuH l-mu9askar. to the (army) camp.' staglaw ams. yesterday.'
52. laazim yfrall yistagil. 'He must, has to continue The perfect of laazim is caan (var. kaan) laazim, in which case caan
to'work.' (var. kaan) is uninflected. The negative of caan laazim is made by
53. laazim yHaawil yr>all yistagih 'He must, has to try to continue prefixing the negative particle ma:
t to work.' 67. caan laazim yruurf. 'He had to go.*
54. laazim yilzam seeda. 'He should, must stay in his line.' 'She had to help her mother.'
68. caan laazim tsaa9id 'urnha.
The negative form of laazim is mu(u)(b) laazim, which expresses 69. ma caan laazim yruuH. 'He did not have to go.'
either a negative obligation, i.e., 'shouldn't,' mustn't,' 'ought not to,' 'He did not need to go.'
or a lack of obligation, i . e . , ' . . . not have to.' Examples: 70. ma kaan laazim tsaa9id 'umha. 'She did not haVe tpt help
55. muub laazim yilzam seeda. 'He shouldn't, mustn't, stay in his her mother.'
line.' 'She did not need to help
'He doesn't have to stay in his line.' her mother.'
:f,
56. mu laazim yfrall yistagil. 'He mustn't continue to work.' The negative particle mu(u)(b) may be used before laazim to negate
'He doesn't have to continue to caan laazim:
work.'
71. caan mub laazim yilzam seeda. 'He did not have to stay in
If one of the verbs after laazim is negated, only a negative obligation his line.'
is expressed:
72. kaan mub laazim yfrall yistagil. 'He did not have to continue
57. laazim ma yilzam seeda. 'He shouldn't, mustn't stay in his to work.'
line,'
If one of the verbs after caan laazim is negated, only a negative
58. laazim ma yâll yistagil. 'He mustn't continue to work.' obligation is expressed (see examples 57-59 above):
59. laazim yfrall ma yistagil. 'He must continue not to work.' 73. caan laazim ma yilzam seeda. 'He shouldn't have <.tayed in
If laazim is followed by a perfect tense verb, it expresses a deduction his line.'
or an inference: 74. caan laazim ma ydall yistagil. 'He shouldn't have continued
to work.'
u ^ z ^ .
232 The Syntax dfGulf Arabic Concord 233
,i According to the preceding discussion, we can have the For these three categories, an inflected adjective has the following
following verb strings with auxiliary laazim: forms:
A. Gender-Number
Time Marjcer Auxiliary Adj.i are unmarked; these are called masculine'singular forms:
rayyaal 9ood 'a big, old niah'
(ykuun) Perfect = Probability
I . ! laazirn. 9ayyil sagiir 'a little child1'
2. , (caan,)' Tmperfect = Necessity Adj.2 are unmarked; they are feminine singular forms:
v
Hurma Haamil 'a pregnant woman'
laazim (ykuun) ya (yadris). mara 9aqiim 'a sterile woman'
'He must have come to study.'
It should be noted that in' the case of animate nouns the real sex of
(caan)' laazim yaji (yadris).
'He had to come to s t u d y / the referent determines grammatical gender, regardless of the
grammatical form of the word, e.g., rayyaal 'man,' b(i)9iir 'camel'
and seeba ''old man' are all masculine, and Hurma 'woman,' 'umm
n^CONCORJ) 'mother' and gatwa 'cat' are all feminine. As for inanimate adjectives,
grammatical gender serves as a means of indicating agreement
The parts of speech t that show, inflectional agreement,are nouns, between noun and adjective:
pronouns, personal and demonstrative, 1 adjectives, and verbs. Nouns Haakim l-'imaara 1-yidiid 'the new ruler of the Emirate'
are the governing or determining elements, and the other parts of
Haakim l-'imaara 1-yidiida 'the ruler of the new Emirate'
speech are the governed elements.
Examples of unmarked feminine singular nouns are (see 9.1.B):
T7.1 Adjectives sams 'sun' *arfr 'earth, ground'
Harb 'war' catti 'sliort note'
17.1.1 Positive Adjectives
9een 'eye* '" 'iid 'hand'
f Positive adjectives are post-posed. They ususally agree in gender,
number, and definiteness with the^noun they modify: "sicciin 'knife' both 'bottle'
Adj. 3 are marked by the feminine morpheme -a and are
r .i 9igdyidiid • 'a new necklace'
feminine singular:
ciswa yidiida 'new clothing'
Hurma 9ooda 'a big, old woman'
l-9igd 1-yidiid 'the new necklace'
naaga dijiija 'a thin, skinny camel (f.)*
c-ciswa 1-yidiida 'the new clothing'
Positive adjectives show either a two-fold distinction, or a Adj. 4 are sound masculine plural forms. These are marked by
three-fold distinction for each 6f these categories. 24 the ending -iin; the referent is male human:
a. Gender: masculine and feminine 9yaal wasxiin 'dirty children'
b. Number: singular and plural kuuliyya damyaaniin 'thirsty workmen'
c. Definiteness: definite or indefinite Adj. 5 are sound feminine plural forms; they are marked by the
morpheme -aat; the referent is female human:
24. The general rules given in this section are modified by more specific ones
given later.
234 The Syntax of Gulf Arabic Concord 235
na99aasaat zeenaat 'good female dancers' 'the thirsty coolies''
l-kuuliyya ^-damyaaniin
Hariim yamiilaat 'beautiful women' 'my little .children' i
9yaali s-sgaar
Adj.6 are marked by internal vocalic patterns. They are known mudiir 1-maktab 1-yicTid 'the new office manager'
as broken plural forms: 2 S 'her expensive clothes'
hduumha 1-gaalya
wlaad mtaan 'fat boys' 'the old (section of) Abu Dhabi'
'abu frabi 1-qadiima,
mwairfrafiin yiddad 'new employees'
NOTE THE FOLLOWING: 17.1.2 Elative Adjectives 26
The comparative form of the adjective is not inflected for
1. Adjectives modifying human masculine dual nouns are
masculine plural. gender or-number:
rayyaal 'amtan 'a fatter m a n ' (m.s.)
9ayleen sgaar (or sagiiriin) 'two little children'
rayyaaleen 'amtan 'two fatter men' (m.-d'ual)'
1
mudiireen zeeniin 'two good directors'
ii rayaayiil 'amtan 'fatter rhen' (m.p.)
2. Adjectives modifying Jtuman feminine dual nouns are either
Hurma 'amtan 'a fatter woman' (f.s.)
feminine plural or masculine plural; the latter form is more
commonly used: Hurmateen 'amtan 'two fatter women' (f.dual)
binteen 9imyaan (or 9amyaat) 'two blind girls' Hariim 'amtan 'fatter'women' (f.p-)
Hurmateen'mxabliin (or mxablaat) 'two crazy women' The superlative is formed either by making the comparative
definite '
3. Adjectives modifying non-human plural nouns are usually
feminine singular, but may be plural; the latter form is not r-rayyaaH-'amtan 'the fattest man'
commonly used: or "by putting the comparative in a construct (see 10.2) with no
graas matruusa (or matruusiin) 'filled bottles' concord;, this latter pattern has a higher frequency of occurrence in
tuwaanki cibiira (or kbaar) 'big (water) tanks' GA:
ba9aariin fomya (or famyaaniin) 'thirsty camels' 'amtan rayyaal , i 'the fattest man'
gtaawa sooda (or suud) 'black cats' 'amtan Hurma 'the fattest, woman'
gawaaji mingatta (or mingattiin) 'discarded cans' 'amtan 1-Hariim 'the fattest (of the) women'
hduum gaalya (or gaalyiin) 'expensive clothes' 'aqdam l-9awaayil 'the oldest (of the) families'
B. Definiteness 17.2 Pronouns and Verbs

As for definiteness, all the forms of the adjectives given above There is'no gender distinction in the first person pronouns and
may be definite, i.e., marked by the article prefix a / o r indefinite, verb forms;, modifiers agree with the referents of 'aana T and niHin
i.e., unmarked:
'we':
i t r-rayyaal l-9ood 'the big, old man' 'aana yiit. T (m. or f.) came.'
1-Hurma 1-Haamil 'the pregnant woman' niHin yiina. 'We (m. or f.) came.*
25. Some of these adjectives also have sound masculine plural patterns. See 26. See also 10.2 Elative Constructs and 10.5.1.4 Elative Adjectives above.
10.5.2 Major Broken Plural Patterns above.
•KLZ
236 The Syntax of Gulf Arabic Concord 237
but: 'aana Harraan. T (m.) am sweating (m.).' n-na99aasaat yin9isin ha-s-sikil.

'aana Harraana. T (fi) am sweating (f.).' '(The) female dancers dance in this manner.'
H
niHin Harraaniin. 'We (m.) are sweating (m.).' raaHaw taqaddaw li-9yaal.
'The children went and had lunch.'
niHin Harraanaat. 'We (f.) are sweating (f.).'
'aana 1-mudiir. T (m.) am the director (m.).' 1-waladeen gaamaw yadrisuun.
'The two boys started to study.'
'aana 1-mudiira. T (f.) am the director (f.).'
l-9aruusateen Hassalan hadaaya.
niHin 1-mudiiriin. 'We (m.) are the directors (m.).'
T h e two brides got gifts.'
niHin 1-mudiiraat. 'We (f.) are the directors (f J . '
ma gassaraw d-duwaasir.
When the second and third person pronouns are used, verbs 'The Dosaris did their best.'
agree with them in gender and number: C. If the noun is dual and does not refer to human beings, the
'inta riHt. 'You (m.s.) went.' verb is masculine plural:
'inti riHti. 'You (f.s.) went.' s-sayyaarateen ddaa9amaw. 'The two cars collided.*
'intum riHtaw. 'You (m.p.) w e n t ' 1-baabeen nsakkaw. 'The two doors were closed.'
'intin riHtin. 'You (f.p.) went.' d-diriisateen tbattalaw. T h e two windows opened.'
huwa raaH. 'He went.' ddaa9amaw s-sayyaarateen. T h e two cars'collided.'
hiya raaHat. 'She went.' maataw 1-gatween. 'The two cats died.'
hum raaHaw. T h e y (m.) went.' D. If the noun is plural and does not refer to human beings, the
hin raaHan. 'They (f.) went.' verb is usually feminine singular:
If the subject of a verb is an expressed nouns, verb agreement is t-tuwaanki fargat. T h e (water) tanks were empty.'
as follows: li-Hyuul nbaagat. 'Th& bracelets were stolen.'
A. If the noun is singular, the verb agrees with it in number and ttarrasat li-xtuut. T h e letters were sent.'
gender, whether it precedes or follows the noun: 1-yiwaani taaHat. T h e sacks fell down.'
s-seex rammasni. T h e Shaikh talked to me.' A masculine plural form of the verb is less commonly used. If the
'ixti raaHat 1-madrasa. 'My sister went to school.' noun refers to animals, a masculine plural form of the verb is
l-mi9ris yistari s-soga. T h e bridegroom buys the jewelry.' normally used, regardless of the gender of the subject:
l-9aruus(a) tistari li-hduum. T h e bride buys the clothes.' li-gtaawa sridaw. T h e cats ran away.'
s-siHH ma yistawi zeen 'Dates are not good now.' l-ba9aariin xaafaw. 'The camels became afraid.'
halHiin. n-nyaag xallafaw. T h e (female) camels gave birth.'
l-9ees yinbaa9 bi-1-yuuniyya. 'Rice is sold by the sack.' li-sxalaat kalaw. T h e young goats ate.'
1-yiHHa haa&i ma tinwikil. 'This watermelon cannot be eaten.' If the subject is indefinite and occurs in a post-verbal position,
B. If the noun is dual or plural and refers to human beings, the the verb is masculine singular. Examples:
verb is plural and agrees with its subject in gender: yaana xuttaar.
l-9ayyaala yargusuun b-I-bindig. 'Some guests came to us.'
'(The) male dancers dance with rifles.'
~«~3
238 The Syntax^ of Gulf Arabic Negation 239

•III ll l
yaa bint. " * ma yirham.
'He had a baby girl.' (lit.,-"A baby'girl came to him.") Tt cannot work.*
wisil jarpaa9a min li-kweef. • Imperfect tense'verbs that denote 1 a passive-potential sense are
'A group of people arrived from Kuwait.' negated by ma pnly:
maira mudda} sana. l-9ees ma yingatt-
'A period of one year has passed}? 'Rice cannot, shouldn't be thrown away.'
IH
ma baga 9indana sayy.> J. kars ma yintiris
'We did not have anything left.' 'a belly that cannot be filled' (i.e., a bottomless belly)
saarli hini sana. s-sagir ma yinsiwi. ' .'
T have been here for a year.'' 'a falcon cannot,.shouldn't be roasted*' *
* i fcadrii mudda w-aana yaalis liini'. guuti ma yitbaftal
T have been sitting here for some time.* 'a can that.cannot be-opened'
i zaam ma yitqayyar ' *
'a (work) shift that cannot be changed'
is. NEGATION
Two verbal constructions with a perfect or an imperfect'tense
jl joined by wa- 'and' are negated, by ma. . . w(a)-la or ma. ... w-ma.
See also 1T2.5 for the meanings and uses of la, ma, and mu(u)(b).
Examples:
18.1 Negating Verbs ma yindara w-ma yin9araf.
18.1.1 Perfect and Imperfect Tt can neither be comprehended nor known.' tf
(i.e., it is impossible for s.o. to know.)
The perfect and the imperfect tense forms are usually negated
by ma, less frequently, by la. Examples: ma yindara w(a)-la yin9araf. t
la yindara w(a)-la yin9araf.
lees ma fahamt sayy? *la yindara w-ma yin9araf.
'Why didn't you understand anything?' la riHt w(a)-la yiit.
LJ
walla ma dri. T neither went nor came."
''Honestly, I don't know.' ma caan hini w(a)-la(caan) hnaak.
1-mudiir ma ygassir. 'He was neither here nor there.'
T h e director does his best (towards others).' la ragad w(a)-la xalja 'aHad yargid.
ma gassart. 'He neither slept nor let anybody (else) sleep.'
'You did your best (towards others).' In constructions with 'ilia 'except' ma is used to negate the
{• • ma raaH. verb. Such constructions have- the meaning of 'nothing or
'He did not go.' nobody . . . except' or ' n o t . . . anything or anybody except':
ma yistawi fiiha 1-maHaar. ' ' ma baga 'ilia hduuma.
'Oysters cannot be found in it.' 'Nothing remained except his clothes.'
ma ysiir ha-s-sayy. ' ma Hassal 'ilia hduuma.
T h i s thing cannot be, cannot happen.' 'He did not find anything except his clothes.'
J L
u*.
240 The Syntax of Gulf Arabic Negation 241
ma yfill 1-Hadiid 'ilia 1-Hadiid. 'illi ma la 'awwal ma la taali.

'Nothing blunts, dents iron except iron.' (lit., "He who does not have a beginning does not have an
ma caaffum 'ilia niHammad. end.")
'Nobody saw them except Mohammad.' (Meaning: Everything should have a sound beginning.)
ma caafaw *illa mHammad. la la walad wala talad.

(lit., "He has neither a son nor old furniture.")
'They did not see anybody except Mohammad.'
(Meaning: He has nothing; he has left nothing for his heirs.)
'ilia may be followed by a prepositional phrase:
la la mara wala Hmaara.
ma ysiiruun 'ilia fi 1-Ieel. (lit., "He has neither a'wife nor a donkey (f.).")
T h e y do not go (at any time) except at night.' (Meaning: Similar to the above proverb)
ma tHasla 'ilia fi s-suug 1-yidiid. la la maalin yinfa9 wala waladin yisfa9.
'You will not find it (anywhere) except in the new market.' (lit., " H e does not have wealth that benefits him nor a son who
In classicisms la is used to negate indefinite nouns, in which case pleads on his b e h a l f " )
it. has the function of MSA la of absolute negation: (Meaning: Similar-to the above proverb.)
la sakk 'no doubt' The last three proverbs can be used without the prepositional
la sukr(a) 9ala waajib. (lit., " N o thanks for (one's) d u t y . " ) pseudo-verbal construction la 'he has,' e.g., la walad wala talad, la
mara wala Hmaara, etc., without any change in meaning.
la budd min s-safar. Travel is inevitable."
la mafarr 'no escape' 18.1.3 Negating Imperatives
18.1.2 Negating Pseudo-Verbs A negative command (or request), which is used to tell s.o. not
to do s.th., consists of the negative particle la followed by the
I Prepositional pseudo-verbs are negated by ma: imperfect tense of the verb.
ma fii fgaa9 halHiin. T h e r e is no mushroom now.' 'Do not change your clothes!'
la tbaddil Hduumak!
ma 9indi fluus. T do not have (any) money.' 'Do not take your clothes off (f.)!'
la titfasxiin!
ma 9indic sayy? 'Don't you (f.) have anything?' 'Do not smoke here (m.p.)!'
la dduuxuun hini!
ma 9alee dyuun. 'He does not have any debts.' 'Do not go, leave now (f.p.)!'
la tsiirin halHiin!
(lit., "Debts are not on him.")
ma lak qeer xasmak lo Two negative commands joined by wa- 'and' have la. . . w(a)-la:
(lit., "You do not have (anything)
kaan 9away. other than your nose, although it la tbuug w(a)Ta txaaf!
is crooked.") (Meaning: Do not (lit., " D o not steal and do not be afraid!")
be ashamed of your folks.) (Meaning: If you do not steal, you should not be-(you don't
The negative forms of Kuwaiti 'aku 'there is; there are' and have to be) afraid.)
Qatari and Bahraini hast 'there is; there are' are maaku and ma hast la thaawsiini w(a)-la thaawsii!
(or ma miis), respectively; the corresponding negative perfect forms 'Do not quarrel (f.s.) with me and do not quarrel with him.'
are ma kaan 'aku (or kaan maaku) and ma kaan fii 'there wasn't;
there weren't,' respectively (see 13.2).
Two prepositional pseudo-verbal constructions are usually
negated by la. . . w(a)-la or ma. . . w(a)-la 'neither . . . nor.' A lot of
examples are found in proverbs and idiomatic phrases:
&
242 The Syntax of fiulf Arabic & Negation' 243
18.2 Negating Other ârts-'of'Speech jri-i kill sooda fHarha w(a)-la e kill beeda sHama.
. (lit., "not every black (thipg) is a piece of charcoal, and not every
Nouns, ^pronouns, adjectives, adverbs, particles^ and
white Xthing) is a lump of lard:"}*
prepositional nhrases.are negated'.byimuf'wJlJ&A muu, is usually used j (Meaning: Do nojjuflge people by their appearance.), E $
before words withv .initial* double consonants or two-consonant
clusters;'muu^mubt CpT m«(/Z?),are used elsewhere.,ExampIes: Independent pronouns* are,, usually negated, "by mu(u)(b);
however, the following negative forntsare used 'rarely:
huwa muu d-dreewil.^ 'He, is^hot the driver.,'
mirita 'not y6u',„ *
a n u u 1-IaHad, J-laflheeî* 'not fon) •Sunday*, t
minti 'pot you:,(f.)'
j, {on} Monday' 1 " 5 f
'aaria muu, mxabbal. * maani 'not V -jit
T'am'no't crazy.'* 11
guul sabi'fhuu sljayy! mintu ''hbtyouthi.p',)'
• 'Say "Servant;'.aiqt;
"young b o y . " ' min tin W you (f.p.)'f
'.I. IF * I
28 ;
The,.weather,is not h o t ' miHna " " 'not us'
1-hawa milub Haarr.,
*> », 'Isn't it better this'way?"' The negative form of 'aHad Jsomejjody^ someone' is>maHHad
mub "aHsan ciiri?
'Isn't ^ s o ? ' 'nQbody, noôrie,' usually as the* subject of the sentence: *•
muub ciiH? • '
t T h e Shaikh has left; mdHHad caafa 'Nobpdy'saw'hifn.'' I
s-seex saar,'muub nini.* s ft •II „ I
'he isn't here.'' "Nobody enters here.' to K I
mub mirtaaHiin hnaak. '(They) are not comfortable maH[Had ydiss, hini. '* •
but: T did not see anypody.'
'there.' " ma cift '-aHad . 1 I i
T saw nobooy.'
haafri seen, mub zeen. T h a t is bad, not good.' *cift maHHad.
i « t 'I.did not go'with anybbdy.'
muub zeeh. '(It is) not godd.' rria riHt,ma9 'aHad.
«. « '• * T went with riobody.'
mub soob (ll 9umaan, 27 soob 1-baHar •riHt maHHad.
'not toward Al-Ain, A negative response to a yes- or no ; question is either la 'no' or
i. toward the sea"1
'inta'muub famyaan? 'abdan (lit., "never'*) or both la 'abdan for emphasis:
'Aren't you thirsty?'
mub taHati foog 'inta oMuux? , 'Do you smoke?'
'ncjt below, above'
muub 9aleehbm, wiyyaahum la. 'No.'
'not against thefn,
with them' •tisrab biira? 'Do you drink beer?'
muu *s-saa9a xams 'not (at)jfive p'clo'ck' la 'abdan. 'No, never.'
Either mu(u)(b). . . w-mu(u)(b) or la. .. w(a)-ld is used to The phrase mu(u)(b) cfoi 'isn't it so' is appended to a statement
rhean 'neither . ."'i nor': to form what is known in English as a-tail question; mu(u)(b) cnJi is
muub Haarr w-muub baarid usually known as a question tag; it is invariable. The phrases
'neither hot nor cold ;
la Haarr w(a)-la'baarid mu(u)(b) 9adil and mu(u)(b) saHiiH or simply 9adil and saHiiH are
also used b u t mu(u)(b) cirri occurs more frequently. Examples:
ma. . . w(a)-la 'neither . . . nor' is t also used, especially in idiomatic
phrases: 1-qada baariz, mub ciiri?
'Dinner is ready, isn't it?'
27. 9umaan is usually used in the U.A.E. to mean Al-Ain, the second largest
city in Abu Dhab'i. 28. Note that only the independent pronouns with an initial - have negative
forms. ('iHna 'we,* however, is used rarely.) The negative particle is reduced to
m- and the glottal stop - drops.
PART FOUR
T E X T S i
s
! SAMPLE TEXTS
.."]' Introduction'
This part contains a very small portion of the .corpus used for
the present >\vork. The wholccorpus covers a wide variety of subjects
of interest. It includes greetings, getting acquainted, appointments, ii.
telling time, weather and climatic conditions, directions, days of the 1 !
week, months and seasons of the year, systems of education,
banking, shopping, mailing letters, etc. Anecdotes, tales, plays, songs,
M
etc., suited to the particular needs of prospective j students have also
been recorded. The texts and narratives in A Basic Course in Gulf
Arabic form another small portion of the corpus. The first two texts
are dialogs; the third and the fourth are narratives; TEXT V contains
some sayings and proverbial phrases. Each of the first four texts is
followed by a translation which is not literal but an approximation
of the meaning in order to preserve the uniqueness of the Arabic
phrase. Each saying or proverbial phrase in TEXT V is followed by
an equivalent English proverbial phrase and/or a literal translation in
quotes.
i;
TEXT I
talab sugul
A. tfafrfral! na9am su triid?

B. salaam 9aleekum!
A. 9aleekum s-salaam.
B. fi sugul 9indakum?
A. 'ii na9am fii sugul. tfadâl stariiH.
B. 'aani bu-sanad. 'abga 'astagil.
A. bass niHin 9indana 9iddat 'asgaal. kill sagla miHtaaja la smut
w-mu'ahhilaat m9ayyana.
B. 'aana 9indi kill s-sruut w-li-mhalhalaat. 'aana 9arf 'agra w-'aktib,
bass 9ala gadd 1-Haal.
A. l-'ax 1-kariim su smak min faiHak?
B. 'aana *asmi bu-sanad.
247
248 Translation I Text II 249
A. 'ahlan wa sahlan! *isma9 ya bu-sanad! 'iHna miHtaaJiin Hagg A. Well! We have several jobs. Each j o b requires certain conditions
'asxaas yjiiduun 1-qiraa'a w-1-kitaaba-w-yilzam fi ba9*rl-'aHyaan and qualifications.
9inda 'ingiliizi.
B. I have all the conditions and qualifications. -I know how to read
B. ya9ni laazim ayiib ma9aay ingireezi! and write, but to the extent of my own abilities.
A. la ya bu-sanad. ya9ni ykuun 9indak ilmaam b-l-Iuga A. My dear friend! What's your name, please?
l-'ingiliiziyya.
B. My name is Abu Sanad.
B. gilt-li ritna b-l-'ingireezi ma 9arf. 'aana 9arf 'astagil sugul
A. Welcome! Listen, Abu Sanad! We need people who read and
kumblaayaat.
write well, and sometimes they must have English.
A. kumblaayaat!
B. In other words, I have to bring with me an Englishman!
B. 'ii na9am. kumblaayaat maal li-bnuuk.
A. No, Abu Sanad. J h a t means you must have a general knowledge
A. 'aa. gasdak 1-kumbyaalaat. bass iHna daayra mub bank., , of the English language.
B. 'aani 'adfi laakin 'abi 'aziidak ma91uumiyya 9anni. B. You tell me I must have gibberish in English. "(That) 1 don't
A. tayyib ba9ad su t9arf? niHin nabgi saxs 9inda mu'ahhilaat know. I know how to work with (bank) drafts.
'ak0ar min haaiH. A. Drafts!
B. cuiif ya 1-mudiir! 'aani 'aHassil sugul 9indakum fii 'afumm B. Yes, bank drafts.
w-'afannis w-'aamur w-'anhi, ham zeen.
A. Oh! You mean bank drafts. But we are a department, not a
A. su tguul?! tabgi sugu] f f u m m w-tfannis . . . 'aguul xoos! muub bank.
'aHsan-lak tguul tabgi maHalli?!
B. P know, but I want to give you morp information about me.
B. 'amma haairi yirja9 la siimatk.
A. Fine. What else do you know? We want a person who has more
A. 'isma9 ya bu-sanad! niHin mit'asfiin. ma fii 9indana sugul. qualificatiohs than these.
B. halHiin saarli mudda w-aana yaalis 9indak w-9ugub haaâ killa B. Look, director! If I get a j o b with you where I employ,
tguul ma fii sugul. terminate, order, and proscribe, . . .'that's fine.
A. s-sugul illi 'inta tatluba ma 9inrJana. A. What do you say?! You want a job to employ, terminate, order,
B. nzeen ya mudiir! maskuur. fi 'amaan illaa. and proscribe. I say, "fine!!" Isn't i t better for you to say that
you want my place!?
A. ma9 s-salaama. 'aha wiyyaak.
B. This is up to your character.
A. Listen, Abu Sanad! We are sorry. We do not have work.
TRANSLATION I B. Now I have been sitting -with you for some time and after all of
this you say there is no work.
Application for Work A. We do not have the kind of work you ask for.
B. Fine, director! Thanks. Good-bye.
A. Come in! Yes, what do you want?
A. Bye. God be with you.
B. Peace be upon you!
A. Peace be upon you.
TEXT II
B. Do you have work?
A. Yes, there is work. Please sit down. min masaakil z-zawaaj
B. I am Abu Sanad. I would like to work.-
A. haluw! minu? 'ubu yuusif?
B. 'ii na9am.
250 Text II Translation II 251
%.. marHaba massaak'alja b-l-xeer! 'aamir! tmurr 9aleena 1-leela? D. walla halHiin ma li ragba fi z-zawaaj. kill hammi 'anjaH w-'aaxifr
s-sahaada 0-9aanawiyya. ma baga 9alayy qeer ha-s-sanateen.
B. nsaalla. • t <
haada raayi ya yuba.
A. zeen. s-saa9a tisi9 'aana 'akuun fi 1-beet.
A. ya binti kalaamic fi mukaana. 'alia ynajHic w-yiri>a 9aleec
w-ywafjic.
A. ' u m m naasir! 'umm naasir! ya 'umm naasir! C. ha ya bu-naasir! 'asma9 suwaalfak ma9 latiifa. xeer nsaalla?
•* C. lapbeek! ha! wees 9indak ya bu-naasir?" ' ' A. xeer ya *umm-naasir. 'aana ridt 'a9allimc b-I-mawdoiu9.
i A. 9asa latiifa j a a t min J-madrasa. ' l-maw9aiu9 bu-yuusif jaay yuxtub latiifa Hagg wilda yuusif.
C. tawha halHiin daassa 1-beet. C. ha wees gilt-la?
A. w-Ii-9yaal vaaw, kullahuni?*. nsaalla l r qada baariz. A. bass xalliini 'akammil kalaami. gilt-la gabil kill sayy 'aaxiir raay
latiifa. latiifa ma waafagat.
C. 'kullahiim hni. 1-qada baariz. saariana mudda W;iHna riintadTak.
C. ma waafagat! b-tHassil 'aHsan min yuusif, xeer w-maal?
A. yalla naadi li-9yaal xalliina nifqadda.
A. latiifa 9indaha ragba tkammil diraasatta, w-hiy ma9ha Hagg.
C. bu-yuusif ma yinradd. b-nHassil min waraa fluus w-xeer: 'inta
A. ya-hala wNmarHaba! Hayyaak alia ya'bu-ydusif! i
galtaan. mi0U ha-l-mi9ris mub laagyiin.
B. s-salaam 9aleekum! 'acuuf beetak sgayyir, ya1 bu-yuusif *ma
paneet? ma 9amalt'sayy? 'inta min zamaah hini. A. 'aana ma bii9- binti b-swayyit fluus. sa9aadat binti foog kill
9tibaar.
A. miflilma t9arf ya bu-yuusif l-ma9aas 9ala gadd I-Haal. mi0il-ma
yguul' I-maJal midd riilak 9ala gadd JHaaTak. 'inta min tarakt
1-firiij Hatta'marr ma tmurr. .Hatta rab9ak naseettum kulhum. A. 'ismaH-li ya bu-yuusif ta'axxart 9aleek. latiifa halHiin ma
,B- walla ya bu-naasir halHiin 'aana jaayiik fi maw&nu9 yxussak. tfakkir fi z-zawaaj. 'intu 9aziiziin 9aleena w-ma9ruufiin min
zamaan.
A^ xeer nsaalla? ,, ,
B. su tguul ya bu-naasir! ya9ni bintak b-tHassil 'aHsan min yuusif?
B.' 'aana yaay 'atlub 4-gurb minnak fiv b'intak latiifa Hagg 'wildi 'aana saayif *innak galtaan truuH taaxi^- raayha. haaî mas'ala
yuusif. kill illi tatluba 'awaafig,9alee. , » beenna niHin r-rijaal. 'aana 'adfa9 kill-ma tatlub w-ma ngassir
A. haafri ba9deen nittafig 9alee. gabil kill sayy 'aaxrfr raay latiifa. 9aleekum, 1-mahar w-s-sooga w-. . . . killsayy yistawi zeen.
B. s-tguul ya bu-naasir? taaxi^- raay latiifa? walla ma dareeha Hagg A. 'illi 9inda fluus ti9mii. li-fluus ma tyiib l-9aruus. 'inta lii galtaan.
1-banaat raay fi mi0U ha-l-mawaaiHi9. B. 'aana galtaan lajil ridt 'anaasbak. 'inta ma tistaahil sayy. suuf illi
A. walla-haaâ mustagbalha w-Hayaatta hiya. J ynaasbak.
I
B- walla 'aana saayif kalaamak ma la ma9na.
A. walla 'aana gilt-lak 'aana raayiH as'alha w-ncuuf. TRANSLATION II
B. suuf illi ysarfak. nitgaabal ba9deen nsaalla.
Some Marriage Problems
A. latiifa! latiifa! latiifa! A. Hello! Who is it? Abu Yusif?

D. na9am ya yuba. 'aana hini gaa9da 'adris. B. Yes.
A. baarak alia fiic! 'alia ynajHic. ya latiifa 'aHibb aaxi©- raayic fi A. Hello! Good evening! What can I do for you? Will you come to
mawiruu9. 'abgiic tfakriin 9adil gabil la tjaawbiin. bu-yuusif, our house tonight?
li-mqantir, ya yuxtubc Hagg wilda yuusif. su tguuliin?
252 Translation II Translation II 253
B. God willing. A. Latifa! Latifa! Latifa!

A. Fine. Twill be home at 9:00. Yes, father. I am here, studying.
A. God bless you! God make you successful. Latifa, I want to ask
A. Um'Nasir! Um Nasir! Urn Nasir! you for'your opinion about a subject. Twaht you to think hard
before you answer. Abu Yusif, the contractor, came to ask your
B. At.your service! What do ypu/have, Abu Nasir? hand in marriage for his son, Yusif. What do you say?
A- .1 hope.Latifa has come back from school. f D. Honestly, I have no desire fof marriage now. My major concern
B. She has just.entered the'hbuse. i is to succeed and obtain the secondary-certificate. I have only
A. And have all the children come back? l I hope lunch is ready. two years left. This is my opinion, father. t
B. They are all, here. Lunch is ready. We have been waiting'for you A. Your words 'are well put, my daughter. ^ G o d \ m a k e you
Tor some time. successful and bless'you.
A. Call the children and-let's eat lunch. P- What, Abu Nasir? I've heard your words to Latifa. What's new?
. ( l h V ' I hope it's good.") \'
A. It is good, Um Nasir. I wanted tb tell you about the subject
A. Hello!,Hi! May God preserve your life; Abu* YUsif! The subject is that Abu Yusif has come to betroth, Latifa to his
B. Peace be upon you!T see that your house is1 small, Abu Yusif. son, Yusif.
TIaven'V you built? PJaven't you done,.anything? You've been C: A n d w h a t did'You say to him?
here long.
A. Ju'st let me .finish. I told him that, first of all, I had to ask
A. As you know, Abu Yusif^ the salary isn't much. As the proverb Latifa's opinion. Latifa did not agree.
says, "As you make your bedj you must lie in it." Since you left
the neighborhood, you'haven't even passed through. Even your C. She did not agree! Can she find a better man than Yusif in
relations, you have forgotten all of them. property and^ wealth?
In Tact, Abu Nasir, I came to see you about a matter that A. Latifa has a desire to complete her studies, and she is right.
B,
concerns you,, C. Abu Yusif carinot be rebuffed. We will get money and a lot of
A. What's new? (lit,, "I hope it's good.") good things from him. You are mistaken. We cannot find a
similar bridegroom.
B. I 'came to betroth your daughter (lit, " t o seek closeness to
y o u " ) , Latifa, to my son, Yusif. I "will agree to everything you A. I won't sell my daughter for sôme money. My daughter's
ask. happiness is above every consideration.-
A. We will decide on this later on. Before anything else, I will ask
Latifa's opinion.
A., I am sorry I am_ late, Abu Yusif. Latifa is not thinking of
B. What do you say, Abu Nasir? We do not know that girls have an marriage now. You are dear to us'and-have been known for ,a
opinion with regard to subjects like these. long time.
A. This, in fact, is her future and her life. What do you say, Abu Nasir! Will your daughter get a better
B.
B. I see that there is no sense in your talk. man than Yusif? I see that you are mistaken for going to ask for
A. I told you that I was going to ask her and we would see. her opinion. This is a matter between us (men). I will pay all
that you ask for, and we won't skimp on anything: the dowry,
B. Go see what's best for you. We will meet later, hopefully. t h e j e w e l r y , . . . Everything will,be fine.
A. He who has money will be blinded by it. Money does not bring
the bride. You are mistaken.
Ar
254 Translation III Text IV 255
B. I am mistaken because I wanted to be related to you by the same, God prolong your life. During the Ramadan Feast people
M marriage. You do not deserve anything. Go see what's best for bathe in the morning and go for the Feast prayer, and when the
you. prayer is over, they go to visit one another and have celebrations.
They go to public gardens and dance folk dances, and this goes on
for seven days. The government, the government of Shaikh Zayid,
TEXT III may God prolong his life, gives a seven-day holiday. During the
Sacrifice Feast-/- 'ofHa means ttiHiyya—as we say in our dialect.
l-*a9yaad You know that after pilgrims go on phgrimage to Mecca, the
pilgrimage is over. People slaughter animals-and its practices are not
9indana hni fii 'a9yaad diiniyya w-fii 'a9yaad wataniyya. different from t h e practices of the Ramadan F e a s t Some people call
Pa9yaad d-diiniyya 9iid rumdaan w-9iid 1-Hajj. ba9fr n-naas the Ramadan Feast the Feast of Breaking the Ramadan Fast or
yguuluun 9iid -fr-friHiyya walla 9iid 1-Hiyy. taal 9umrak haadi nafs Lesser Bairam. We here, in our dialect, say to one another, "Happy
s-sayy. fii 9iid runvdaan yisbaHuun n-naas s-sabaaH w-yruuHuuh 9ala Holiday" (lit., "Your feast is blessed"), and there are some people
salaat l-9iid w-ba9dma tingafi s-salaa yruuHuun yzuuruun ba9iJahum who say, "(I hope that) you are well every year," or "God bless you
ba9tr w-y9amluun l-'afraaH. yruuHuun 1-Hadaayig l-9aamma on this holiday," etc. Then there is the Hegira Feast. Its holiday is
w-y9amluun r-ragsaat s-sa9biyya w-yistimirr 9ala haaâ 1-Haal one day. There is also the feast of the Prophet's Birthday. During
muddat sab9 ayyaam. 1-Hukuuma, Hukuumat s-seex zaayid, tawiil these two holidays people go to mosques, pray, and read from the
l-9umur, ta9ti 9utla sab9 ayyaam. fii 9hd I-'a^Ha, l-'airHa ya9ni Quran. Among the national holidays there is the Accession Day when
ma9naatta hiya 9iid fr-diHiyy -mien-ma nguul b-lahjatna. t9arf His Highness, The Ruler, Shaikh Zayid, the long-lived one, acceded
ba9dma yHijjuun 1-Hijjaaj 'ila makka yingaî 1-Hajj. n-naas
to the throne and became the ruler in the country and the date of
yisbaHuun d-daHaaya w-9aadaata ma tixtalif 9an 9aadaat 9iid
Accession Day- is June 8. And then when the union-of all the
rumfraan. 9iid rumiraan ysammuuna ba9ir n-naas 9iid I-fatir 'aw l-9iid
Emirates came into being its name became Independence Day,
s-sagiir. 9indana hini fi lahjatna nguul la ba9fr, "9iidak mubaarak!"
1 November 11, the day when the union took place and the Emirates
w-fii naas yguuluun, "kull sana w-inta tayyib!" 'aw "mabruuk 9aleek
became united. They give an official holiday for two days.
l-9iid!'* ba9deen fii 9iid s-sana 1-hijfiyya. 9utulta yoom waaHid. fii
ba9ad 9iid mawlid n-nabi. fii hadeel l-9iideen n-naas yruuHuun
1-masaajid w-ysalluun w-yigruun 1-qur'aan. min l-'a9yaad 1-wataniyya
TEXT IV '
fii 9iid 1-juluus Iamma 9a#amat 1-Haakim, tawiil l-9umur s-seex
zaayid, yalas 9ala l-9ars w-saar Haakim fi 1-balad w-taariix 9iid l-'imaaraat
1-juluus fi flamaanya sitta. ba9deen 9ugubma saar l-'ittiHaad Hagg
l-'imaaraat killaha saar 'asma 9iid l-'istiglaal illi huwa fii 0neen leen nguul "l-'imaaraat" haaira ya9ni l-'imaaraat l-9arabiyya
Hda9as illi huw saar fii l-'ittiHaad w-ttaHdat l-'imaaraat. ya9tuun 1-muttaHida. l-'imaaraat, taal 9umrak, hiya 'abu y-abi w-dbayy
'ijaaza rasmiyya Hagg yoomeen. w-s-saarja w-9ajmaan w-'umm 1-giiween w-raas 1-xeema w-H-fjeera.
haairi l-'imaaraat kHlaha 9ala 1-xaliij l-9arabi 'iUa li-fjeera 9ala xaljij
9umaan. tidri xaliij ya9ni baHar. 'abu frabi, 'alia ysallimk, hiya
TRANSLATION III l-9aasima. l-9aasima ya9ni 1-madiina lii fiiha 1-Haakim, tawiil !-9umur,
'illi huw s-seex zaayid bin sultaan 'aal nhayyaan. s-seex zaayid huwa
Feasts and Holidays
ra'iis l-'ittiHaad. 'abu frabi tala9 fiiha batrool min zamaan. yamkin
Here we have religious holidays and national holidays. The min muddat Hda9sar sana. fiiha madiinateen kbaar humma *abu r>abi
religious holidays are the Ramadan Feast and the Pilgrimage Feast. nafisha w-l-9een.
Some people say, "Sacrifice Feast," or "Pilgrimage Feast." This is
ftr-
256 Translation IV Text and Translation V 257
J-i'imaara 0-0aanya hjya dubay. sHaakimha, s-seex raasid b,in Ajman is a small village. It is the smallest * Emirate. _It is known
sa9iid,, naayib. ra*-iis l-'ittiHaad. dbayy mashuura b-t 7 tijaara.w-tsaddir for fishing like all the other Emirates. The fish" of the Gulf, God
la l-'imaaraat kullaha li'an 1-marfa.maalha fji xopr w-1-buwaaxir tarsi protect you, is delicious and very good. There are (the following
qariiba.min s-siif. kinds): sbeeti,. saafi, hamuur, can9ad, si9ri, shrimp, and I do not
K , raasj-ixeema tistahir b-z-.ziraa9a. w-hiya, miflilma t9arf, mintaga know w h a t else. These are the kinds of, fish in the Gulf. ,-
jabaliyya-w-'aiiraha 'axsab' mintaga fi 1-xaliij. fiiha maay waayid. fiiha Umm al-Qaiwain has a lot of fish.
min jamii9 'anwaa9 1-xuiraar: fiiha tamaat w-filfil xadar* w-rweed",
niHin nguulla ; r-rweed 'aw 1-fijil mi0 ilma yguuluun 'ixwaanna
1-falastiiniyyun w-l-latjnaaniy/iin, w-hamba w-yiHH w-battiix. . .** " TEXT AND TRANSLATION V
9ajmaan qarya sagiira. Jiiya 'asgar 'imaara. tistahir b-seed
'amfl aal w-'aqwaal
l-'âsmaac mieibkill l-'imaaraat6-6aanya. simac 1-xaliij, 'alia-ysallimk
tayyib killis zeen. fii sbeeti jv-saafi w-hamuur w-can9ad w-si9ri 1. li-fluustjiib l-9aruus. "
w-ribyaan w-ma dri ba9ad/haa6i 'asmaac l-xajiyy * t s Mdney talks. ("Money brings the bride."), •
'umm 1-giiween fiiha simac waayid.
'2. gatu mataabix*
f
He eats like a pig. ("a cat of kitchens")
TRANSLATION IV 3. 'ii>a cift rifiijak Hilu la taakla killa. \ I
Don't use up all of your credit* at once. ("If you think your
The Emirates friend is nice,'Uon't eaMiim all ftp at once. ,v )
When we say '"the Emirates," we mean :the United Arab 4. 9ati 1-xabbaaz xubzak walaw baag nussa. '
Ernirates.- The, Emirates, may God prolong yourUife, are Abu Dhabi* ("Give your bread to the baker although he might1- steal half of
Dubai, Sharja, Ajman, Umm al-Qaiwain, Ras al-Khaima,» and Fujaira.' it.")
AH of these; E m i r a t e s ^ r e on the Arabian.Gulf except for Fujaira, 5. 'illi ma y9arf s-sagir yiswii.
which is on the Gulf of Oman. You know xaliij 'Gulf means baHar D o n ' t kill the goose that lays the golden egg. ("He who does not
'sea.' Abu phabi, God protect you, is the capital. Capital means the know the falcon will roast it.")
city where the Ruler is; 'the Ruler, may God prolong his life, is
6. l-9awar been l-9imyaan baasa. * J •
Shaikh Zayid Bin Sultan Al-Nhayyah. Shaikh Zayid is the President
In the land of the blind, the one-eyed (one-eyed man>ts king.
of the Union. Oil gushed in Abu Dhabi a long time ago, probably
fourteen years ago. There are two big cities in it; they are Abu Dhabi 7. yoom saxxanna 1-maay sirad d-diic.
and Al-Ain,. The second Emirate is Dubai. Its ruler is Shaikh Rashid Forewarned is forearmed. ("When -we heatec! the Water; the
Bin Said, Vice President of the Union. Dubai is known fqr its" trade rooster ran away.")
and it -exports to all the other Emirates because its wharf has a gulf 8. t-tuul tuul nxala w-l-9agil 9agil sxala.
where (steam) ships anchor close to harbor. The mind of a child and the body of a man. ("The length is that
Ras al-Khaima is famous tor agriculture, and it is, as y o u know, of a palm tree and the mind is that of a young g o a t " )
a mountainous region and its land is the most fertile in the Gulf.
9. *igdab maynuunak la yiik 'ayann minna.
There is a lot of water in it. It has all kinds and varieties of
A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush. ("Hold onto your
vegetables: tomatoes, green pepper, radish, which we call r-rweed or
crazy man in case a crazier one comes long.")
l-fijil, as our Palestinian and Lebanese brothers say, mangoes,
watermelons, cantaloupes, etc. 10. wild c-calb calbin miflla.
Like father like son. ("The son of A dog is a dog like his
father.")
258 Text and Translation V Text and Translation V' 259
11. killin Haliiba yjiiba. 24. la Hasal 1-maay batal l-9aafuur.

Like father like son. ("One is brought (or drawn back) by one's ("If water can be gotten, ablution is nullified.")
own milk."') 25. la zzigg fi maa9uun 'akalt fii.
12. 'illi' ma yitla9 9ala 'ubuu nagal. Be good to those who have done you a favor. Don't shit in your
Like father like son. ("He who does not take after his father, own nest. ( " D o not defacate in a plate which you have eaten
•i.e., in looks and behavior, is a bastard.") from.")
13. 'illi yibga s-salaa ma tfuuta. 26. 'illi faat maat.
Make hay while .the sun shines. ("He who wants prayer, won't Let bygones be bygones. The past is dead. ("What has already
miss it.") passed has died.")
14. 'illi ma yjiiba Haliiba ma yjiiba z-zuur. 27. irulmin b-s-sawiyya 9adlin b-r-ra9iyya.
You can lead a horse to water, but you cannot make him drink. ("Injustice done to all people equally is preferable to justice for
some and injustice to others.")
15. 'ida taaH l-bi9iir kaflrat sicaaciina.
When it rains it pours. ("If the camel falls down, its knives will 28. z-zeen zeenin law ga9ad min manaama
; i
be plenty.") w-s-seen seenin law gassal b-saabuun
A leopard cannot change his spots. ("A beautiful person is
16. loo fii xeer caan ma hadda t-teer.
always beautiful even at the time he wakes up, and an ugly
It is a worthless thing. ("If it (e.g. lf the sparrow) had been of any
person is always ugly although he washes himself with soap.")
use, the bird (of prey) would n o t have discarded it.")
29. muu kull beeda sHama wala kull sooda fHama.
17. lo yadri 9meer caan sagg flooba.
Do not judge people or things by their appearance. You can't
Ignorance is bliss. ("If Omayr had known, he would have ripped
judge a book by its cover. ("Not every white thing is a piece of
his clothes.")
lard; neither is every black thing a piece of charcoal")
18. xasmak minnak lo kaan 9away.
Do not be ashamed of your folks. ("Your nose is a part of you
although it is crooked.")
19. caan yabi dibs 1-E[asa IHasa.
Where there is a will, there is a way. ("If he wants the molasses
of Al-Hasa, he will lick i t " )
20. man 9air9a d-daab yangiz min I-Habil.
Once bitten twice shy. ("He who has been bitten by a snake
fears a rope.")
21. I-qird fi 9een 'umma gazaal.
Beauty is in the eye of the beholder. ( " A monkey, in the eyes
of its mother, is a gazelle,")
22. 1-Hubb 9amay.
Love is blind.
23. killin ymidd riila 9ala gadd 1-Haafa.
As you make your bed you must lie in it. ("One can stretch
one's leg according to one's quilt.")
J i
A P P E N D I C E S
AND
B I B L I O G R A P H Y
ii
*— - - *
APPENDIX I
1. j**y
2. j^yorj
3. /->./
Words which have the / sound in literary Arabic usually have the
y sound in the dialect of Abu Dhabi. This change is not conditioned
by any environment. In some words the change j -> y is optional; in
certain classicisms, borrowings, proper names, and newly introduced
words, the / sound is preserved.
l{ I
1. j •+y
'' yiHH 'watermelons' finyaan 'cup'
yaryuur 'shark' rayyaal 'man'
yaahil 'child' maynuun 'crazy'
weeh 'face' m(a)siid 'mosque'
: :
"f riil 'foot' diyaay 'hens; chickens'
9ayuuz 'old woman' mooy 'waves'
waayid 'a lot' falay 'watercourse'
l-yim9a 'Friday' daray 'stairs'
2 - / -+y or J
ya (var. ja) 'to come'
yaami9 (var jaami9) 'mosque'
yaab (var. jaab) 'to bring'
yamaa9ti (var. Jamaa9ti) 'my folks'
l-yimii9 (var. l-jimii9) 'everyone'
yaay (var. jaay) 'coming; having come'
263
264 Appendices
yadiid (var. jadiid) new

yamiil (var. jamiil) 'beautiful'
3. / - > /
jayyid 'good,' as in jayyidJiddan 'very good' (from
literary Arabic) 11
jawaaz safar 'passport' (from literary Arabic)
zooj 'husband' (corruption of literary zawj or
probably from Leventine Arabic) APPENDIX II
ii jooz 'nuts' (from Levantine Arabic)
1. 'q^ Jorg
jibin 'cheese' (from Levantine Arabic)
2. q^g
garaaj 'garage' (from English)
3- g^q
if jalbuut 'jolly-boat' (from English)
jigaara 'cigarette' 1 (from Persian).
1. q->j
jaam 'gfass' (from Persian) Literary words with the q sound have the / sound in GA in the
jimrig 'customs, duty' (from Persian) following environments:
P.
juuti a. When preceded or followed by a front vowel: /, //, a, aa
'shoes' (from Hindi-Urdu)
li' zanjiil 'iron cliain' (from Turkish) Examples:
taajir 'merchant' (to differentiate it from taayir Hariij a 'fire' s-saarja 'Sharja*
'car tire' from English) 'cooking pot* jirba l
'waterskin, bagpipe'
jidir
9ajiib 'strange' (to differentiate it from 9ayiib 'in front' jadam 'foot'
jiddaam
'i 'shameful, disgraceful')
sarji 'eastern' jaasim 'male name'
9ajmaan 'Ajman' (proper name)
jaafla 'caravan' waafaj 'to agree'
jam hi a 'Jamila' (proper name)
firiij 'small village' rifiij 'companion'
jaam9a 'University' (as in jaam9at 'arizoona
T h e University of Arizona')
b. When a consonant sound falls between a front vowel and the
q sound. Examples:
9irj 'vein' Halj 'pharynx; m o u t h '
sidj 'truth' saadj 'truthful'
li:
In environments other than those mentioned above, literary q -*•
GAg:
gaal 'to say' guum! 'get up!'
sagir 'male name' goom 'people, folk'
gabil 'before' 'aguul! 'by the way!'
265
266 Appendices
bgara 'cow' gasir 'palace, castle'

gabguuba 'crab; lobster' galb 'heart'
mabyuug 'stolen' baag 'to steal'
foog 'above; over' ruyuut 'breakfast'
2. q^g
Literary q in some forms changes into gl in GA. Examples:
('i)stiglaal 'independence' gaadi 'judge' APPENDIX III
1-mugarraraat 'decisions' fagiir 'poor'
1. k^c
gunsuliyya 'consulate' l-gar>a 'justice, fate'
2. k^k
garrar 'to decide' gamiis 'shirt'
:i" ragam 'number' manaatig 'districts' 1. k-+c
Literary k changes into GA c in two cases:
3. g^q
a. If it is the second person feminine singular suffixed pronoun
Literary g in some forms changes into q or into a sound
(suffixed to nouns and particles) or the object suffixed pronoun
between q and g in GA. Examples:
(suffixed to verbs and participles). Examples:
qani 'rich' tqayyar 'to be changed.'
'ubuuc 'your (f.s.) father'
qanna 'to sing' yqanni 'he sings'
'ixwaanic 'your (f.s.) brothers'
qayyar 'to change' masquul 'busy'
Haalic 'your (f.s.) condition'
1 1-maqrib 'Morocco' qabi 'stupid'
9aleec 'on you (f.s.)'
j ' Il 'in you (f.s.)'
ji fiic
wiyyaac 'with you (f.s.)'
9ataac 'he gave you (f.s.)'
saafic 'he saw you (f.s.)'
'alia ysallimc 'may God protect you (f.s.)'
saafooc (var. saafuuc) 'they (m.) saw you (f.s.)'
xaabaracc 'she telephoned you (f.s.)'
xabrannic 'they (f.) telephoned you (f.s.)'
bagaac 'he wanted you (f.s.)'
'aha ya9tiic 'may God give you (f.s.)'
mxaabrinnic 'having telephoned you (f.s.)
1. This is mainly due to the influence of Persian. 9aazimc 'having invited you (f.s.)
b. If it is preceded or followed by a front vowel: /, ii, a, aa, ee.

Examples:
267
m C r
268 Appendices
ceef 1-hawa? 'How is the weather?'

diic 'rooster'
ryabci 'he is crying, weeping'
sammaac 'fisherman; fish dealer'
mu(u)(b) cr&i? 'Isn't it so?'
sicciin 'knife'
cadiraab 'liar'
APPENDIX IV
caan hini 'he was here' i
suug s-simac 'the fish market' c v c , c 2 -+ c c j y c 2 a
c = y,.t, n
2. * - j f c
v =: a
a. In the following forms the, k sound is ..preserved for the
' Q = x,g , H, 9, h
reasons given beside them:
c2 -other
mbaarak 'Mubarak' (male name): because of a backed a
sakk 1-baab 'he shut the door*: because of a backed a Examples
kbaar 'bigjjarge (p.)': because of a backed aa Literary GA Meaning
ykuun 'he will be*: because of a backed uu yaxdin 1 yxadim 'he serves'
li-kweet 'Kuwait': k is followed by a backed w in MSA yaxlif yxalif 'he succeeds s.o.'
'al-kuwait
tagsil tgasil 'she washes; you (m.s.)'wash'
kill 'aU; every': k is followed by a backed u in MSA
taglat tgalit "'she errs; you (m.s.) err'
kull
naHsid nHasid 'we envy'
dikkaan 'store': k is followed by a backed u in MSA
dukkaan na9rif n9arif 'we know'
yahdi yhadi 'he guides s.o. (to the correct path)'
b. The k sound is also preserved in foreign and loan words:
sikriim 'ice cream' (English) But:
kabat 'cupboard' (English) yag9id 'he sits down'
cayyak 'to check' (English) yatfil 'he spits'
kalac 'clutch (n.)' (English) yabriz 'it gets ready'
seekal 'bicycle' (English)
yargid 'he sleeps'
stikaan 'tea cup' (Persian)
yitbax 'he cooks'
tanaka 'aluminum can' (Turkish)
yidri 'he knows'
banka 'fan' (Hindi-Urdu)
yilzam 'he sticks to s.th.'
sakar 'sugar' (Hindi)
kaloonya 'cologne' (French) This feature does not affect the following classes of verbs in the
imperfect tense:
kaaziino 'casino' (Italian)
269
270 Appendices
Class I doubled, since they have initial CCVC-

Class I hamzated, since they have initial CVVC-
Class III, since they have initial CCVV-
Class IV, since they have initial C V Q C 2 - in which V is u, not a
Class V, since they have initial CVCC-, in which V is /, not a
Class VI, since they have initial CCVV- or CVCVV-
Class V l l - C l a s s X, since they have initial CVCC- in which V is
/, not a APPENDIX V
Quadriliterals, since they have initial CCVC-
CVC, d •+ C, VC 2
C = glottal stop '
V=a
C, = x, g, H, 9, h
C 2 = other
Examples:
I Literary GA Meaning
'axirar xaftar 'green'
:
'axras xaras 'inflicted with smallpox'
'agtam gatam 'mute'
'agbar gabar 'dusty'
'aHmar Hamar 'red'
'a9war 9awar 'one-eyed'
L
*a9raj 9aray 'lame, limping'
2
'a9waj 9a way 'crooked, not straight'
'a9dab 9ar>ab 'having a paralized hand'
'ahbal habal 'weak-minded'
The 'a- sound is retained in adjectives of color and defect in

which the second consonant is not any of the following consonants:
x, g, H, 9, h. Examples:
1. For/ -+y, see APPENDIX I.

i
2. Ibid.
271
27"2 Appendices
'asmax* 'deaf >, 'ad9am 'light brow.n'

'abyad- 'white' •'azrag 'blue'
'aswad 'black* 'atlas 'dark blue'
'abiram 'toothless' 'asfar 'yellow'
*a0ram 'having a cut lip' 'asmar * 'c-ark'
'•aslag ' ''cross-eyea" 'arhlaH' 'grey' BIBLIOGRAPHY
It should be noted that the elative forms retain-the 'a- sound -for
differentiation: ARABIC
"haaâ 1-gasir !aHrhar min daak.
'aal-nuuri, 9abdalla, 'al-'amdaal d-daarija fi l-kuwayt, Part I and Part
'This palace is redder than that one.'
II, Beirut (n.d.).
haairi a9way min iriic.
T h i s is more crooked than that one.'' 'aniis, 'ibraahiim,/? l-lahajaat l-9arabiyya, Cairo, 1952.
The feminine forms of these adjectives are n o t affected by this I-fag9aan, saalim, 'an-nawaaxfta, Kuwait (n.d.).
feature; the pattern is fa9la:
matar, 9abd l-9aziiz, xasaa'is l-lahja l-kuwaytiyya, Kuwait, 1969.
Hamra. 'red' samxa 'deaf
, min 'asraar l-lahja l-kuwaytiyya, Kuwait, 1970.
gatma " 'dumb' malHa 'grey'
9oora 'one-eyed* saiga 'cross-eyed' rafii9, 9abd r-raHmaan, 'agaani UbiHaar'l-'arba9a, Beirut, 1970.
beeda 'white' ba&ma 'toothless'
, 'awwal 1-maHabba, Beirut, 1973.
Other elative' adjectives are not affected by this feature either: >qasaa'idsa9biyya, Kuwait, 1971.
'a91a 'higher* 'agla 'more expensive'
z-zeed, xaalid, min l-'am8aal l-9aammiyya, Kuwait, 1961.
'aHla 'sweeter; prettier' 'axyar 'better'
WESTERN
(ARAMCO), Basic Arabic, Dhahran, 1957.
, Spoken Arabic, Dha"hran, 1957.
, Conversational Arabic, Beirut (n.d.).
, English-Arabic Word List, Beirut, 1958.
Cantineau, J., "Etudes sur quelques parlers de nomades arabes

d'Orient," Annals de VInstitu.it d'Etudes Orientates d'Alger, ii
(1936) and hi (1937).
273
JL
•^XJOT
274 Bibliography
Cowell, Mark C , A Reference Grammar of Syrian Arabic,

Georgetown University Press, Washington, D.C., 1964.
Dajani, K., Spoken Arabic of Qatar, Beirut, 1956.
Erwin, Wallace M., A Short Reference Grammar of Iraqi Arabic,

Georgetown University Press, Washington, D.C., 1963. v.
ji
Johnstone, T.M., "The Affrication of kaf and gaf in the Arabic
Dialects of the Arabian Peninsula," Journal of Semitic Studies, *
1
' » t
viii. 2(1963), pp. 210-226.
, Eastern Arabian Dialects, O.U.P., London, h

1967.
t
de Jong, E., Spoken Arabic of the Arabian Gulf, Beirut, 1958.
i
Rabin, C,Ancient West-Arabian, London, 1951.
Sobelman, H. (Ed.), Arabic Dialect Studies, Washington, D.C., 1962.
Verma, Manindra, " A Synchronic Comparative Study of t h e Noun

Phrase in English and Hindi," unpublished Ph.D. dissertation,
University of Michigan, 1966.
•1092-705
5-43
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A SHORT REFERENCE GRAMMAR

17. CONCORD 232

The language which the present work defines is to be commonly

Arabs in different situations, such as greetings, telephone

Symbols and Abbreviations'

item on the left is changed into item on the right

adj. adjective neg. negative

Velar M w X- -bO £ High i u

The consonant sounds below are described in terms of point of

1.1 Stops: p.b.t.d.t.k.g.q,* !

A stop is a sound which is produced by halting the passage of

6 The Phonology of Gulf Arabic

8 The Phonology of Gulf Arabic Consonants 9

simac 'fish' yitbax 'he cooks' liix 'fishing net*

s: pharyngealized counterpart of s faarig 'empty'

yiHH 'watermelons' In the following forms only c occurs: 3

Similar to the English sounds m and n in man and night,

14 The Phonology of Gulf Arabic Consonants 15

1.5 Laterals: / a n d / . raaH 'he went' rasta 'paved road'

16 The Phonology of Gulf Arabic Vowels 17

li-9raag 'Iraq' Ha mar 'red'

^8 The Phonology.of Gulf Arabic Sound Combinations 19

'uxu 'brother' oo: long counterpart of o < >

aay is the long counterpart of ay: Medial

raay 'opinion; idea' ('i)0-0alaafl 'Tuesday' na99aasa 'female dancer'

naggas 'he decreased' tsallaf 'he borrowed*

Haddaag 'fisherman' xammaam 'garbage collector' Initial

Final two-consonant clusters are fairly common: syara 'tree'

sarg 9uman 'east of Oman' fluus-i-d-dreewil 'the driver's money'

waladk jaasim 'your son, Jasim' liHyat-i-r-rayyaal 'the man's beard'

cabd xaayis 'rotten liver' lees-i-d-diss? 'Why do you enter?'

26 The Phonology of Gulf Arabic Major Sound Changes 27

Hagg 9ali 'belonging to Ali' + daa9maw ddaa9maw 'they collided'

Major Sound Changes 29

'uxut 'sister' + -a ->• 'uxta 'his sister' 4.3.2 Consonant Elision

Medial: tab iin ha 'you want it'

32 The Phonology of Gulf Arabic Stress 33

34 The Phonology of Gulf Arabic Stress

10. Except in neologisms, probably because of the influence of other

As far as derivational systems are concerned, Gulf Arabic verbs

6.1 Simple Verbs

A simple verb, usually referred to as Class I or Form J, is the

1. See, for example, *T.M. Johnstone, Eastern Arabian Dialect Studies,

illi Class I Class II i Examples of defective Class II verbs are:

13. tabaarak, rather than tbaarak, is literary.

52 The Morphology of Gulf Arabic

Classes II, HI, IV, V, IX, X w

Pronoun Verb Class VI

56 The Morphology of Gulf Arabic Verbs-Inflection 57

58 The Morphology of Gulf Arabic v

'inta (i) habitual: 'adris 9arabi kill yoom.

62 7%e Morphology of Gulf Arabic Verbs-Inflection 63

66 The Morphology of Gulf Arabic Verbs-Inflection 67

b. The imperfect stems' and the perfect stems of derived h'l

70 The Morphology of Gulf Arabic Verbs-Inflection 71

72 The Morphology of Gulf Arabic

Verb Verbal Noun Examples:

Underlying Occupational Occupational A. mif9aal

Underlying Word A. faa9il -* fwee^il. u 1 :

Hindi-Urdu sal,aa" 'prayer'

Hatab 'wood* Htuba 'apiece of wood' Hsaan 'horse' faras 'mare'

47. See 83 for some more examples.