Material Requirements for Steel and

Concrete Structures

Chiew Sing-Ping
School of Civil and Environmental Engineering
Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
 Scope

 Materials
 Concrete
 Reinforcing steel
 Structural steel

 Seismic Requirements (BC3: 2013)

 Materials for seismic design
 Detailing for seismic design

2
 Structural Eurocodes
SS EN 1990 (EC0): Basis of structural design
SS EN 1991 (EC1): Actions on structures

SS EN 1992 (EC2): Design of concrete structures

SS EN 1993 (EC3): Design of steel structures
SS EN 1994 (EC4): Design of composite steel and concrete structures
BS EN 1995 (EC5): Design of timber structures
BS EN 1996 (EC6): Design of masonry structures
BS EN 1999 (EC9): Design of aluminium structures

SS EN 1997 (EC7): Geotechnical design

SS EN 1998 (EC8): Design of structures for earthquake resistance

3
 Concrete structures (EC2)
BS EN 10138
BS EN 13670 Prestressing
Execution of steel
structures

BS EN 10080
SS EN 1992 Reinforcing
BS EN 206-1
Design of concrete structures steel
Specifying
concrete

BS 4449
National Annex Reinforcing
BS 8500 steel
Specifying
concrete
BS 8666
Reinforcing
scheduling

4
 Concrete
 Normal concrete
• Strength class C12/15 – C90/105
• Density 2400 kg/m3

 Lightweight concrete
• Strength class LC12/13 – LC80/88
• Density ≤ 2200 kg/m3
Six density classes of lightweight concrete are defined in EN206-1.
Density class 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0
Density (kg/m3) 801- 1001- 1201- 1401- 1601- 1801-
1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
Density Plain concrete 1050 1250 1450 1650 1850 2050
(kg/m3) Reinforced concrete 1150 1350 1550 1750 1950 2150

used in design to calculate self-weight

5
 Concrete
Strength and deformation characteristic for normal concrete
fck (MPa) 12 16 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 70 80 90

fck,cube (MPa) 15 20 25 30 37 45 50 55 60 67 75 85 95 105

fcm (MPa) 20 24 28 33 38 43 48 53 58 63 68 78 88 98

fctm (MPa) 1.6 1.9 2.2 2.6 2.9 3.2 3.5 3.8 4.1 4.2 4.4 4.6 4.8 5.0

fctk, 0.05 (MPa) 1.1 1.3 1.5 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.5 2.7 2.9 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.4 3.5

fctk, 0.95 (MPa) 2.0 2.5 2.9 3.3 3.8 4.2 4.6 4.9 5.3 5.5 5.7 6.0 6.3 6.6

Ecm (GPa) 27 29 30 31 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 41 42 44

εc1 (‰) 1.8 1.9 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.25 2.3 2.4 2.45 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.8

εcu1 (‰) 3.5 3.2 3.0 2.8 2.8 2.8

εc2 (‰) 2.0 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6

εcu2 (‰) 3.5 3.1 2.9 2.7 2.6 2.6

n 2.0 1.75 1.6 1.45 1.4 1.4

εc3 (‰) 1.75 1.8 1.9 2.0 2.2 2.3

εcu3 (‰) 3.5 3.1 2.9 2.7 2.6 2.6

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 Concrete
Strength and deformation characteristic for lightweight concrete
flck (MPa) 12 16 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 70 80

flck,cube (MPa) 13 18 22 28 33 38 44 50 55 60 66 77 88

flcm (MPa) 17 22 28 33 38 43 48 53 58 63 68 78 88

flctm (MPa) flctm = fctm η1

flctk, 0.05 (MPa) flctk, 0.05 = fctk, 0.05 η1

flctk, 0.95 (MPa) flctk, 0.95 = fctk, 0.95 η1

Elcm (GPa) Elcm = Ecm ηE

εlc1 (‰) kflcm (Ecm ηE)

εlcu1 (‰) εlc1

εlc2 (‰) 2.0 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5

εlcu2 (‰) 3.5 η1 3.1 η1 2.9 η1 2.7 η1 2.6 η1

n 2.0 1.75 1.6 1.45 1.4

εlc3 (‰) 1.75 1.8 1.9 2.0 2.2

εlcu3 (‰) 3.5 η1 3.1 η1 2.9 η1 2.7 η1 2.6 η1

7
η1 = 0.40+0.60ρ/2200 ηE = (ρ/2200)2
 Modulus of elasticity Ecm

The modulus of elasticity of a concrete is controlled by the

moduli of elasticity of its components. Approximate values
for the modulus of elasticity Ecm, for concrete with quartzite
aggregates are given in Table 3.1 (EC2).
For limestone and sandstone aggregates the values should
be reduced by 10% and 30% respectively. For basalt
aggregates the values should be increased by 20%

8
 Creep and Shrinkage
Creep coefficient is determined by the following factors:
• Relative humidity
• Element geometry
• Strength class
• Age at loading
• Cement class
• Stress/strength ratio at loading

9
 Creep and Shrinkage
The total shrinkage is taken as the sum of the autogenous shrinkage and
drying shrinkage:
εcs = εca + εcd
The autogenous shrinkage is related to concrete class.
The drying shrinkage is estimated by the following factors:
• Relative humidity 250
• Element geometry
• Strength class
• Cement class 200 C90/105
Autogenous shrinkage

C80/95

150 C70/85

C60/75
C55/67
100 C50/60
C45/55
C40/50
C35/45
50 C30/37
C25/30
C20/25
0
0 100 200 300 400
10
Time (days)
 Stress-strain relations
Parabolic-Rectangular Bi-Linear

  c  
n

 c  fcd 1  1    for 0   c   c2  c3(?  1.75 for fck  50MPa

   c2    c3(?  1.75  0.55  fck  50  / 40  for fck  50MPa
 c  fcd for  c2   c   cu2  cu3(?  3.5 for fck  50MPa
n  2.0 for fck  50MPa
 2.6  35  90  fck  /100 
4
 cu3(? for fck  50MPa
n  1.4  2.34  90  f ck  / 100 
4
for f ck  50MPa
 c2(?  2.0 for fck  50MPa
 c2(?  2.0  0.085  fck  50  for fck  50MPa
0.53

 cu2(?  3.5 for fck  50MPa

 2.6  35  90  fck  / 100 
4
 cu2(? for fck  50MPa 11
 Stress-strain relations
Higher strength concrete shows more brittle behavior.
σc (MPa)
70

C90/105
60

C80/95
50
C70/85

40 C60/75
C55/67
C50/60
30 C45/55
C40/50
C35/45
20 C30/37
C25/30
C20/25
10

0
0 0.0005 0.001 0.0015 0.002 0.0025 0.003 0.0035 0.004
ε
Concrete stress-strain relations

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 Stress-strain relations
EC2 permits a rectangular stress block to be used for section design

λ = 0.8 for fck ≤ 50 MPa fck (MPa) λ η

λ = 0.8 – (fck – 50)/400 for 50 < fck ≤ 90 MPa
≤ 50 0.800 1.00
η = 1.0 for fck ≤ 50 MPa
60 0.775 0.95
η = 1.0 – (fck – 50)/200 for 50 < fck ≤ 90 MPa
70 0.750 0.90
λ: defining the effective height of the compression zone 80 0.725 0.85
η: defining the effective strength.
90 0.700 0.80

Rectangular stress distribution 13

 Reinforcing steel

Coils
Reinforcing bars

Welded fabric Lattice girders

14
 Cold-reduced steel wires

Hot-rolled Wire Rod

Dia. 5.5mm to 14mm
YS : 300 N/mm2

Profiling Rollers
- Dia. Reduction
Finished Wire Coils e.g. 8mm > 7mm
Dia. 5mm to 13mm,
YS : 500 N/mm2

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 Welded fabric

Computerised Machine

Wires in coil / pre-cut

form

Straightening & Cutting Cold

Rolled
Resistance WeldingWire

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Welded Mesh
 Reinforcing steel
EC2 does not cover the use of plain or mild steel reinforcement.
Principles and rules are given for deformed bars, de-coiled rods, welded
fabric and lattice girders.

There is no technical reason why other types of reinforcement should not

be used. Relevant authoritative publications should be consulted when
other types reinforcement are used.

EN 10080 provides the performance characteristic and testing methods but

does not specify the material properties. These are given in Annex C of
EC2.

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 Reinforcing steel
Performance requirements
• Strength (fyk or f0.2k, ft)
• Ductility (εuk and ft/fyk)
• Weldability
• Bendability
• Bond characteristics (fR)

18
 Reinforcing steel
Strength
Yield strength fyk or f0.2k and tensile strength ft.
Ductility
Ratio of tensile strength to yield strength ft/fyk
Elongation at maximum force εuk.

19
Stress-strain relations for reinforcing steel
 Tensile test

Universal Testing Machine Tensile Test Coupon Extensometer

Computer and Datalogger Analog Datalogger Analog Datalogger

 Weldability
Weldability is usually defined by two parameters:
 Carbon equivalent value (CEV)
 Limitations on the content of certain elements

The maximum values of individual elements and the carbon equivalent

value are given below.
Table Chemical composition (% by mass)
Carbon Sulphur Phosphorus Nitrogen Copper CEV

Max. Max. Max. Max. Max. Max.

Cast analysis 0.22 0.050 0.050 0.012 0.80 0.50
Product analysis 0.24 0.055 0.055 0.014 0.85 0.52

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 Properties of reinforcement
Properties of reinforcement (Annex C – EC2)
Product form Bars and De-coiled rods Wire fabrics

Class A B C A B C
Characteristic yield strength
400 to 600
fyk or f0.2k (MPa)
≥1.15 ≥1.15
k = (ft/fy)k ≥1.05 ≥1.08 ≥1.05 ≥1.08
<1.35 <1.35
Characteristic strain at
≥2.5 ≥5.0 ≥7.5 ≥2.5 ≥5.0 ≥7.5
maximum force εuk(%)
Bendability Bend/Re-bend test -
Maximum bar size
± 6.0
deviation from ≤ 8mm
± 4.5
normal mass (%) > 8mm
The UK has chosen a maximum value of characteristic yield strength, fyk= 600 MPa,
But 500 MPa is the value assumed in BS4449 for normal supply.
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 Higher strength reinforcing steel
There is a push to use reinforcing steel with higher yield
strength of 600 MPa because EC2 permits it.

Advantage of higher strength reinforcing steel:

 Reduces congestion
• Fewer bars needed
• Increases bar spacing
• Reduces bar diameter
 Faster construction
• Placing/tying bars (labor)
• Less weight (crane)
 Concrete placement is easier

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 Structural steel (EC3)
Performance requirements

• Strength — able to carry load

• Ductility — able to sustain permanent deformation
• Weldability — able to transfer load
• Toughness — able to absorb damage without fracture

24
 High strength steel (HSS)
Normal strength steel: Steel grades S235 to S460
High strength steel: Steel grades greater than S460 up to S700
Compared to normal strength steel, high strength steel has lower
ductility.

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 Why use HSS
 When strength-to-weight is important, for example, in
bridges to facilitate construction and crane structures.
 Studies show that the ratio of the tensile residual stress
to yield stress of the member seems to decrease with
increasing yield strength in hot-rolled sections.
 More favorable buckling curves may be used for high
strength steel for S460.
 Higher buckling resistance due to favorable buckling
curves.

26
Buckling curves

27
Buckling curves

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 Ductility requirements
EC3 has additional ductility requirements compared to
BS5950 in terms of stress ratio, elongation and strain ratio.

Normal strength steel high strength steel

(fy ≤ 460 N/mm2) (460 N/mm2 <fy ≤ 700 N/mm2)

• fu/fy ≥ 1.10 • fu/fy ≥ 1.05 (EC3-1-12)

• fu/fy ≥ 1.10 ( UK NA to EC3-1-12)
• Elongation at failure not less • Elongation at failure not less than
than 15% 10%
• εu ≥ 15εy εy is the yield stain • εu ≥ 15 εy

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 Problem
Some product standards only have requirements on nominal yield and
tensile strength, or their minimum values. The stress ratio calculated
according to these nominal values cannot comply with EC3.
Standard Grade Nominal yield strength (MPa) Nominal tensile strength (MPa) Stress ratio
G450 450 480 1.07
AS 1397 G500 500 520 1.04
G550 550 550 1.00
AS 1595 CA 500 500 510 1.02
S 550MC 550 600 1.09
S 600MC 600 650 1.08
EN 10149
S 650MC 650 700 1.08
S 700MC 700 750 1.07
EN 10326 S550GD 550 560 1.02
ISO 4997 CH550 550 550 1.00

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 Structural steel and reinforcing steel
Comparison of structural steel and reinforcing steel
Reinforcement Structural steel
A B C Normal strength High strength
Yield strength > 460
400 to 600 ≤ 460
(MPa) ≤ 700
Modulus of
200 210
elasticity (GPa)
≥ 1.15 ≥ 1.05
ft/fy or fu/fy ≥ 1.05 ≥ 1.08 ≥ 1.10
< 1.35 ≥ 1.10 (NA)
Elongation (%) ≥ 2.5 ≥ 5.0 ≥ 7.5 ≥ 15 ≥ 10
Ultimate strain εu ≥ 15εy

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 Material comparison

EC2 EC3 EC4

Normal C12/15- C90/105 C20/25 - C60/75

Concrete _
Light
LC12/13 – LC80/88 LC20/22 - LC60/66
weight

Reinforcing steel 400 - 600 N/mm2 _ 400 - 600 N/mm2

Structural steel _ ≤ 700 N/mm2 ≤ 460 N/mm2

These ranges in EC4 are narrower than those given in EC2 ( C12/15 –
C90/105) and EC3 ( ≤ 700 N/mm2) because there is limited knowledge
and experimental data on composite members with very high strength
concrete and high strength steel.

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 Material for seismic design
Material limitations for ’primary seismic members’
DCL DCM DCH
Ductility Class
(Low) (Medium) (High)
Concrete grade No limit ≥ C16/20 ≥ C20/25
Steel Class (EC2,
B or C B or C Only C
Table C1)
Longitudinal bars only ribbed only ribbed

DCL - ductility class ‘low’

DCM - ductility class ‘medium’
DCH - ductility class ‘high’
For ‘secondary seismic members’, they do not need to conform to
these requirements.

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 Detailing for seismic design
In addition, for seismic detailing, there are stringent
requirements for reinforcing steel mainly focusing on:

 Bar diameter
 Bar spacing
 Minimum bar numbers
 Minimum reinforcement area
 Maximum reinforcement area

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 Detailing for primary seismic beams
DCH DCM DCL
Longitudinal bars
ρmin 0.5 fctm/fyk Max 0.26 fctm fyk ; 0.13%(EC2)
ρmax ρ'+0.0018fcd/(μφεsy,dfyd) 0.04 (EC2)

6.25 1+0.8v d  fctm 7.5 1+0.8v d  fctm

dbl/hc bar crossing  
 ρ  fyd  ρ  fyd -
interior joint  1+0.75   1+0.5 
 ρmax   ρmax 

dbl/hc bar anchored at fctm fctm

 6.25 1+0.8v d   7.5 1+0.8v d  -
exterior joint fyd fyd
Transverse reinforcement
Out critical spacing Min {0.75d; 15Φ; 600} (EC2)
regions ρmin 0.08 fck fyk (EC2)

In critical dbw,min 6mm -

regions spacing Min{hw/4;24dbw;175;6dbl} Min{hw/4;24dbw;225;8dbl} -

35
 Detailing for primary seismic columns
DCH DCM DCL
Cross-section hc,bc,min 250 mm - -
Longitudinal bars
ρmin 1% Max 0.1NEd fyd ; 0.002A c  (EC2)
ρmax 4% 4% (EC2)
dbl,min 8 mm
Bars per column side 3 2 (EC2)
Transverse reinforcement
Out critical regions
spacing Min {20dbl;bc; hc; 400} (EC2)
dbw Max {0.25dbl; 6} (EC2)
Within critical regions
dbw,min 
Max 6;0.4dbl fyd fywd  Max {0.25dbl; 6} (EC2)
spacing Min{b0/3;125;6dbl} Min{b0/2;175;8dbl} -
Volumetric ratio ωwd 0.08 -
αωwd  30μφ ν d ε sy,d bc b0 -0.05 -
In critical region at
column base:
ωwd 0.12 0.08 -
αωwd  30μφ ν dε sy,d bc b0 -0.05 -

36
 Detailing for primary seismic walls
DCH DCM DCL
Boundary elements:
In critical region:
Longitudinal bars
ρmin 0.5% 0.2% (EC2)
ρmax 4% (EC2)
Transverse bars
dbw,min 
Max 6;0.4dbl fyd fywd  6 mm Max {0.25dbl; 6} (EC2)
spacing Min{b0/3;125;6dbl} Min{b0/2;175;8dbl} Min {20dbl;bc; hc; 400} (EC2)
Volumetric ratio ωwd 0.12 0.08 -
 30μφ ν dε sy,d bc b0 -0.05
αωwd -
Web:
Vertical bars
ρv,min Wherever εc >0.2%: 0.5%; elsewhere 0.2% 0.2% (EC2)
ρv,max 4% (EC2)
dbv,min 8mm -
dbv,max bwo/8 -
spacing Min (25dbv; 250mm) Min (3bwo; 400mm) (EC2)
Horizontal bars
ρh,min 0.2% Max (0.2%; 0.25ρv) (EC2)
dbv,min 8mm -
dbv,max bwo/8 -
spacing Min (25dbh; 250mm) 400mm (EC2)

37
 Conclusions
 There is a push to use higher strength concrete, higher
strength reinforcing steel and structural steel in
Structural Eurocodes.
 Be careful with steel products, some product standards
may not comply with more stringent Eurocodes ductility
requirements, for e.g. AS1397, SS2 vs. SS560, etc.
 For seismic design, there are more stringent
requirements for ductility in reinforcing steel in terms of
higher steel class (B or C only).
 In addition, there are more stringent requirements for
seismic detailing for reinforcing steel in terms of bar
diameter and bar spacing, and minimum and maximum
reinforcement.

38