Conduction in terms of Band

Solids are classified as metals, semi-metals, or non-metals by their ability to conduct heat
and electricity. "Band theory" is a bonding model for solids that explains conductivity by assuming
a higher energy level exists above the valence electron level called the "conduction band". The
theory assumes electrons in the conduction band are not attached to individual atoms (localized)
but move freely throughout the entire solid (delocalized). In a metal the delocalized electrons in
the conduction band behave like a "sea of electrons" which "surges" throughout the solid, forming
an electrical current.

Figure 1. Band diagrams for Conductors, Semiconductors, & Insulators

The band gap is the energy needed to promote an electron from the lower energy valence
band into the higher energy conduction band (Figure 1). The band gap in metals is very small.
Ordinary thermal energy (present at room temperature) promotes the valence electrons to the
conduction band where they move freely about the metal. Therefore, metals are called
"conductors" because they easily carry current. In nonmetals the band gap is very large and
electrons seldom have enough energy to cross from the valence level to the conduction band.
Therefore, non-metals are called "insulators" because they carry no electrical current. In semi-
metals, the band gap is moderately wide, so under certain conditions, electrons are promoted into
the conduction band resulting in a current. This is why semi-metals are often referred to as
"semiconductors".
Electron Mobility
Electrons are accelerated in an electric field E, in the opposite direction to the field because
of their negative charge. The force acting on the electron is -eE, where e is the electric charge. This
force produces a constant acceleration so that, in the absence of obstacles (in vacuum, like inside
a TV tube) the electron speeds up continuously in an electric field. In a solid, the situation is
different. The electrons scatter by collisions with atoms and vacancies that change drastically their
direction of motion. Thus electrons move randomly but with a net drift in the direction opposite to
the electric field. The drift velocity is constant, equal to the electric field times a constant called
the mobility, e

vd= – e E
which means that there is a friction force proportional to velocity. This friction translates into
energy that goes into the lattice as heat. This is the way that electric heaters work.

The electrical conductivity is:

 = n |e| e

where n is the concentration of electrons (n is used to indicate that the carriers of electricity
are negative particles).
Conductivity/ Resistivity of Metals
The resistivity ρ is defined by scattering events due to the imperfections and thermal vibrations.
Total resistivity ρtot can be described by the Matthiessen rule:
ρtotal = ρthermal+ρimpurity+ρdeformation
where ρthermal -from thermal vibrations,
ρimpurity -from impurities,
ρdeformation -from deformation-induced defects
Influence of temperature:
Resistivity rises linearly with temperature (increasing thermal vibrations and density of vacancies)
ρT = ρo + aT
Influence of impurities:
• Impurities that form solid solution ρi = Aci(1-ci) where ci is impurity concentration, A –
composition independent constant
• Two-phase alloy (αand βphases) –rule-of-mixtures:
ρi = ραVα+ ρβV β
Influence of plasti deformation:
Normally, the influence of plastic deformation on electrical resistivity is weaker than the
influence of temperature and impurities
In general, presence of any imperfections (grain boundaries, dislocations, impurity atoms
,vacancies) increases resistivity.
Electrical Characteristics of commercial alloys
 One of the best material for electric conduction is Silver, but its use is restricted due to the
high cost
 Most widely used conductor is Copper: inexpensive, abundant, high  , but rather soft-
cannot be used in applications where mechanical strength is important
 Solid solution alloying and cold working improve strength but decrease conductivity.
Precipitation Hardening is preferred, e.g. Cu-Be alloy
 When weight is important, one uses Aluminum, which is half as good as Cu and more
resistant to corrosion
 Heating elements require low  (high R) and resistance to high temp. oxidation: nickel-
chromium alloy