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K. L. E. Technological University, Hubli.
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
Laboratory Manual
Course Title: Engineering Materials Lab Course Code: 15EMEP202
Total Contact Hours: 24 hours Duration of SEE: 2 Hrs
SEE Marks: 20 marks CIE Marks: 80 marks
Author: Anand L , Sudhir P. Date: 20-06-2016
Checked By: P.M. Bhovi Date: 23-07-2016
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K. L. E. TECH
K. L. E. Technological University, Hubli.
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
The macroscopic properties of materials under applied loads or forces are called as mechanical
properties. They are the measure of the strength & lasting characteristics of a material in
service and are of great importance particularly to the design engineer. It is a characteristic
feature of structure sensitive properties & they are much more affected by crystal imperfection
and by other factors such as composition, grain size, heat treatment etc. Mechanical properties
therefore do depend on them in almost all situations.
Since a great number of properties are best evaluated by testing specimens under various
conditions, material testing is carried out to supply useful information to the design engineer.
The study of mechanical behaviour of material therefore requires the knowledge of both
mechanical and various tests performed under the conditions found in engineering practice.
The mechanical properties that are generally used for the design purposes are as following
Tensile Strength
Compressive strength
Impact Strength
Torsion Strength
Shear Strength
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K. L. E. TECH
K. L. E. Technological University, Hubli.
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
The heat treatment process also changes the grain structure of the metals, depending the type of
metal and the study on this grain structure is also conducted. Hence the study of heat treatment
process and their effects on the properties of metals is also studied.
.
3. General instructions:
I. How to use the Equipments:
a) The students should handle following instruments only in presence of lab instructor or
staff member.
i) Universal testing machine.
ii) Compression testing machine.
iii) Impact testing machine.
b) The student may handle the following instruments only after he/she is asked to
Operate the same.
i) Hardness testing machine.
c) While operating Impact testing machine following points should be kept in mind.
i) The swinging pendulum in the form of hammer swings with a very high speed on either
side of instrument.
ii) While fixing the specimen (Charpy and Izode) at the bottom of the instrument , it should
be supported firmly in the grip and one person should also support it while gripping.
iii) While releasing the hammer by pulling the rope it should be noted that nobody should
stand facing the hammer, as it strikes with a large velocity.
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K. L. E. TECH
K. L. E. Technological University, Hubli.
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
1. Tensile testing machine / Shear testing machine / Bending testing machine (U.T.M.)
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K. L. E. Technological University, Hubli.
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
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K. L. E. TECH
K. L. E. Technological University, Hubli.
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
Charpy striker
-----------
a) Angle of striking edge 30 1
b) Radius of striking edge 2 to 2.5 mm
Support for Izode
10 mm + 0.15
a) Width of specimen clamping groove ---------------
- 0.25
b) Distance between top striking edge ---------------
22 mm 0.5
Izode striker
75 1
a) Angle of striking edge ------------
----------
b) Radius at the edge 0.5 mm to 1
mm
c) Angle between the normal to the specimen ----------
and the underside face of the striker at the 100 1
striking point
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K. L. E. TECH
K. L. E. Technological University, Hubli.
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
7. Metallurgical microscope
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K. L. E. TECH
K. L. E. Technological University, Hubli.
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
Metallurgical microscope (fig.1.1) is a device, which is used in laboratory to study and observe
microstructures of materials. Since a metallography sample is opaque to light, the specimen
must be illustrated by a refracted light. The eyepiece is detachable and can be fixed to the main
body with the help of screw. The specimen is illuminated by a halogen light, which is provided
at the bottom. It is also provided with an aperture, by which the intensity of halogen lamp can
be controlled. It is provided with 3-objective pieces of different magnification. Objective is the
part of microscope that holds all-important parts, which is closer to the object. Two screws
control the vertical movement of the microscope objective. One is coarse adjustment and
another is fine adjustment screw. The platform on which objectives are mounted can be rotated
so that we can use objectives having particular magnification to observe microscope structure.
The magnification depends upon focal length shorter than greater the magnification. The frame
is that part of microscope which holds all the important parts. The frame holds the entire
horizontal platform on which the space is provided for keeping the specimen. The platform is
provided with two screws to control its horizontal movement. With the help of these screws the
platform may be moved in two mutually perpendicular directions.
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K. L. E. TECH
K. L. E. Technological University, Hubli.
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
Disc polishing machine (fig.1.2) is a device used to polish the given specimen. It consists of
two rotating discs, an emery paper is placed on one of the disc and on the other velvet cloth.
The speed of rotating discs can be varied with the help of speed control switches. Two water
pipes are provided, so that there is a continuous supply of water. Knobs are provided to control
water supply.
Polishing of given specimen is necessary to study its microstructure. The metallurgical
microscope makes use of principle of reflection of light to illuminate the specimen. Good
results can be obtained only when the specimen is finely polished. A properly polished
specimen does not leave scratches.
Metallurgy is not only the art of extracting materials from their ores, but also it is mixing of
two or more metals to form alloys in shaping the very useful products for different activities. A
metal is an element exhibiting properties like strength, plasticity, electrical and thermal
conductivity etc. These properties are due to how atoms are arranged in the form of crystals
and also type of bonding between atoms.
The mechanical properties of metals can be changed by alloying. Physical and chemical
properties of different alloys are well studied by observing their metal structure. The metals
crystals are formed rapidly and they are generally bounded by confined environment, which
presents the crystallographic flow surfaces. Thus the metal crystals must be identified by x-ray
diffraction or chemical etching.
The following are details of some materials of which the chemical composition and the phases
are explained.
1) Mild steel: - the approximate rate of carbon contained of mild steel is 0.3%. for medium
carbon steel it is 0.3-0.6%. The microstructure of phase of iron and little quantity of pearlite
with high magnification we can see pearlite consisting of smaller structure, which consist of
alternate bonds of ferrite and cementite.
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K. L. E. TECH
K. L. E. Technological University, Hubli.
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
2) Gray cast iron: - Fe-C alloys with more than 2% carbon are called (C I) cast iron.
Depending upon the cooling rate and other alloying elements present in cast iron. The carbon
may be present as graphite or cementite. Gray cost iron contains graphite in the form of flakes
in matrix of ferrite. The graphite flakes are short at their strip and act as stress rises. Thus even
though the soft material graphite is present, the gray cost iron is brittle.
3) Copper:-It is a single-phase microstructure showing big grains having well definite grained
boundaries. We can also find twin boundaries in between.
4) White cast iron: - The alloying element present is cementite. The microstructure of white
cast iron consist of cementite and pearlite. Due to this the large fraction of cementite is present,
the cast iron is very hard and brittle appears white when we see fracture surface.
5) Brass:- Brass is an alloy of copper (60%)and Zinc (40%). Microstructure of brass shows
zinc rich phase embedded in copper matrix.
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K. L. E. TECH
K. L. E. Technological University, Hubli.
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
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K. L. E. Technological University, Hubli.
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
7.2.3 List of equipment required to conduct the experiment with their specifications: -
Equipment:
1) Muffle furnace
2) Water tanks / Quenching oil tanks
Inspection equipment:
1) Metallurgical microscope (220v ac supply, 50Hz,)
2) Hardness Tester (Rockwell, Brinell)
Tools and consumables:
1) Carbon, alloy steel rounds / flat
2) Etchant
3) Quenching oil & water
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K. L. E. TECH
K. L. E. Technological University, Hubli.
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
2) Normalizing: Normalizing or air quenching consists in heating the steel to about 40 to 45c
above its upper critical temperate and it necessary holding it at he temperature. Normalizing
produces micro- structure consisting of ferrite and pearlite for hypereutectoid steels.
3) Hardening: It is a process in heat treatment where the metal is heated initially to a given
temperature and dipped in quenching oil or water depending the type of metal, which increases
the hardness of metal. Tools and machine parts that do transmit power and components
subjected to wear and tear are often hardened. The hardening of steel requires formation of
martensite structure in case of steel.
4) Tempering: The process of tempering consists of heating the steel to a temperature of about
50F below the lower critical temperature. The purpose of tempering is to release the residual
stresses and improve the ductility and toughness of steel after the hardening process. The
increase in ductility and toughness is usually attained at the sacrifice of hardness.
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K. L. E. Technological University, Hubli.
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
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K. L. E. Technological University, Hubli.
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
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K. L. E. Technological University, Hubli.
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
To determine the mechanical properties of the material, it is required to know some important
characteristics like strength, elasticity and ductility.
Strength is the property of the material by virtue of which it offers resistance against
deformation when it is subjected to loading.
Elasticity is the property of the material by virtue of which material deforms and
regains its original shape on removal of applied load.
Ductility is the ability of the material to deform under tension without fracture.
Here in this experiment the material is subjected to tensile load and the behavior of the
material is studied.
In the stress- strain diagram shown (fig. 3.2), initially stress is proportional to the strain. This is
given by Hook’s law. We can derive from the nature of graph that there are some limits such as
yield point, maximum stress point etc. All ductile materials exhibit these characteristics.
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K. L. E. Technological University, Hubli.
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
5) Continue the loading on the specimen till the specimen breaks & note down the
maximum load at which the specimen breaks.
6) Remove the fractured pieces from the UTM and check the cracked area.
7) Finally join the broken pieces, note down the gauge length and diameter of the
specimen at the crack.
S.L Load in KN (W) Extension in (l) Stress KN/mm2 (W/A0) Strain (l/l)
N0 mm
1
2
3
4
Plot a graph of Stress Vs Strain for the mild steel specimen tested.
1. % Elongation = ____________
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K. L. E. TECH
K. L. E. Technological University, Hubli.
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
7.4.3 List of equipment required to conduct the experiment with their specifications:-
Equipment: UTM and fabricated shackle.
Measuring tools: vernier calipers and scale.
Consumables: specimens.
Technical Specifications (Refer 4.0)
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K. L. E. Technological University, Hubli.
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
4) The same procedure is repeated for double shear experiment. Here two grip rings are
inserted where as in single shear only one grip ring is inserted.
7.4.8Table of observation: -
Mild steel:
a. Shear strength subjected to single shear= ------------N/mm2
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K. L. E. Technological University, Hubli.
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
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K. L. E. Technological University, Hubli.
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
operate the machine, during power failure. Both the motorized and hand pumps discharge the
oil into a common manifold, where from the oil further travels to the jack and gauges.
So to quicken the initial pumping, the motorized pump can be on and the hand pump as well
can be operated. The oil reservoir is kept on the top and feeds independently the two motorized
pumps.
A pressure release valve on the vertical front panel is to start loading and for release on
pressure as well. By tightening in the clockwise direction the loading operation starts, and by
rotating it in the anticlockwise direction the pressure in the system is released. A flow-
regulating valve on the front vertical panel is for regulating oil flow. The clockwise moment
gives an increased rate of loading and the anticlockwise rotation decreases the loading rate.
The extreme anticlockwise position gives no loading at all even though the motor runs and the
piston work.
7.5.5 Theoretical background of the experiment: -
When a material is subjected to compressive load, the material slightly deforms immediately
and resists the load consequently while deformation continues with the load. The resistance
offered by the material to deformation is known as stress. The final resistance to the load at
which it fails is known as ultimate stress.
7.5.6Formulae required, nature of graph if any:
Ultimate stress, P= Ultimate load (at failure)/ Bearing area (Original Cross Sectional area)
= W/A N/mm2
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K. L. E. TECH
K. L. E. Technological University, Hubli.
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
7.6.3 List of equipment required to conduct the experiment with their specifications: -
Equipment: Torsion testing machine.
Measuring tools: Stopwatch, vernier calipers.
Consumable: Specimen.
Specification of Torsion testing machine: (Refer 4.0)
The machine (fig.6.1) used for carry out the torsional test holds the specimen at one
end, a twist at the other end.
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K. L. E. Technological University, Hubli.
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
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K. L. E. Technological University, Hubli.
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
Refer 7.3.4.
The deflection for a span of longitudinal beam when subjected to concentrated load at the
center is given by
= (wl3) / 48EI
By knowing load and corresponding deflection the modulus of elasticity can be calculated.
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K. L. E. Technological University, Hubli.
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
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DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
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DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
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K. L. E. Technological University, Hubli.
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
Izode Test:
1) Length of the specimen=--------mm
2) Angle of notch= ------- deg.
3) Depth of notch=------------------mm
1) Impact energy required to break the given specimen in Charpy test= ______Joules
2) Impact energy required to break the given specimen in Izode test= ________ Joules
*Charpy specimen has more resistance to fracture when sudden load applied compared to
Izode specimen.
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K. L. E. TECH
K. L. E. Technological University, Hubli.
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
7.9.3. List of equipment required to conduct the experiment with their specifications: -
Equipment: Wear testing machine.
Consumables: Specimens.
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K. L. E. Technological University, Hubli.
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
K = Wear Coefficient
V= Volume of material removed
H= BHN X 9.81
F= Load on pin in newtons.
S= Rubbing distance= 2. Π . r.n.60 = ________ meters.
Input Power: n x 60 x 60 / K x t
K= 750 rev/ Kwh &
t = time in seconds for 10 rotations of energy meter disc.
Tabular column:
Difference Distance
% loss Volume of Speed Wear Energy
in weight in of pin
in material in rpm Counts coefficient consumed
gms from
weight removed ‘n’ ‘K’ in KW.
(W1- W2) center ‘r’
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K. L. E. TECH
K. L. E. Technological University, Hubli.
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
7.10.3 List of equipment required to conduct the experiment with their specifications: -
Equipment: Rockwell Hardness / Brinell hardness testing machines.
Measuring tool: Microscope.
Consumables: Specimens.
Specifications: (Refer 4.0)
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K. L. E. TECH
K. L. E. Technological University, Hubli.
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
In this type of hardness test an indentor is allowed to penetrate through the specimen. The
hardness number is read directly from the dial gauge. The steps involved are as follows.
a. Test piece is placed upon the machine. The machine dial is showing any reading.
b. Hand wheel is turned, thereby raising the test piece up against the steel ball indentor till the
needle on the dial reads zero.
c. Major load is applied by pressing the crank provided on the right hand side of the machine.
d. Crank is turned in the reverse direction thereby withdrawing major load but leaving minor
load applied.
e. Hand wheel is rotated and the test piece is lowered.
At this stage the hardness of the test piece material can be directly read from the dial scale.
There are two scales on a Rockwell testing machine. i.e. “B” scale & “C” scale.
‘B’ scale uses a steel ball and diamond cone penetrator is employed for measuring the hardness
on ‘C’ scale.
‘B’ scale is used for testing materials of medium hardness such as low & medium carbon steels
and ‘C’ scale is used for testing the hardness of alloy cast irons.
In Rockwell testing the minor load for all cases is 10 Kg & major loads for scales ‘C’ & ‘B’
are 150 and 100 Kg respectively.
In this test a hard steel ball of specific diameter under a specific load indents metal surface.
Measuring the average diameter of the indentor by a microscope fitted with a scale called
Brinell microscope. The Brinell hardness number of the metal is determined as
______
BHN = 2 P / [ D (D- (D2- d2))]
Where P= load on indentor.
D=Diameter of the steel ball.
d = Average diameter of the indentor.
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DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
2) Aluminium = ___________
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K. L. E. TECH
K. L. E. Technological University, Hubli.
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
7.12.3 List of equipment required to conduct the experiment with their specifications: -
Equipments: Ultrasonic flaw detector, MPI setup & Dye Penetrant test setup.
The detailed explanation of the NDT is given following in the sequence mentioned
below.
1. Ultrasonic flaw detector.
2. Magnetic particle inspection.
3. Dye penetrant testing.
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K. L. E. TECH
K. L. E. Technological University, Hubli.
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
1. ULTRASONIC INSPECTION:
Methods of Inspection:
There are two basic methods of ultrasonic inspection. They are
(i) Transmission method and
(ii) Pulse-echo method.
The primary difference between the two methods is that, transmission method involves
measurement of signal attenuation where as the pulse-echo method is most widely used. It
involves the detection of echoes produced when an ultrasonic pulse is reflected by a
discontinuity or an interface. This method is useful both for detection of flaws and for
thickness measurements. Both position of the flaw and size of the flaw can be detected by this
technique.
The transmission method involves only the measurement of signal attenuation.
Basic Equipment:
Most ultrasonic inspection systems include the following basic equipment.
An electronic signal generator that produces bursts of alternating voltages when triggered.
A transducer (probe or search unit) that converts the bursts of alternating voltages in to
ultrasonic waves.
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K. L. E. Technological University, Hubli.
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
A couplant to transfer energy in the beam of ultrasonic wave into the test piece.
A transducer to convert ultrasonic waves from the test piece in to bursts of alternating
voltage.
An electronic device to amplify the from the transducer.
A display unit (CRT) to record the output from the test piece.
A timer (electronic clock) to control and co ordinate the operations of various components.
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K. L. E. TECH
K. L. E. Technological University, Hubli.
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
The distance of the defect from the surface where transmitter probe is applied, can be
determined with the help of a time distance scale in the form of a square wave constantly
shown on the oscilloscope. The distance scale may be changed as per convenience and one
cycle of square wane may be changed as per convenience and one cycle of square wave may
indicate 1 cm or 25 cms, etc.
The interpretation of defect (echo) signal may be assisted by post-mortem sectioning of the
casting containing serious flaws.
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K. L. E. Technological University, Hubli.
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
Magnetic particle inspection is a relativity easy and simple technique. It is almost completely
free from any restriction as to size, shape, composition, and heat-treatment of a ferromagnetic
specimen.
1.The surface must be clean, dry and free of slag or rust. Wire brushing or sandblasting will
usually clean the surface sufficiently. In the case of an excessively rough surface, grinding or
machining is advisable.
2. The finely divided magnetic particles or powder can be either dry or suspended in liquid. If
the flaw is a surface flaw or lies sufficiently close to the surface, there will be set up a pair of
magnetic poles which act like small magnets.
3.The magnetic powder is attracted and held by the leakage flux, thus forming a visible
indication of the location and extent of the defect. The surface condition of the object being
inspected may affect the sensitivity of the method especially for locating subsurface flaws.
Surface defects usually produce powder patterns, which are sharp and tightly held with a heavy
build-up of powder. Surface defects usually give less sharply defined powder patterns since the
powder is less tightly held. However, experienced inspectors can evaluate the severity of a flaw
by the nature of the powder pattern.
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K. L. E. Technological University, Hubli.
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
Penetrant inspection utilizes the natural accumulation of a fluid around a discontinuity to create
a recognizable indication of a crack or other surface opening. Capillary action attracts the fluid
to the discontinuity as compared to its surroundings. In order to locate the area of excess fluid
(defect region), The background area must be of sufficient contrast thus leading to distinct of
the defect on the surface.
Physical Principles:
Penetrant inspection depends mainly on the ability of liquid to wet the surface of a solid work
piece or specimen and flow over that surface to from a continuous and reasonably uniform
coating, thus penetrating into cavities that are open to the surface. The ability of a given liquid
to flow over a surface and enter surface cavities mainly depends on the surface tension and
capillary action. The cohesive force between the molecules of liquid causes surface tension.
Capillary action is the phenomenon of rise or depression of liquid in narrow cavities.
Viscosity, another factor, although has negligible effect on penetrating ability of liquid, affects
the flowability of penetrant.
Visible light or ultraviolet light is required for inspection of penetrant indications.
Initially, the only detection method used was the unaided observation by the eye of the
inspector under visible light. The characteristics of human eye strongly affect the perception of
brightness of an indication. The nature of the light source strongly affects the proper lighting at
the inspection area.
Fluorescence describes the release of light energy by some substances when they are
excited by external radiation such as ultraviolet light. In penetrant inspection, when the
incident ultraviolet light strikes the panicles in fluid, they are excited to a higher energy level.
After being excited, each particle then, returns to the original unexcited level with the emission
of light having a wavelength longer then the original source. Thus the emitted light is in the
visible spectrum. Because, the human eye does not normally see the UV light, It is also called
black light. The advantages of this in penetrant appear very bright. When the Inspection is
performed in very subdued light, the regions clear of penetrant material will appear black. Due
to this effect, the visibility of small indications is greatly enhanced.
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K. L. E. Technological University, Hubli.
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
1. Cleaning
One of the most important steps in the penetrant inspection procedure is the initial cleaning of
the surface area to be inspected. The defect that is being sought must be open to the surface for
the penetrant to enter. Scale, flakes, paint, dirt, grease and other chemicals that are not cleaned
from the surface will tend to accumulate the penetrant. This leads to either masking of real
indications or creation of defect indications where none exist. A satisfactory combination of
solvents, brushes, rags, etchants, etc., must be chosen for a particular inspection problem. It is
essential that the cleaned surface be adequately dried before the application of the penetrant
since presence of any excess cleaning fluid would dilute the penetrant and diminish the
brilliance of the indication.
2. Penetrant Application
The second step in the inspection process is the application of penetrant fluid to the cleaned
surface. The fluid should spread freely and evenly over the surface and move into the crack.
The dwell time, which is the amount of time required to move into the crack will very
depending on the crack size and shape characteristics and also the environmental conditions
such as temperature and surface inclination. Application of penetrant may be achieved by
dipping the component in a bath of penetrant liquid or by spraying or brushing. A minimum
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DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
dwell time of about 20 to 30 min. may be allowed after penetrant application. Larger periods
may be necessary in certain circumstances.
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K. L. E. Technological University, Hubli.
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
8. APPENDIX:
a. Course details:
b. Reference Books:
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