CHAPTER 3
Excretion—wastes, water and salt balance
Plants and animals regulate the concentration of gases,
water and waste products of metabolism in cells and in
interstitial fluid
The maintenance of relatively constant
concentrations of gases, water
and waste products in the internal
environment of living organisms (cells
and body fluids) is an important aspect
of homeostasis. The concentration
of these substances directly affects
metabolism in cells. Excretory wastes
produced by cellular functioning in
the body include carbon dioxide and
nitrogenous wastes such as ammonia,
urea and uric acid. Nitrogenous wastes
are produced in the liver as a result of
protein breakdown. Excretory products
of cells alter the normal internal
environment of cells of the body
and body fluids (such as blood and
interstitial fluid in animals) and, unless
they are removed, they can poison the
organism, interfere with metabolism
and ultimately lead to death.
Excretion is the process by which
waste products, which have been
produced as a result of metabolism,
are removed from the body. The
3.1 The iimportance of excretion (and water and salt
balance) in humans and other animals
balan
Homeostasis, the maintenance of a
steady internal state, is essential for
cell functioning. Cell metabolism
is controlled by enzymes which
catalyse each chemical reaction in
living organisms. In addition to being
extremely sensitive to temperature and
70
Module 1-Chapter 3.indd 70
excretory system is made up of those
systems and organs that carry out the
removal of metabolic wastes from
the body. Carbon dioxide is excreted
via the lungs (respiratory system) and
nitrogenous wastes are removed,
along with excess salts and water,
via the kidneys (urinary system). In
mammals, sweat glands in the skin
may also excrete some excess salts,
as well as nitrogenous wastes in a
dilute form. In aquatic animals such as
tadpoles and fish, gills act as excretory
organs to eliminate excess carbon
dioxide (in addition to their function of
oxygenating blood), while in plants the
elimination of carbon dioxide at night
occurs through the stomata of leaves.
Note: Excretion in animals should
not be confused with elimination,
which is the removal of unabsorbed
food from the body, since this
undigested food was never a part of the
metabolic functioning of the body.
pH, enzymes are substrate specific,
and do not function effectively in
an environment where there is an
accumulation of waste products or
the optimal concentrations of water
and dissolved substances are not
maintained.
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In this chapter, we deal with the role
of the excretory system in regulating
the levels of water and salts (ions) in
the body, as well its role in eliminating
wastes which are toxic to cells (even
in relatively low concentrations)—in
keeping with the theme of this HSC
module: ‘Maintaining a balance’.
The excretory system regulates the
concentrations of essential substances
and wastes in the internal environment
by:
Water balance: the importance of maintaining water
concentration
■ explain why the concentration of water in cells should be
maintained within a narrow range for optimal function
Water makes up at least two-thirds
of the body composition of most
living organisms, and the internal
concentration of water and dissolved
substances in cells is similar to that of
sea water. (This is not surprising if we
consider that all early life forms are
thought to have evolved in the sea.)
Water is the solvent that forms the
basic aquatic medium of cytoplasm
in cells and also of body fluids
such as blood, interstitial fluid and
digestive juices in animals. It is also
the transport medium in plants, acting
as a medium for the translocation of
ions in xylem and sugars in phloem
tissue. Solutes that dissolve in water
in living organisms include inorganic
dissolved ions (such as sodium,
potassium, chloride and hydrogen ions)
and organic solutes such as glucose
and amino acids (end products of
digestion), as well as urea and ammonia
(nitrogenous wastes that accumulate as
a result of protein breakdown).
Changes in water concentration
lead to corresponding changes in solute
concentration in cells: the relative
concentration of solutes: water in cells
determines the osmotic pressure
of cells. Water enters and leaves cells
by the process of osmosis and the
net direction of water movement is
Module 1-Chapter 3.indd 71
EXCRETION—WASTES, WATER AND SALT BALANCE
■ removing metabolic wastes
(including nitrogenous wastes and
carbon dioxide)
■ maintaining optimal water and salt
levels (i.e. osmoregulation).
Additional functions of the excretory
system in humans and other mammals
are the maintenance of:
■ blood pH
■ blood volume (and therefore blood
pressure).
dependent on the osmotic gradient—
water moves from a high to a low
water concentration through the
selectively permeable cell membrane.
The movement of water into and out of
cells therefore depends directly on the
concentration of solutions both inside
and outside the cells.
Water provides the necessary
medium in which all chemical reactions
of metabolism can occur : chemical
reactions in cells can proceed only if
the reactants are dissolved in water.
Water and solute concentration in cells
and fluids in living organs must be
maintained at a relatively constant level,
within a narrow range so that these
cellular reactions can take place.
Water itself may participate as a
reactant in some metabolic processes
(such as photosynthesis) and may be
a product (for example, in cellular
respiration).
Problems associated with change in
water concentration
If the balance of water and solutes in
cells is not maintained at an optimal
concentration, too much water may
move into cells, causing them to burst
(if they are animal cells) or too much
water may move out, causing the cell
contents to shrink and the cytoplasm
71
28/5/08 2:37:07 PM
 MAINTAINING A BALANCE
to become too concentrated for normal
cell functioning.
The osmotic pressure of living tissue
can also affect the pH in cells—for
example, too little water leads to an
increase in the concentration of solutes
such as carbon dioxide and this in turn
lowers pH. Both osmotic pressure and
pH must be maintained within a narrow
range so that enzymes can function
under optimal conditions, to allow
effective metabolism. Homeostasis is
the regulatory process by which these
levels are maintained.
Correct fluid concentrations
maintain the osmotic pressure of cells
The importance of the removal of wastes
■ explain why the removal of wastes is essential for
continued metabolic activity
Any accumulation of wastes may be
toxic to cells and so metabolic wastes
must be removed from the body to
maintain homeostasis. If wastes are
not continuously removed, their levels
in the body will increase and alter the
conditions in the internal environment.
This in turn inhibits enzyme functioning
and prevents cells from undergoing
normal metabolic activity. Examples are:
■ the build-up of nitrogenous wastes
such as ammonia, which causes an
increase in pH in cells, resulting in
them becoming more alkaline
3.2 The role
ro of the kidney in excretion and
osmoregulation
osmor
The excretory system is a group of
organs that function together to remove
metabolic wastes from the tissues of an
organism and expel them to the outside
(see Fig. 3.1a). The kidneys are the
main excretory organs responsible for
removing nitrogenous wastes from the
bodies of vertebrate animals, including
fish and mammals.
72
Module 1-Chapter 3.indd 72
and this is responsible for structural
support in many living organisms
(such as plants and some invertebrate
animals). For example, in plants
osmotic pressure maintains cell
shape—the outward osmotic pressure
of the vacuole is counteracted by
the inward pressure of the cell wall,
making plant cells turgid.
If water accumulates in high
quantities as an end product of
metabolism in cells, it may dilute
reactants and slow down metabolism;
therefore excess water must be
removed from living organisms.
■ carbon dioxide accumulation, which
lowers pH, resulting in the internal
environment becoming more acidic.
These changes to the acidity or
alkalinity of cells slow down or inhibit
enzyme functioning in metabolism.
The accumulation of wastes
that do not alter the pH may cause
other problems—increased solute
concentrations interfere with reaction
rates and an osmotic imbalance
adversely affects membrane
functioning.
The function of the kidney in
excretion is to filter the blood that
enters it, removing wastes (in solution)
from the bloodstream so that they
can be excreted from the body. This
filtration is carried out in millions of
tiny excretory units called nephrons.
Urine is the excretory solution finally
produced by these microscopic tubules
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 EXCRETION—WASTES, WATER AND SALT BALANCE

renal cortex renal medulla Figure 3.1

(a) Excretory system
kidneys of mammals;
(b) macroscopic
renal artery structure of
renal vein mammalian kidney
(longitudinal section);
ureter (c) microscopic
inferior aorta structure showing the
vena cava bladder distribution of tubules
renal artery—carries
blood to kidney in the mammalian
renal
urethra pelvis kidney; (d) nephron
renal pelvis—funnels and associated
urine into the ureter
capillaries

renal vein—carries ureter

blood away from kidney

(a) (b)

proximal
distal tubule proximal tubule
efferent arteriole convoluted
from glomerulus tubule
distal
convoluted
tubule Bowman’s
afferent arteriole capsule
from renal artery

Bowman’s capsule
glomerulus

decending limb renal

ascending limb cortex

branch of
renal vein loop of
Henle
collecting
duct
renal
medulla
to
renal
pelvis
collecting
duct

(c) (d) loop of Henle

and it drains out of the kidneys, carrying are filtered to form urine. The kidney is
wastes out of the kidney via ducts, the drained of its fluids by two vessels:
ureters. In vertebrates, the ureters lead ■ the renal vein, which carries
to a urine storage organ, the bladder, purified blood back into the general
which passes urine via the urethra to circulation
the outside. In other vertebrates, the ■ the ureter, which carries urine
ureters carry urine directly to a chamber, (a watery solution containing
the cloaca (the common opening of nitrogenous wastes) out of the
the urinary, digestive and reproductive kidney (see Fig. 3.1a and b).
tracts), which empties to the outside The blood that was filtered in
(see Fig. 3.2). the kidney tubules returns to the
The oxygenated blood arriving general circulation via the renal
at the kidney, via the renal artery, vein. This blood has been purified
carries nitrogenous wastes and these, (all nitrogenous wastes have been
together with water and other solutes, removed).

73

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 MAINTAINING A BALANCE
bladder
ureter
renal portal
vein opening
kidney
of ureter
aorta
cloaca
Figure 3.2 Cloaca
of fish, showing the Animals use water to flush metabolic
opening of the urinary wastes out of the body. Excretion
tract
therefore brings with it the problem
of regulating the amount of water lost,
while ensuring that wastes are removed.
The role of the kidney includes both
the excretion of nitrogenous wastes
and osmoregulation—maintaining the
3.3 Active and passive transport (diffusion and osmosis)
in kidne
■
kidney functioning
distinguish between active and passive transport and
relate these to processes occurring in the mammalian
kidney
SR Movement of materials into and out
of cells takes place either passively or
actively. Passive movement includes
the processes of diffusion and osmosis.
These types of movement require
Assumedd kknowledge—
l d
no energy input from the cell, since
osmosis, diffusion and
active transport molecules move along a concentration
gradient (see Assumed Knowledge
on the Student Resource CD). Active
transport requires an input of cellular
energy to actively move molecules
against a concentration gradient.
Passive transport in the
mammalian kidney
Diffusion and osmosis result from
the random movement of particles,
called Brownian motion, whereby
particles continually collide and move
74
Module 1-Chapter 3.indd 74
water and salt (electrolyte) balance in
animals. The maintenance of a stable
blood volume, blood pressure and pH
depends upon a stable water balance
within a narrow range in the body. The
importance of conserving water varies
in different animals, depending on the
environment which each inhabits.
The main environments inhabited
by living organisms are freshwater,
marine and terrestrial habitats. Each
habitat presents its own problems for
organisms in terms of maintaining
their internal water and salt balance.
The kidneys of animals have evolved
to function in both excretion and the
removal or conservation of water and
salts, maintaining optimal levels of
these substances within the bodies
of animals that live in different
environments.
randomly. When they are in a higher
concentration in one region, this
constant movement slowly results in
an overall spreading out from the most
concentrated point, finally bringing
about their even distribution within
a space. The main limitations of
passive movement are that it depends
on the presence of a difference
in concentration of substances (a
concentration gradient) between two
regions and that it is relatively slow,
especially when the concentration
gradient is not steep.
Diffusion is the movement of
any molecules from a region of high
concentration to a region of low
concentration of that substance, until
28/5/08 2:37:17 PM

equilibrium is reached. This does not
require an energy input.
Osmosis is the movement of
water molecules from a region of
high water concentration to a region
of low water concentration through a
selectively permeable membrane. This
does not require an energy input.
Within the kidney, the movement of
substances between the bloodstream
and excretory fluid in the microscopic
tubules (called nephrons) involves
both active and passive transport. A
balance in the optimal concentrations
of blood chemicals is maintained by the
selective excretion of wastes, as well
as any excess water and salts, in urine.
Therefore the ability of the kidney to
alter the urine concentration plays a
vital role in homeostasis.
Within the kidney tubules, there is a
two-way movement of substances:
■ Waste substances pass from the
bloodstream into the kidney tubules,
to be excreted in urine (filtration and
secretion).
■ Substances required by the body
are removed from the urine in the
kidney tubules (before it is excreted)
and returned to the bloodstream
(reabsorption).
Passive transport moves water
(by osmosis), and some nitrogenous
wastes such as urea and ammonia (by
diffusion) in the kidney of mammals.
In the kidney, only excess water and
salts are excreted; homeostasis requires
that sometimes water and salts should
be conserved to maintain the required
levels within the body and at other
times they should be excreted. Salt
movement is via active transport (see
below) and this in turn draws water by
osmosis (passive movement).
Module 1-Chapter 3.indd 75
EXCRETION—WASTES, WATER AND SALT BALANCE
Active transport in the
mammalian kidney
Active transport is the movement
of molecules from an area of low
concentration to a region of high
concentration, requiring an input of
energy.
Sometimes in living organisms there
is a need to move a chemical against
the concentration gradient, and to do
this, active transport occurs. Active
transport involves a carrier protein that
spans the membrane and this carrier
molecule can actively move chemicals
from a low to a high concentration,
utilising cellular energy.
Active transport moves mainly
sodium ions, glucose, amino acids and
hydrogen ions across the wall of the
nephron:
■ All glucose and amino acids are
reabsorbed by kidney cells so that
they are not lost in urine and so
they move against a concentration
gradient.
■ Additional nitrogenous wastes (e.g.
uric acid) and hydrogen ions (H+)
are added to urine (from the blood
capillaries) in the kidney tubules.
■ A ‘sodium pump’ mechanism
operates in the tubules of the
kidneys, actively transporting ions
(salts) from the urine back into the
kidney cells. Besides conserving
salts, this process also brings about
the conservation of water within
the body—the active transport of
salts draws water out of the urine,
because water follows by osmosis
(passive transport). Water is drawn
by the osmotic pull of the salts in
solution.
(These are explained in greater detail in
section 3.4.)
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 MAINTAINING A BALANCE
3.4 Why osmosis
o and diffusion may be inadequate for
waste removal
■ explain
expla
ain why the processes of diffusion and osmosis are
inadequate in removing dissolved nitrogenous wastes in
inade
some organisms
Diffusion and osmosis are both types
of passive transport that require no
energy input and so they are slow—
the movement of molecules relies
on differences in the concentration
gradient between two solutions
(they move from a high to a low
concentration), and so both diffusion
and osmosis slow down as the
difference in concentration gradient
becomes smaller, and they stop once
the concentration gradient reaches
equilibrium.
Problems with relying on
diffusion
The rate of movement is too slow.
Nitrogenous wastes and toxins such as
drugs that accumulate in the body must
be dissolved in water when they are
removed. If their removal by the kidney
was dependent on diffusion only,
wastes would be able to move only if
they were more concentrated inside
the cells or the bloodstream than in the
fluids outside. As the concentrations
begin to equalise, their movement
would slow down and eventually stop.
Not all wastes can be removed by
diffusion. Since nitrogenous wastes
are toxic, it is essential they are all
removed. If concentrations within the
blood and urine equalised and no
further wastes were removed, their
accumulation would change the pH
of cells and become toxic. Active
transport is therefore essential at this
point to move wastes such as uric acid
against the concentration gradient from
blood into urine in the kidney.
76
Module 1-Chapter 3.indd 76
Problems with relying on
osmosis
Too much water may be lost in urine.
If urine contains a large number of
nitrogenous wastes in solution, water
will be drawn into the urine by osmosis,
to dilute the wastes and try to equalise
the concentration of the fluid inside the
urine and in the surrounding kidney
tissues. However, excretion of dilute
urine means the loss of large amounts
of water from the body—a loss many
terrestrial animals cannot afford.
Movement of water may make wastes
too dilute for excretion by diffusion.
Organisms that live in freshwater
environments have a different
problem—osmosis results in water
moving into the body tissues from the
surrounding environment. Although this
dilutes the toxic wastes in the body,
it also slows down their excretion by
diffusion (lowers the concentration
gradient). Therefore a mechanism is
essential to remove wastes against a
concentration gradient.
Solution to the problems—
combined active transport and
osmosis
Active transport, which requires energy,
is quicker and more effective than
diffusion as it removes most wastes,
even against a concentration gradient.
It can also be used to pump salts from
urine back into the kidney tissues and
these in turn will draw water with them
(by osmosis), ensuring in this way that
the amount of water lost in urine does
not affect the body’s water balance.
(Note : Water cannot be moved directly
by active transport.)
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Investigating the structure of a mammalian kidney
■ perform a first-hand investigation of the structure of
a mammalian kidney by dissection, use of a model or
visual resource and identify the regions involved in the
excretion of waste products
Aim
To identify the parts of a mammalian kidney and
to identify the regions involved in the excretion
of waste products (relate the parts to their
functions).
Background information
The kidneys lie on either side of the midline on
the dorsal (back) wall of the abdomen in the
region of the waist. In humans, each kidney is
bean-shaped, about 10.5–13 cm long, 6 cm wide
and 3 cm thick. The indentation in the kidney is
termed the hilum and blood vessels (the renal
artery and vein), the ureter and nerves enter
and leave the kidney at this point. The kidneys
of a well-nourished person are embedded in fat.
They function to filter out wastes, such as urea
and some salts, and to regulate the water and
salt balance in the body. The kidneys are also
responsible for regulation of blood pressure and
maintenance of pH within the body.
This investigation may be undertaken as a
dissection, using fresh kidneys obtained from
a butcher (request that they are provided still
embedded in fat). The alternative is to use a
model of a kidney and/or a visual resource such
as the website listed below.
http://webhome.broward.edu/
~ssimpson/!videowebsite/
dissection.htm
Website featuring kidney dissection.
Materials
Dissecting tray, newspaper, sharp scalpel,
forceps, probe, scissors, pins and label flags,
kidney, latex gloves (with non-slip grip), hand
lens
Safety
(Refer to the safety guidelines on the Teacher
Resource CD.) Students should draw up a table
in which they identify three risks associated with
this investigation, describe each and propose a
suitable strategy to overcome the risk.
Method
1. Work in pairs or in groups of four. Lay the
kidney on the dissecting tray.
Module 1-Chapter 3.indd 77
EXCRETION—WASTES, WATER AND SALT BALANCE
FIRST-HAND
INVESTIGATION
BIOLOGY SKILLS
H11.3
H12.1; H12.2
External structure
H13.1
2. Examine the external structure of the
kidney, noting its surrounding fat (adipose H14.1
tissue) before removing it. Remove the fat,
leaving the vessels at the hilum intact.
3. Compare the size of the kidney that you SR
have for dissection with the dimensions
given for an average human kidney.
4. Identify the vessels, distinguishing
between the renal artery, vein and ureter.
Locate the adrenal gland (in the fat). Guidedd iinvestigation
ti ti
5. Detach the renal capsule. Describe its of the structure of
appearance and function. a mammalian kidney
6. Draw a life-sized diagram to show the with an investigation
external structure of the kidney. template
Internal structure TR
7. Cut the kidney in longitudinal section,
making an incision along the side opposite
to hilum. Note the opening to the ureter.
Insert a probe through the hole and
observe where it exits. General resources—
8. Identify the regions of the kidney: the outer risk assessment:
cortex, the medulla and the renal pelvis. safety
Compare the colour and appearance of the
cortex and medulla.
9. Insert a probe below the renal pyramids,
slip the lower blade of the scissors into
the gap and slit through each pyramid to
follow the path of the calyces. Urine from
the collecting tubules drains into these
calyces, which carry the urine to the renal
pelvis, ureters and bladder.
10. Draw a diagram of a longitudinal section
through the kidney, showing the internal
structure as seen in the dissection.
Annotate the diagram by writing the
function of each structure labelled (a
minimum of six structures). Do not draw
the textbook diagram.
11. Identify each of the following regions of
the kidney, using toothpicks with coloured
flags.
Red flag—the part of the kidney containing
collecting tubules.
Blue flag—the region of the kidney
containing glomeruli and Bowman’s
capsules.
Yellow flag—the part of the kidney that
carries urine from the collecting tubules.
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 MAINTAINING A BALANCE

Results Discussion and conclusion

Record all results appropriately. A worksheet Answer all discussion questions on the Student
has been provided on the Student Resource CD Resource CD and write a valid conclusion.
to assist students.

3.5 Micros
Microscopic structure and the functioning of the
mammalian kidney
mamm
Microscopic structure of the The Bowman’s capsule occurs
kidney at one end and is an enlarged part of
the nephron tubule. It is a double-
The basic functional unit within the
walled sac, indented on one side to
kidney is a microscopic tubule called
accommodate a spherical network
the nephron, the smallest structural
of blood capillaries called the
part of a kidney that is capable of
glomerulus. A useful analogy is to
producing urine. Each kidney contains
think of the Bowman’s capsule as a
millions of these tiny units, which
baseball mitt—double-walled, hollow
coil and twist across both the cortex
(where your hand fits inside) and
and medulla. A nephron consists of
curved around to accommodate a
four functional parts: the Bowman’s
baseball. The glomerulus is represented
capsule, a proximal (first)
by the baseball—in close contact
convoluted tubule, the loop of Henle
with and partly surrounded by the
and a distal (second) convoluted
Bowman’s capsule. If these were
Figure 3.3 The tubule which leads into a collecting
nephron—functional
cut through in longitudinal section,
duct (see Fig. 3.3).
unit of the kidney their structure would appear as in
Figure 3.4.
Bowman’s
The hollow part the Bowman’s
distal tubule
capsule
p
proximal tubule capsule is filled with fluid called
glomerulus
glomerular filtrate. This fluid
continues its flow along the length of
Na+ –
N the nephron and by the time it reaches
CI
Total solute concentration (mOsm)

300 — H2O the collecting tubule at the far end, it is

collecting
tubules known as urine. As it flows along the
loop of
nephron, the chemical composition of
cortex
Henle the fluid is adjusted. Various substances
are removed or added to obtain the
final product—urine.
H2O Na+ H2O
600 — CI– The Bowman’s capsule and first
and second convoluted tubules lie in
outer medulla
the cortex, while the loop of Henle
H2O and the collecting tubules pass into the
urea
medulla. (The distribution of the parts
H2O of the nephron within the cortex and
inner medulla medulla can be seen in Fig. 3.3.)
1200—

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Nephron functioning: filtration, reabsorption and tubular
secretion
■ explain how the processes of filtration and reabsorption
in the mammalian nephron regulate body fluid
composition
Three main processes that lead to urine
formation occur in the nephron. These
are filtration, reabsorption and
secretion, described in detail below
(also see Fig. 3.4).
Filtration
The renal artery that enters the kidney
branches into numerous smaller and
smaller vessels, each terminating in a
globular network of capillaries—the
glomerulus. The filtration of blood
takes place at the surface between the
glomerulus and the inner lining of each
Bowman’s capsule. A high pressure
system exists in the blood flowing
through the glomerulus, created partly
by size of the blood vessels entering
and leaving—the vessel entering the
capillary network is slightly larger
than that exiting. Substances within
the blood that are small enough are
squeezed through the capillary wall
under pressure; they pass through
the cellular layer lining the Bowman’s
capsule and move into the lumen.
Blood cells and proteins are retained
in the blood, while large volumes of
water pass through, carrying dissolved
substances including amino acids,
glucose, salts (ions), nitrogenous wastes
Urine results from the following three processes:
1. Filtration Filtration (blue arrow) is the movement
of materials across the filtration
membrane into the lumen of
Bowman’s capsule to form filtrate
2. Reabsorption Solutes are reabsorbed (orange arrow)
across the wall of the nephron by
transport processes, such as active
transport. Water is reabsorbed (purple
arrow) across the wall of the nephron
by osmosis
3. Secretion Solutes are secreted (green arrow)
across the wall of the nephron into
the filtrate
Module 1-Chapter 3.indd 79
EXCRETION—WASTES, WATER AND SALT BALANCE
and other toxic molecules (see Fig. 3.5).
Once inside the Bowman’s capsule, this
fluid is termed glomerular filtrate.
The process of filtration separates
substances from the blood based on
their size. It does not take into account
whether they are wastes to be excreted
or nutrients that are still required in the
body. Glomerular filtrate is therefore
not the final fluid excreted—its
composition is adjusted as it flows
along the remainder of the nephron:
■ Substances that the body needs are
reabsorbed from the filtrate into the
kidney cells or bloodstream so that
they are not lost with urine.
■ Additional wastes that may still be in
the bloodstream (those that were not
squeezed out of the blood under the
high pressure of filtration) must be
added (secreted) into the fluid. SR TR
These processes, called tubular
reabsorption and tubular secretion,
adjust the composition of the fluid in
the nephron to form urine (see Fig. 3.5). Student worksheet—
Students may complete Task 1 on the functioning of the
the Student Resource CD at this point. kidney
Reabsorption
Figure 3.4 The
The chemical composition of body processes involved in
fluids is precisely regulated by selective urine formation in the
nephron
peritubular capillaries
to general circulation
filtrate urine
rest of nephron
Bowman’s capsule
renal corpuscle
glomerular capillaries
efferent arteriole carries blood away from glomerulus
afferent arteriole brings blood to the glomerulus
79
28/5/08 2:37:24 PM
 MAINTAINING A BALANCE

Figure 3.5 Nephron

glomerulus Bowman’s glomerular
functioning showing capillary capsule filtrate
Bowman’s capsule and
glomerulus in detail
1. Filtration
Pressure forces fluids and
dissolved substances through
walls of the glomerular capillaries
into the Bowman’s capsule
1
water

AA
arteriole CI–
entering Na+ ammino
acid glucose

AA
CI–
CI–
red blood glucose
cells
arteriole
leaving
water

urea
protein

2. Reabsorption
Water, salts and nutrients move by
blood diffusion or active transport from
the tubule into the surrounding
2 CI– capillaries
AA
urine
200–1500mL of urine daily 3. Secretion
includes: Excess ions and chemicals such
water: 95–97% Na+
as drugs are secreted
solids: 3–5% including: glucose
urea 30g
creatinine 1–2g
ammonia 0.5g 3 4. Excretion
uric acid 1g Excess water and solutes are
ions (salts) 25g eliminated in the form of urine
4

reabsorption of certain solutes from the depending on the particular

glomerular filtrate at various points along
the nephron—the proximal tubule,
loop of Henle and distal tubule (see
Fig. 3.6). The filtrate contains molecules
that the body needs (e.g. amino acids,
glucose, certain ions and some water)
and so they are actively reabsorbed from
the nephron and passed back into the
interstitial fluid and blood capillaries
surrounding the nephron, a process
called tubular reabsorption. These
capillaries join up to form larger vessels
which drain into the renal vein, where
they are carried from the kidney back
into the general circulation.
Substances that are reabsorbed: water
and some solutes
All nutrients are reabsorbed from
the filtrate and varying quantities
of inorganic ions are reabsorbed,
requirements of the body at that time.
Solute reabsorption: all amino
acids and glucose and varying
quantities of ions such as Na+, K+, Cl–,
Ca2+ and HCO3– (sodium, potassium,
chloride, calcium and hydrogen
bicarbonate ions) and some vitamins
are reabsorbed. The differing rate of
reabsorption of particular ions depends
on feedback from the body. All solutes
that are reabsorbed from the nephron
move by means of active transport
and facilitated diffusion (see table on
the Teacher Resource CD). Glomerular
filtrate also contains a relatively high
concentration of dissolved urea and
other wastes, most of which are not
reabsorbed.
Water reabsorption: As the solutes
are actively reabsorbed, water follows
by the passive process of osmosis.
An enormous quantity of water is

80

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1 proximal tubule
NaCI nutrients
HCO3– H2O
K+
H+
cortex
2 descending
limb of loop
of Henle
outer
filtrate
medulla
H2O (water)
salts (NaCI, etc)
HCO3– (bicarbonate ions)
H+ (hydrogen ions)
urea
glucose; amino acids
some drugs inner
medulla
active transport
passive transport
reabsorbed by osmosis—approximately
99% of the huge volume of filtrate
that passes into the Bowman’s capsule
is reabsorbed along the length of
the nephron and only 1% is actually
excreted as urine.
The membranes of the cells
lining the nephron can change their
permeability to water and ions,
thus regulating the amount of these
substances that are reabsorbed.
Hormones control these changes in
membrane permeability. This is a
homeostatic mechanism which allows
the body to maintain its blood volume
and chemical composition within the
narrow range required for effective
metabolism.
Parts of the nephron involved in
reabsorption
In the proximal tubule, all organic
nutrients (amino acids and glucose)
are reabsorbed, as well as some ions
such as sodium, potassium, chlorides,
hydrogen carbonate, calcium and
magnesium ions.
Module 1-Chapter 3.indd 81
EXCRETION—WASTES, WATER AND SALT BALANCE
Figure 3.6
Filtration, reabsorption
and secretion of
4 distal tubule solutes in the nephron
H 2O
NaCI HCO3–
K+ H+
NH3
3 thick segment
of ascending
limb
NaCI
H2O
NaCI
3 thin segment 5 collecting
of ascending duct
limb
urea
NaCI H2O
The loop of Henle descends into
the medulla and then ascends up
towards the cortex, leading into the
distal tubule. In the ascending limb of
the loop of Henle, a large number of
ions (sodium in particular) are actively
pumped out into the interstitial fluid
in the medulla, since the membranes
are permeable to salts (dissociated
into ions) but impermeable to water.
Some urea may move by diffusion
out of the collecting tubule and
into the surrounding interstitial fluid.
These solutes which accumulate in
the medulla draw water by osmosis.
Some water moves from the descending
limb of the loop of Henle and a large
amount of water moves from the
collecting tubules, both of which
have membranes that are permeable
to water, allowing it to move passively
by osmosis into the surrounding tissue
of the medulla. (Energy is used to
ensure that urea does not return to the
capillaries, so this is not true tubular
reabsorption.)
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 MAINTAINING A BALANCE

Figure 3.7
The sodium pump
mechanism in the
asscen
ascending
a ndinng
loop of Henle
lilimb
m o
mb off
loop
lo o of
oop o
capillary Henle
H enle
e
1
descending
H2O
limb of loop
of Henle
H 2O CI– H2O

Na+
H2O
2 CI–
H2O H2O
Na+
2
collecting
H2O tubule

Key 1 active
activ
vee ssodium
odium reabsorption
reabsorptio
on 2 passive water movement by osmosis

Note: Water is reabsorbed in all Parts of the nephron involved in tubular

parts of the tubule except the ascending
loop of Henle.
Tubular secretion
Tubular secretion is the third process
that contributes to urine formation in
the nephron. It involves the removal
of toxic substances from the blood
capillaries and tissues and their
active secretion into the nephron.
Metabolic wastes such as urea, uric
acid, ammonia and hydrogen ions
are secreted into the fluid within
the nephron, along with drugs such
as penicillin, saccharin, morphine.
Movement of urea and ammonia is
mainly by means of diffusion, whereas
all other tubular secretion involves
active transport.
secretion
H+ and drugs such as penicillin and
saccharin and morphine are secreted
into the proximal part of the nephron.
Urea is secreted into the descending
limb of the loop of Henle (the
ascending limb and distal tubules are
impermeable to urea).
Urea may be recycled in the
nephron to help move water by
osmosis—some urea may move from
the collecting tubules into the interstitial
fluid to help draw water out of the loop
of Henle. It then diffuses back into the
descending limb of the loop of Henle
so it may be continuously recycled if
the body needs to reabsorb water.
Students may complete Tasks 2–5 on
the Student Resource CD.

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Hormonal regulation of kidney functioning
■ outline the role of the hormones, aldosterone and ADH
(anti-diuretic hormone) in the regulation of water and
salt levels in blood
The role of aldosterone and
ADH in regulating kidney
functioning
Hormones are chemical control
substances that are secreted by
endocrine (ductless) glands, directly
into the bloodstream. They travel via
the general circulation to parts of the
body and when they reach their target
cells, these cells (in this case, cells
within the kidney nephrons) respond.
The passage of the filtrate from
Bowman’s capsule to the distal parts
of the nephron occurs as outlined
above, without variation. Adjustments
to the concentration of water and salts
within the urine takes place mainly in
the distal parts of the tubules and the
collecting tubules, by alterations to
the permeability of the membranes of
cells lining the nephron walls. These
changes in permeability are brought
about by two main hormones:
■ Aldosterone brings about retention
(conservation) of salts within the
body.
■ ADH (anti-diuretic hormone)
brings about water reabsorption
(conservation) within the body.
Aldosterone
A decrease in the concentration of
sodium ions in the bloodstream leads
to a decrease in blood volume and
this stimulates cells in the cortex of
the adrenal gland (above the kidney)
to secrete the hormone aldosterone.
When aldosterone reaches the kidney
(via the bloodstream), it increases the
permeability of the nephron to sodium,
particularly in the ascending limb of
the loop of Henle. Reabsorption of
sodium ions from the nephron into
the surrounding kidney tissue and
Module 1-Chapter 3.indd 83
EXCRETION—WASTES, WATER AND SALT BALANCE
3.6
capillaries occurs, resulting in the SR TR
retention (conservation) of salt by the
body—that is, less salt is lost in urine.
In the absence of aldosterone, the salt
concentration in urine is higher (see
Student worksheet—
Fig 3.8(b)).
hormone regulation of
kidney functioning
Anti-diuretic hormone
When a mammal begins to dehydrate,
blood volume drops and this is
detected in the hypothalamus of the
brain. It stimulates the pituitary gland
to release the hormone ADH, which
acts on the nephrons of the kidneys
to increase the reabsorption of water.
The presence of ADH increases the
permeability of the membranes of
the cells lining the distal tubules and
collecting tubules to water. As a result,
water is reabsorbed from these tubules
into the kidney tissue and bloodstream
and so water is conserved within the
body (less water is lost in urine). The
name of the hormone describes its
function—a diuretic is a substance that
causes the loss of water from the body
(alcohol, tea and coffee are diuretics),
so ‘anti-diuretic’ refers to a substance
that reduces water loss. (See the flow
chart, Fig. CD3.5, on the Student
Resource CD.)
Both ADH and aldosterone therefore
play an important role in helping the
kidney to carry out its homeostatic
functions of osmoregulation:
■ regulation of the solute concentration
of the blood: regulating the amount
of sodium and other ions that are
reabsorbed or secreted in urine)
■ regulation of blood volume:
maintaining a constant fluid
volume by producing either a large
volume of dilute urine or a small or
concentration of concentrated urine.
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 MAINTAINING A BALANCE

Figure 3.8 Hormone

regulation of kidney hypothalamus
functioning: (a)
ADH and water
conservation;
(b) aldosterone and
salt conservation stimulus: decrease in blood volume

posterior
pituitary (b)
Na+
aldorsterone
adrenal cortex Na+
CI–
(a)
ADH CI–

loop of Henle
sINCREASEDPERMEABILITYOF
membrane to sodium ions
sSALTREABSORBEDRETAINED
LESSFLUIDLOSS
less Na+ loss
H2O

H2O
H2O response: blood volume increases

collecting tubules
s INCREASEDPERMEABILITY
OFMEMBRANESTOWATER
s WATERISREABSORBED
CONSERVED

3.7 Technology related to kidney functioning

An understanding of how the kidney
functions to remove wastes, as well
PFA as the hormonal regulation of kidney
functioning to maintain homeostasis has
H3 played a key role in the development
of technologies such as:
■ renal dialysis for people suffering
from reduced kidney functioning
■ hormone replacement therapy
for patients suffering from
abnormally low levels of the
hormone aldosterone.
These applications of the use
of biology have helped to improve
the lifestyle and increase the life
expectancy of people who suffer
from these diseases. The secondary-
source investigations that follow
provide suitable material to address the
prescribed focus area, showing how
advances in our knowledge of biology
have affected the development of
technology.

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Technology 1—renal dialysis replaces lost kidney
functioning
■ gather, process and analyse information from secondary
sources to compare the process of renal dialysis with the
function of the kidney
Aim
■ To gather, process and analyse information
from secondary sources on the process of
renal dialysis.
■ To compare the process of renal dialysis
with the function of the kidney.
■ To describe how advances in our knowledge
of biology have affected the development of
the technologies for renal dialysis (PFA H3).
(See the Student Resource CD.)
Video clip: Students should view the
video clip on the following website as
a resource for this investigation.
http://www.davita.com/kidney_
animation/#intro—A video
showing how dialysis works.
Background information
The kidneys are responsible for filtering our
blood, removing metabolic wastes so that
they may be excreted via urination. If a person
suffers from kidney failure, there is no natural
means by which these wastes can be removed
and their toxic effect eventually leads to death.
(Incidental to this excretory function is the ability
of the kidney to regulate the ion concentration,
pH and volume of blood).
The process of renal dialysis has been
developed to carry out the function of failed
kidneys so that blood may be effectively
filtered. There are two types of renal dialysis—
haemodialysis and peritoneal dialysis. The
process of haemodialysis is outlined below,
giving a brief introduction to the technology.
Students research both technologies and take
into account the outcomes achieved by each,
as well as the limitations encountered, when
comparing them with kidney functioning.
The main function of a dialysis machine is
to remove metabolic wastes that have built up
in the person’s blood. The patient is connected
to a dialysis machine, which pumps their blood
through a system of tubes (coiled to increase
their surface area and therefore the rate of
diffusion) which have artificial semi-permeable
membranes. The tubes are submerged in
dialysis fluid (dialysate), which flows in the
Module 1-Chapter 3.indd 85
EXCRETION—WASTES, WATER AND SALT BALANCE
SECONDARY SOURCE
INVESTIGATION
PFA
H3
opposite direction to the blood in order to BIOLOGY SKILLS
maximise diffusion. Dialysate has the same
concentration as blood plasma without the H12.3; H12.4
metabolic wastes, and since the concentration H14.1
of metabolic waste is higher in the blood than
in the dialysing fluid, the waste materials move
through the semi-permeable membrane into
TR
the dialysing fluid by diffusion. Since dialysis
relies on passive transport for the removal of
wastes from the blood, the dialysing fluid must
constantly be replaced so that the concentration
gradient is maintained away from the blood.
General resources and
Renal dialysis must be carried out for
PFA H3 scaffold
3 to 4 hours, two or three times per week. As
well as its time-consuming nature, another
disadvantage of the process is that only limited
amounts of fluid/wastes can be removed from
the blood; other substances such as sodium
phosphate and potassium ions do not diffuse
quickly enough and therefore may accumulate
in the blood and so it is recommended that
patients follow a specific diet to prevent this, as
renal dialysis is not effective in regulating the
concentration of these ions in the blood.
Figure 3.9 A patient
receiving renal dialysis
SR
Skills ffor iinvestigation,
ti ti
recommended
websites and
PFA H3 scaffold—
renal dialysis
85
28/5/08 2:37:40 PM
 MAINTAINING A BALANCE

(a)

from an artery blood

blood pump diffusion

to a vein of waste
products
such as
bubble urea
trap
dialysis diffusion of waste
membrane products across the
dialysis membrane

compressed fresh constant used

CO2 and air dialysis temperature dialysis
fluid bath fluid dialysis
fluid

(b) dialysate fluid

(i) (ii) (iii)

abdominal cavity
abdominal
cavity bag is rolled up and
tucked around waist

bag is lowered and fluid

is allowed to flow out

Figure 3.10
Renal dialysis:
(a) haemodialysis; Task ■ Mechanism to ensure all wastes are
(b) peritoneal dialysis removed from the blood
Use the text and diagrams on pages 85–86 and ■ Mechanism to ensure no required
the recommended websites and scaffold on the substances are removed from the blood
Student Resource CD to answer the questions ■ Regulation of water and salt balance.
that follow. 3. Draw up a table to compare the process
TR 1. Define renal dialysis and briefly outline the of renal dialysis with the functioning of the
two types of renal dialysis. human kidney.
2. Describe the functioning of the kidney under 4. Describe how advances in our knowledge
the following headings: of biology have affected the development of
■ Filtration of blood the technologies for renal dialysis (use the
Answers to ■ Role of diffusion, active transport and scaffold for PFA H3, provided on the Student
investigation osmosis in kidney functioning Resource CD, to answer this question).

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Technology 2—aldosterone and hormone
replacement therapy
■ present information to outline the general use of
hormone replacement therapy in people who cannot
secrete aldosterone
Task
Read the background information given below
and then present information in the form of a
report. (The Student Resource CD contains
recommended websites and information on a
report text type to assist students completing
this task.) Select ONE option from the list
below:
■ Write a letter to your local newspaper in
order to raise awareness of the importance
of hormone replacement therapy for people
who lack aldosterone.
■ Write a sequence of diary entries from the
perspective of a patient, beginning when
you first find out you have insufficient
aldosterone until after you are on hormone
replacement therapy. Report in each entry
on how your developing condition affects
your lifestyle.
■ Write a newspaper report on an occurrence
involving a person who was suffering from
Addison’s disease and explain how hormone
replacement therapy may have changed
this.
Whatever your choice of presentation,
you are required to outline the general use
of hormone replacement therapy and its
importance. Base your presentation on fact, but
try to be creative and original in your ideas—
you may use emotive language.
Background information
The function of aldosterone in the
body
Aldosterone increases the amount of salt
reabsorbed from kidney tubules and as a result
it also helps regulate blood pressure.
Why some people lack aldosterone
Addison’s disease results from abnormally low
levels of aldosterone in the body. The causes
are not always known, but include:
■ damage to the adrenal glands that produce
aldosterone, due to accident, surgery or
disease (such as bacterial infections or
cancer of the gland)
■ damage to the pituitary gland that controls
the adrenal gland (for example, because of
a tumour).
Module 1-Chapter 3.indd 87
EXCRETION—WASTES, WATER AND SALT BALANCE
SECONDARY SOURCE
INVESTIGATION
PFA
H4
Consequences of an inability to BIOLOGY SKILLS
secrete adequate aldosterone H12.3; H12.4
■ Inadequate aldosterone may lead to
Addison’s disease, where the adrenal cortex H13.1
is unable to secrete sufficient (or, in severe H14.2; H14.3
cases any) aldosterone.
■ It results in low sodium levels and high
potassium levels in the blood—this is a SR
potentially dangerous situation, initially
leading to symptoms such as weakness,
fatigue and weight loss.
■ In severe cases of mineral ion imbalance,
blood pressure drops due to the low
Reportt ttextt ttype andd
amounts of sodium and potassium ions,
relevant websites
an imbalance of hydrogen ions leads to a
lowering of blood pH and blood glucose
imbalance may arise (this results from a lack TR
of another associated hormone produced
by the adrenal cortex). Symptoms such as
these restrict the patient’s lifestyle as they
cannot stand for long periods of time, may
faint from low blood pressure (which brings Summary—
dangers of its own, restricting activities and aldosterone and
independence, such as not being able to hormone replacement
drive) and are often too tired to do much. therapy
■ Without treatment, this may result in the
potentially lethal condition of heart failure.
In a medical emergency, large amounts of
salt and water must be given intravenously,
as well as rapid intravenous adrenal
replacement therapy.
Hormone replacement therapy
■ Hormone replacement therapy involves
restoring the balance of the hormones at
levels that are normal for the body, by giving
the patients hormones.
■ When applied appropriately, it can increase
fluid retention, raise blood pressure and
remove the danger of heart failure, allowing
sufferers to lead normal lives.
■ Since 1927, when the first hormone
replacement therapy began (using an
extract from the adrenal cortex of cattle),
hundreds of human lives which would have
been lost to Addison’s disease in the past
have been saved. Modern day hormone
replacement therapy involves administering
a genetically engineered hormone called
fludrocortisone.
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 MAINTAINING A BALANCE
3.8 Excret
Excretion of nitrogenous wastes and
osmoregulation in animals
osmor
■ identify the role of the kidney in the excretory system of
fish and mammals
Water and solutes are continually
exchanged between the environment
and a living organism’s body fluids.
Water accumulates within the body of
an animal when it eats or drinks, or as
a by-product of cellular metabolism.
Nitrogenous wastes accumulate in
animals as a result of metabolism.
The role of the kidney in fish
and mammals
The kidneys in fish and mammals are
excretory and osmoregulatory organs
and their main functions are outlined
below.
■ Marine fish: their kidneys conserve
water, excrete excess salts and
nitrogenous wastes.
■ Freshwater fish: their kidneys excrete
excess water and nitrogenous wastes
(produce large amounts of dilute
urine), conserve salt.
■ Mammals: their kidneys conserve
water and salts when required,
excrete excess water and salts and
excrete nitrogenous wastes.
The water potential of living cells
is similar to that of sea water, but
lower than that of fresh water or the
surrounding air. (Water potential is the
tendency of a solution to lose water
by osmosis, typical of solutions that
have a high water concentration.) The
concentration of water in the immediate
environment of an organism determines
its need to conserve (retain) water or
lose it.
In aquatic animals such as fish,
the concentration of solutes in the
surrounding aquatic environment has
a direct influence on the direction of
movement of water—whether it will
88
Module 1-Chapter 3.indd 88
move into or out of the body of the
fish.
Freshwater fish live in rivers and
lakes, where the water potential is
high—these habitats contain very few
dissolved salts and water is therefore
freely available (not a limiting factor).
Freshwater fish urinate frequently,
as water tends to accumulate in
their tissues as a result of passive
movement by osmosis from a higher
concentration in the surroundings to
a lower water concentration in the
animal. These fish are faced with the
problem of too much water being
present in their bodies. The kidneys in
freshwater fish therefore excrete excess
water (gained by osmosis from their
surroundings), as well as nitrogenous
wastes (as ammonia). Their kidneys are
structurally suited to this role by having
large glomeruli for the filtration of
blood in large volumes. Their kidneys
are not involved in salt balance, since
these fish do not face the problem of
salt accumulation from their freshwater
environment. Any excess salts that they
consume in their diets are excreted via
the gills.
Organisms that live in marine
habitats (in the sea) or terrestrial
habitats (on land) tend to lose water to
their surroundings, and so they have
evolved mechanisms to conserve water.
Marine fish urinate less. They tend
to lose body water (by osmosis), across
the body surface and gills, into their
salty surroundings. Excess salt tends
to accumulate in their bodies, moving
in by diffusion from the surrounding
sea water. The main function of the
kidneys in these fish is therefore to
remove excess salt. Marine fish tend
to drink sea water, extract the salt
28/5/08 2:37:50 PM

from it and then use the water for
metabolism. They excrete the extracted
salt to keep salt levels in the body to a
minimum. Their kidneys tend to play
a role in conserving water rather than
excreting it. To meet this need, their
kidneys tend to have small glomeruli
as well as a mechanism for removing
excess salt taken in with sea water. The
kidney is also responsible for excreting
nitrogenous wastes (usually in the form
of urea) in marine fish.
Terrestrial mammals lose water
and solutes from the body as a result
of evaporation from the lung surface
during respiration and as a result of
excretion (for example, the production
of sweat and urine).
The kidneys of mammals excrete
urine that is composed mainly of water
and nitrogenous wastes (urea), as well
as some (excess) salts. The mammalian
kidney can adjust the reabsorption of
nitrogenous wastes, water and salts,
varying the concentration of urine
produced. Mammals have a complex
control mechanism to ensure that a
balance is maintained between the
amounts of sweat and urine excreted.
In hot weather, more water is excreted
as sweat (since sweating is a form
of evaporative cooling and this has
the advantage of lowering body
temperature) and as a result less urine
Urine concentration and water balance in animal
excretion (mammals, marine and freshwater fish)
■ analyse information from secondary sources to compare
and explain the differences in urine concentration of
terrestrial mammals, marine fish and freshwater fish
Background information
The concentration of urine produced by different
animals depends on their need to conserve
water. The amount of solutes dissolved in the
Module 1-Chapter 3.indd 89
EXCRETION—WASTES, WATER AND SALT BALANCE
is produced. In cold weather, more SR TR
water is lost in urine and very little in
sweat.
A relatively large quantity of salts
is also lost during sweating and
Student worksheet—
needs to be replaced to maintain a
role of the kidney in
stable osmotic pressure within body excretion in mammals,
fluids and cells in an organism. Any freshwater fish and
adjustment to water and salt levels in marine fish
urine is brought about by the action
of the hormones ADH and aldosterone
on the kidney tubules. Urine produced
may be more dilute (e.g. in animals
that have been drinking large amounts
of water) or concentrated (in those
that have been sweating) and this
adjustment is made depending on the
needs of the body.
Task: Role of the kidney in
excretion and osmoregulation
Read the notes on the preceding
pages and then complete the table
provided on the Student Resource CD
to compare the role of the kidney in
mammals, freshwater fish and marine
fish, under the following headings:
■ Excretion: type of nitrogenous waste
excreted.
■ Osmoregulation: regulation of water
concentration in the body.
■ Osmoregulation: role in salt balance
(which assists with electrolyte levels,
pH and blood pressure).
SECONDARY SOURCE
INVESTIGATION
BIOLOGY SKILLS
H12.4
watery solvent of urine is a measure of how
H13.1
dilute or concentrated the urine solution actually H14.1; H14.3
is. Nitrogenous wastes and salts are the most
abundant solutes in urine. If urine is high in
89
28/5/08 2:37:51 PM
 MAINTAINING A BALANCE
solutes, it is said to be concentrated, but if it is
very watery and contains relatively few solutes,
it is termed dilute. All vertebrates are able to
produce urine that is the same concentration as
or more dilute than that of blood. However, only
those with specialised excretory systems can
produce urine that is more concentrated than
blood. This requires energy and specialised
mechanisms of functioning.
Mammals—a varied concentration
of urine
Some organisms, such as mammals and birds,
are able to vary their urine concentrations
according to the changing needs of the body.
When the body needs to conserve water (e.g. if
large amounts of water have been lost in warm
weather as a result of sweating or panting) the
body will excrete concentrated urine so that
water is conserved. On cooler days when the
animal does not sweat or on days where large
amounts of water are consumed, dilute urine is
excreted by the kidneys. As a result, the water
content of the blood is maintained at a relatively
constant level because the kidneys are able
to adjust the concentration of urine excreted
and so the kidneys play a role in assisting the
maintenance of a relatively constant blood
volume (and therefore pressure) in the body.
The kidneys of mammals also regulate the
concentration of salts excreted in urine (and
therefore those that remain in the blood plasma)
SR TR
and they keep the blood pH within a narrow
range by varying the amount of hydrogen ions
excreted in urine.
The concentration of urine in mammals
therefore varies in terms of the concentration
Recommended websites
of water and of dissolved substances such as
and investigation
nitrogenous wastes, salts and hydrogen ions
worksheet—urine
that it contains. Humans produce, on average,
concentrations in
urine that is about 4.2 times more concentrated
terrestrial mammals,
than their plasma (that is, their urine is slightly
marine fish and
more salty than sea water). The concentration
freshwater fish
of the urine of desert mammals is greater; for
example, the urine of camels is eight times
TR as concentrated as their blood and that of the
spinifex hopping mouse can be even higher.
Kangaroo rats can live on a diet of plant
parts that contain almost no water—they can
survive on dry seeds and not drink water for
Extension task—urine prolonged periods of time. Their bodies are
concentration in able to make use of metabolic water that
animals they generate by processes such as cellular
90
Module 1-Chapter 3.indd 90
respiration and they rely on this for their
survival. The urine that they produce may be up
to three times as salty as sea water. The loop of
Henle in their kidneys is almost three times as
long as that in human kidneys, allowing them
to reabsorb vast quantities of water from their
urine. (See the recommended websites on the
Student Resource CD.)
Fish—a set concentration of urine
The physiology of fish allows them to produce
urine of one particular concentration, rather
than varying the concentration as is seen in
mammals. The concentration of urine that is
excreted is dependent on the type of aquatic
environment in which the fish lives. The
exchange of water and dissolved salts occurs
between the cells and body fluids of the fish and
its environment, and each aquatic environment
(marine and fresh water) presents its own set of
problems that must be overcome by structural,
physiological and behavioural adaptations in the
fish.
In freshwater fish (for example, native
bass), the water surrounding the fish has a
lower concentration of solutes than the cells of
the fish. The main problem facing the animal
is that, since water moves by osmosis from a
higher water concentration (fresh water) to a
lower water concentration, it tends to move from
the surrounding environment into body tissues
of the fish. To overcome this problem, large
quantities of very dilute urine are excreted.
In marine fish (for example, whiting), the
sea water surrounding the fish has a higher
concentration of solutes than the cells of the
fish and so water tends to move out of the fish
by osmosis, from a higher water concentration
(in the cells of the fish) into the surrounding
environment (lower water concentration). The
fish therefore needs to conserve water and
so small quantities of concentrated urine are
excreted.
Task: Urine concentration in
animals
Analyse the background information and
the diagrams provided, and refer to the
recommended websites on the Student
Resource CD, to draw up a table to compare
the concentration of urine excreted in fresh
water fish, marine fish and mammals (see the
Student Resource CD for a sample table).
28/5/08 2:37:52 PM
 EXCRETION—WASTES, WATER AND SALT BALANCE

diffusion osmosis
ions water active tubular
higher solute lower water large reabsorption very few high water
concentration potential glomerulus of salt solutes potential
salt
salt
body fluids fresh water
Na+= 150 mM Na+= 0.08 mM
K+= 4 mM kidney tubule K+= 0.01 mM
Cl–= 120 mM Cl–= 0.05 mM
osmotic concentration = 290 mOsm osmotic concentration = 1 mOsm

fish does not drink

food, fresh water
Kidney:
excretion of dilute
urine with ammonia
Gills:
active absorption of urine
salt, water enters
gills osmotically

(a)

diffusion osmosis sea water lower water

ions water higher Na+ = 470 mM potential
concentration K+ = 10 mM
of salts Cl– = 584 mM
osmotic concentration = 1000 mOsm
lower salt higher water glomerulus
concentration potential reduced or
absent
salt active tubular
secretion
body fluids salt
of salts
Na+= 183 mM
K+= 4 mM
Cl–= 146 mM
osmotic concentration = 360 mOsm

fish drinks
sea water,
ions, food,

Gills:
active secretion of Kidney:
NaCl, water loss excretion of concentrated
urine,urea, little water

(b)

Figure 3.11 (a) Osmoregulation in freshwater fish; (b) osmoregulation in marine fish

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 MAINTAINING A BALANCE

Nitrogenous wastes and water conservation

in animals (Australian insects and terrestrial
mammals)
SECONDARY
S EC SOURCE
IINVESTIGATION
NVE ■ use available evidence to explain the relationship
BIOLOGY SKILLS between the conservation of water and the production
H12.3; H12.4
and excretion of concentrated nitrogenous wastes in a
range of Australian insects and terrestrial mammals
H14.2; H14.3
Background information wastes occurs in the liver and they are then
carried to the kidneys for excretion.
SR All animals must eliminate nitrogen-containing
metabolic wastes that arise from the breakdown Nitrogenous wastes and water
of protein so that they do not accumulate conservation
in toxic amounts. Excess amino acids (and The environment in which an organism lives
nucleic acids) in the bodies of vertebrates determines how important the conservation
Assumedd kknowledge—
l d are de-aminated and the nitrogen-containing of water is for the survival of that organism. In
de-amination and amino group is removed and combined with environments where water is scarce, for example
the production of carbon dioxide to produce ammonia (see some arid terrestrial habitats, natural selection
nitrogenous wastes Assumed Knowledge on the Student Resource has favoured the survival of those organisms that
CD).The ammonia is still fairly toxic and so it secrete less toxic forms of nitrogenous wastes,
must be excreted directly, diluted with large because they are able to conserve more water
quantities of water, or it may be changed to a while still flushing out their wastes.
less toxic form of nitrogenous waste. (Just as Ammonia is very toxic compared with other
nitrogenous wastes. It requires no energy to be
carbon dioxide changes the pH of solutions
made, but must be excreted immediately and
to become more acidic, so ammonia makes
in a dilute form with a great deal of water. It is
the pH more alkaline—thus changing the therefore most commonly secreted by aquatic
internal environment from its optimal range and invertebrates and fish that live in fresh water,
affecting enzyme functioning and metabolism.) where the availability of water is not a limiting
Urea and uric acid are less toxic forms of factor.
nitrogenous wastes which can be excreted in a Urea is the most common form of
less dilute form. The formation of all nitrogenous nitrogenous waste excreted by terrestrial

Figure 3.12 Urine

concentration in
animals

gut

blind
blind-ending
excretory
tubule

freshwater fish terrestrial spinifex hopping insect

copious dilute urine mammal mouse semi-solid uric acid
containing concentrated urine extremely concentrated
ammonia containing urea urine containing urea

dilute urine concentrated urine

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 EXCRETION—WASTES, WATER AND SALT BALANCE

mammals, adult amphibians and some fish.
It is not as toxic as ammonia and so it can
be excreted in a less dilute form, resulting in
less water loss. It does, however, require more
energy for its production.
Uric acid is the least toxic form of
nitrogenous waste and so it is excreted (as
a semi-solid, whitish paste) by animals that
have a particular need to conserve as much
water as possible, for example birds and most
invertebrates, including insects. The synthesis
of uric acid uses a large amount of energy
in contrast to ammonia and urea, although it
has the smallest amount of water loss in the
process of excretion. The excretion of uric
acid, which is not very soluble in water, allows
animals such as insects to conserve water
within the body, as its low toxicity means it can
be excreted with minimal water loss.
Excretion of nitrogenous wastes
in insects
Insects have blind-ending kidney tubules
(Malpighian tubules) that open directly into the
hind part of the digestive tract (see Fig. 3.13).
Water and waste solutes are drawn into the blind
end from the fluid in the body cavity of the insect.
The open end of each kidney tubule empties
into the hindgut of the digestive tract. In some
insects (e.g. the blowfly) the blind-ending kidney
tubules lie close to the end of their digestive
tracts and the solutes in the tubules draw water
by osmosis across the epithelium (lining) of the
rectum, in this way modifying their excretory fluid
so that most water is reabsorbed from their rectal
contents into the body. As a result, they produce
very dry faeces (which contain nitrogenous
wastes as well as undigested food).
Some insects such as the desert silverfish
and the larval forms (meal worms) of a
particular moth (Tenebrio molitor) are able to
absorb water vapour from the air through the SR TR
mouth or anus. Water that enters the anus of
the meal worm is absorbed through the rectum
and is then drawn into the adjacent kidney
tubules by osmosis. These are simple forms of
tubular reabsorption, more primitive versions
Table for investigation
of that in mammals that need to conserve water. task
Conclusion
TR
The challenge of regulating water content
during excretion is therefore solved by varying
the type of nitrogenous waste excreted, which
in turn determines whether urine needs to be
dilute (to safely flush out more toxic forms of
Extension activity
waste), or if it can be more concentrated (to
flush out less toxic forms).
This affects the physiology of the animal:
the amount of water that must be reabsorbed
into the body or the amount that can be lost
in urine depends on the type of nitrogenous
waste excreted, as well as the concentration
of salts that are being excreted. All of these
factors contribute to determining the eventual
concentration of urine that is excreted. Figure 3.13 Excretion
in insects: (a) the
Task: Nitrogenous wastes and hindgut of mealworm
the conservation of water larvae absorbs water
vapour from the air
Complete the table provided on the Student and passes it into the
Resource CD to explain the relationship kidney tubules; (b) the
between the conservation of water and the rectal pad of blowfly
reabsorbs water from
production and excretion of concentrated
the hindgut
(b)

rectal pad
(a)
blood ions water
KCl + _ + _
+ _
Malpighian tubule K Cl K Cl K Cl

water

faeces water water vapour cuticle

water
medulla ions
rectum
cortex

rectal
lumen

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 MAINTAINING A BALANCE
nitrogenous wastes in a range of Australian
insects and terrestrial mammals.
■ Identify the type of nitrogenous waste
excreted, its toxicity and the amount of
energy needed for its production.
3.9 Enantiostasis and estuarine organisms
Enanti
■ define enantiostasis as the maintenance of metabolic
and physiological functions in response to variations in
the environment and discuss its importance to estuarine
organisms in maintaining appropriate salt concentrations
Some organisms live in environments
where they experience extreme
fluctuations in conditions. To survive,
these plants and animals have evolved
adaptations that allow them to cope
physiologically with these fluctuations,
a survival mechanism called
enantiostasis.
Enantiostasis is the maintenance of
metabolic and physiological functions
in response to variations in the
environment.
The survival of species that live in an
environment such as an estuary, where
salt and water concentrations fluctuate
broadly on a daily basis, depends
on their ability to either avoid these
changes or to tolerate them. Organisms
that move freely between the sea and
rivers experience similar fluctuations
in environmental conditions, and they
too have developed mechanisms of
avoidance or tolerance. Enantiostasis
is not limited to fluctuations in salt
levels. For example, extreme changes in
environmental pressure are experienced
by diving birds and so these animals
must also rely on enantiostasis for their
survival.
Estuarine organisms—
maintaining a water and salt
balance
In estuaries, the daily change in tides
affects the salinity of the environment
in the following ways:
94
Module 1-Chapter 3.indd 94
■ Outline the availability of water in the
environment of each animal.
■ Explain the relationship between the type of
nitrogenous waste and the need to conserve
water in each organism.
■ At high tide, sea water flows into the
river mouth, creating an environment
with a higher salt concentration (a
higher osmotic pressure) than the
cytoplasm of cells and body fluids
in organisms. This salt water has the
tendency to draw water out of cells
by osmosis.
■ At low tide, sea water flows out
of the river mouth and fresh water
flows into the estuary. Plants and
animals in the estuary which are
subjected to this predominantly fresh
water environment with a high water
potential face the challenge of water
tending to move into living tissue.
Osmoregulation in organisms
inhabiting an estuary is a challenge—
they need to maintain normal metabolic
functioning, despite these enormous
fluctuations within the environment.
Living organisms employ one of two
strategies in enantiostasis:
1. Osmoconformers are organisms
that tolerate the changes in the
environment by altering the
concentration of their internal solutes
to match the external environment
(their body fluids ‘conform’ to that of
the environment). Their metabolism
is able to tolerate changes in salinity
in their own body fluids and cells.
2. Osmoregulators are organisms
that avoid changes in their
internal environment and have
the ability to keep the solutes at
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 EXCRETION—WASTES, WATER AND SALT BALANCE

an optimal level (‘regulate’ solute mechanisms to exclude salt to keep

concentrations within the body),
regardless of the differing external
environment. These organisms
are unable to tolerate a range of
salt concentrations in their body
fluids and cells and so they have
the internal fluid concentration
constant, despite fluctuations in the
environment.
Table 3.2 compares estuarine
animals that use these two methods to
bring about enantiostasis.

Table 3.2 Enantiostasis in estuarine organisms

Osmoconformers Osmoregulators

They modify the salt concentration in their body to match They maintain a constant salt concentration in their bodies,
fluctuations in external conditions. despite environmental fluctuations.
Metabolism and cell functioning are able to continue within a Their cell metabolism and physiology is not able to tolerate a
broad range of salinity. range of salt concentrations.

Mechanism: They use small organic molecules (e.g. non-
essential amino acids or molecules like trimethylamine oxide) to
vary the solute concentration in their cells to match that of the
surroundings.
Mechanism: Their body fluids are similar to those in a marine
environment, so when exposed to fresh water, the water tends
to accumulate by osmosis. To counteract this, the animal
produces more dilute urine, to reduce the internal water
concentration to a level at which the cells can function.

Result: The osmotic pressure inside the body and outside (in Result: A higher osmotic pressure is maintained inside the body
the external environment) are the same. than in the external environment.

Examples:
■ The fiddler crab (Macrophthalmus punctulatus), when in
salt water, accumulates additional solutes in its tissues and
muscles to reach an equal salt concentration and it pumps
out excess salt from its gills when exposed to water with a
lower salinity than normal seawater.
■ Sharks use trimethylamine oxide to regulate osmotic
pressure in cells to equal that of the environment.
Examples:
■ Mussels in rock pools close their valves when the tide is out
to keep the salt concentrations inside their bodies the same
as the seawater.
■ Salmon show adaptations in their physiology: in salt water,
they drink continuously and eliminate salts through their
gills, whereas in fresh water they stop drinking, absorb
salt through their gills and excrete very dilute urine as do
freshwater fish.
■ Polychaete worms and marine fish are also osmoregulators.

(a) (b)

Figure 3.14 Estuarine organisms that use enantiostasis strategies for survival: (a) a fiddler crab—an
osmoconformer; (b) mussels—osmoregulators

Text

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 MAINTAINING A BALANCE

Salt balance in plants

SECONDARY
S EC SOURCE
IINVESTIGATION
NVE ■ process and analyse information from secondary
sources and use available evidence to discuss processes
BIO
BIOLOGY SKILLS
used by different plants for salt regulation in saline
H11.1 environments
H12.3; H12.4
H13.1
Salt regulation in plants in toxicity by increasing their water content in large
vacuoles.
saline environments
H14.1; H14.3 In contrast, salt avoidant plants (salt
Background information excluders) minimise the salt concentrations
Salt, even in relatively small concentrations of cells through structural and physiological
in soil water, has a damaging effect on cell adaptations such as stopping salt from entering
ultrastructure and cellular metabolism. Plants at the roots.
that are adapted to saline environments are
called halophytes. The plants use either salt
Examples of halophytes
tolerance (salt accumulation) or salt avoidance Saltbush (Atriplex vesicaria) is an excluder—it
(salt exclusion) as strategies to survive in actively transports excess sodium and chloride
environments where they are exposed to high ions into bladder cells situated on the tip of
salt concentrations. hairs on the surface of leaves (see Fig. 3.15).
Salt tolerant plants (e.g. sea grass and When the bladder cell reaches capacity it
mangroves) are able maintain metabolic bursts, releasing the salts into the environment.
functioning even though their cells accumulate Palmer’s grass (Distichlis palmeri) also actively
sodium and chloride ions. They minimise salt secretes salts from specialised cells to avoid
high salt concentration within the cells.
Figure 3.15 Salt vacuole
glands in the salt bush Succulents minimise the salt toxicity through
Atriplex vesicaria increasing water content in large vacuoles,
bladder cell
where the accumulation of excess salt is
balanced with additional water drawn into the
epidermis
cells. Pickleweed (Salicornia) uses this method
and also actively transports salts from the
mesophyll
cytoplasm by a sodium—potassium pump on
bundle sheath the vacuole membrane. Pigface (Carpobrotus
xylem glaucescens), a succulent that grows on coastal
sand dunes, tolerates salt by increasing water
uptake to dilute the salt. It also stores excess
SR TR salt in a location away from sensitive cells.

Task
Complete the worksheet on the Student
Resource CD on salt regulation in mangroves
Student worksheet— and the flowchart showing salt movement in the
salt regulation in plants saltbush.

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Water conservation in plants—adaptations in
Australian plants to minimise water loss
■ describe adaptations of a range of terrestrial Australian
plants that assist in minimising water loss
Problems facing plants that
minimise water loss
The main form of water loss in plants
is by means of transpiration—
evaporation of water from the stomata
of leaves. Transpiration serves two main
functions—it lifts water and dissolved
ions up the stem to the top of plants
in a continuous transpiration stream
and it is a form of evaporative cooling,
a process that is essential in regulating
temperature in plants. Those plants
that live in areas where water is in
limited supply (usually hot, dry areas)
must achieve a balance between how
much water the plant can afford to lose
for cooling purposes and the risk of
dehydration.
Xerophytes are plants that live in
arid conditions and possess adaptations
that equip them to achieve this
balance and survive in their hostile
environment.
Leaves of plants contain stomata
and so they are the organs where
most transpiration in plants occurs.
Generally, stomata are most abundant
on the undersides of leaves, with
fewer stomata on the upper leaf and
even less on leaf stalks and the stems
of herbaceous (green) plants. Stomata
are stimulated to open in the presence
of light and/or excess heat in well-
hydrated pants, leading to a loss of
water by the process of transpiration.
About 98% of water loss from plants
occurs as a result of transpiration. The
advantage of the opening of stomata
is to allow evaporative cooling and
to allow carbon dioxide to enter
the leaves for photosynthesis. The
disadvantage is that it exposes plants
to the risk of dehydration.
Module 1-Chapter 3.indd 97
EXCRETION—WASTES, WATER AND SALT BALANCE
3.10
Most of Australia is hot and dry, so
water (like soil nutrients) becomes a
limited resource for plants, available in
short supply or only in sporadic bursts.
Stomata close in response to darkness,
dehydration and a lack of carbon
dioxide.
Three main problems face plants
with regard to minimising water loss:
1. If plants lose too much water
through transpiration they run the
risk of dehydrating, yet loss of
water by this evaporative cooling
mechanism is an essential part of
temperature regulation to keep plant
cells within the optimal temperature
range for metabolic functioning.
2. If plants reduce the surface area
of their leaves or lose their leaves,
the number of stomata exposed to
the external environment may be
reduced, but the reduced exposure
of photosynthetic surface area to
sunlight may be inadequate for
photosynthesis to occur.
3. If plants retain their leaves, but
develop ways of ensuring that
stomata do not open, gaseous
exchange between the leaf and the
surrounding air becomes limited
and, as a result, may not allow
sufficient carbon dioxide into the
plant—a necessary requirement for
photosynthesis.
Adaptations in Australian
plants to minimise water loss
Many plants that live in arid
conditions display complex xerophytic
adaptations, features which have
evolved and allow these plants to
minimise water loss while maintaining
functions such as cooling of the plant
and photosynthesis. Most of these
97
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 MAINTAINING A BALANCE
SR TR adaptations are evident as modifications
of leaves, but other organs may
also show modifications. Stems and
leaf stalks (petioles) have sparsely
distributed stomata, but are green and
Student worksheet—
thus have adequate photosynthetic
features in plants to
minimise water loss tissue. This can be used to advantage
in allowing xerophytes with reduced
leaves to carry out other essential
functions to survive in their arid habitat.
Xerophytes, such as some Australian
plants, live in hot, dry habitats where
they are exposed to bright sunlight.
They minimise water loss in four main
ways, as outlined below.
Reducing the internal temperature
Some plants have developed structural
features or physiological mechanisms
other than transpiration to reduce
their internal temperature, allowing the
plants to use less water for evaporative
cooling, but still keep their temperature
within the correct range for metabolism.
For example, their leaves may be
coated in a shiny waxy cuticle or they
may have white hairs to reflect sunlight.
Australian examples
The saltbush has waxy leaves that
reflect heat and light.
Eucalypts and banksias have coarse,
leathery leaves with a thick cuticle
to protect them from the excessive
sunlight by giving some insulation
and reducing the small amount of
evaporation that sometimes occurs
through thinner leaf cuticles. Plants
with these tough, dry leaves are known
as sclerophylls (Greek: sclero—hard
and phyllo—leaf).
In addition, both of these features
ensure that all the epidermal cells are
waterproof, preventing loss of water by
evaporation from these surface cells to
the outside.
Reducing the exposure of transpiring
plant structures to sunlight
Plant organs that have the most
abundant stomata (leaves and leaf-like
98
Module 1-Chapter 3.indd 98
organs such as flower petals) have the
greatest rates of transpiration. Some
plants reduce the exposure of these
organs (and their stomata) to light by:
■ changing the orientation of leaves
so that stomata are not exposed
to direct light (and so they do not
open)
■ reducing the surface area of organs
that have the highest proportion of
stomata
■ the complete loss of transpiring
plant organs (for example, leaves or
leaf-like parts of the plant such as
flowers).
(These plants need to have
some additional adaptations to
prevent overheating, increase their
photosynthetic tissue or ensure
pollination, as a result of their loss leaf
or petal surface area.)
Australian examples
■ Reduced leaves
Plants like Hakea and Acacias
(wattles) also have leaves that have
become reduced in size, where each
leaf is divided into pinna or leaflets.
(These and other Australian plants
that show reduced surface areas of
leaves will be viewed in the first-
hand investigation that follows.)
Some plants have their leaves
reduced to tiny brown bracts or
scales and their photosynthetic
function is taken over by other parts
of the plant, for example cladodes
(photosynthetic stems) and phyllodes
(photosynthetic leaf stalks). The
photosynthetic stems or stalks
that take over the function of the
leaves have very few stomata and
therefore the amount of water lost
by transpiration is reduced, while
the photosynthetic surface area is
still sufficient. Many phyllodes and
cladodes have the added features of
hairs and/or sunken stomata.
—Cladodes are common features of
Australian she-oaks (casuarinas).
The green, needle-like structures
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 EXCRETION—WASTES, WATER AND SALT BALANCE

that resemble leaves are in fact (a) Figure 3.16 Plant

features which
modified stems. These needles minimise water loss:
have tiny light-coloured markings (a) the cladodes of
at regular intervals along their a she-oak; (b) cross-
section through leaf
length. Closer examination (for
of an Australian
example, with a hand lens) reveals xerophyte (dune grass)
that these light areas are actually showing rolled leaf
rings of tiny brown scale leaves, with sunken stomata;
(c) Calandrinia
a feature to reduce the surface eremaea (parakeelya),
area of leaves and therefore a desert succulent
their exposure to the sun (see
Fig. 3.16a).
—Phyllodes, common to Acacia
species (Australian mulga, for
example Acacia Aneura), are
broad, flat leaf-shaped leaf stalks
(petioles) that take over the
function of leaves. These are
common in Acacia species and
the tiny, brown scale at the tip of
each phyllode is all that remains (b)
of the reduced leaf.
■ Reduced size of flowers or having no
petals can also reduce the amount of
water a plant requires; for example,
the Acacia has small clustered
flowers, reducing the energy and
water required to needed to produce
them. (Petals are considered to be
modified leaves, so reducing the
size of flowers or loss of petals also
reduces evaporation of water from
their surfaces.) (c)
■ Shedding leaves is another way of
reducing the water lost by leaves, for
example the river gum.
■ Orientation of leaves on the stem
is another feature of plants
to prevent overheating is the
orientation of leaves on the stem
(see Chapter 1). In addition,
eucalypts have an adaptation
that helps them to survive—their
leaves hang in a vertical position
to reduce the surface area that is
exposed to the sun during the heat
of the noonday sun. This serves
an additional function—that of
minimising water loss because the
stomata are not directly exposed to
sunlight during the hottest part of

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 MAINTAINING A BALANCE
the day and will close. Eucalypts
therefore regulate the times of
stomatal opening and closing—
during the cooler early morning and
late afternoon, stomata are open
for photosynthesis, but when the
temperatures increase to a level that
causes water stress to the plant the
stomata then close.
Reducing the difference in water
concentration between the plant
and the outside air
The difference in water concentration
(or water potential) between the plant
and the surrounding atmosphere
determines how much water is lost by
transpiration. On a hot, dry day, the
water concentration in the air is much
lower than that in the internal tissues
of the leaf and so more water is lost by
transpiration than on a cooler or more
humid day.
Since plants cannot change the
overall external environment, many
have adaptations that allow them to
create their own smaller ‘microclimate’
in the air immediately surrounding
each leaf. Structures such as hairy
leaves or rolled leaves trap water in
the immediate vicinity and in this way
they keep air around the plant humid
by preventing the moist air being swept
away by dry air currents and they also
create a barrier to evaporation.
Australian examples
Sunken stomata or stomatal pits occur
in Hakea and in the cladodes of she-
oaks. The actual stoma (breathing
pores) are lower than the main surface
of the leaf and this allows moist air
to be trapped in the pit, therefore
reducing the difference in water
potential immediately outside the stoma
(in the pit) and inside the leaf.
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Module 1-Chapter 3.indd 100
Epidermal hairs trap a moist layer
of air, resulting in a smaller difference
between the concentration of water
in the leaf tissue and the water
vapour in the layer of air trapped by
the hairs—for example, hairs on the
under-surface of leaves of the coastal
banksia.
Curled or rolled leaves, such as
those of porcupine grass (Miscanthus
sinensis), enclose a microclimate of
humid air to reduce the difference in
water potential (see Fig. 3.16b).
These adaptations allow plants to
keep their stomata open for a longer
period of time, as there is not as
much water being lost and so gaseous
exchange for photosynthesis can occur
freely.
Water storage
Some plants, called succulents, have
adaptations such as fleshy stems
or leaves which are able to swell
up and retain moisture when it is
available; they then survive by using
this moisture during dry periods.
Australia has some succulent species,
including the desert plant Calandrinia
(parakeelya), an important food for
Aboriginal people (the leaves provide
an excellent source of moisture in
desert environments and were eaten
as a green salad leaf). The word
‘parakeelya’ was derived from the
word ‘periculia’, an Aboriginal name
for the bread-like seed meal that is
made from the cooked seed (see
Fig. 3.16c).
Fruits are structures that are removed
from plants so that the seeds that
they contain can be dispersed. Many
Australian plants produce woody fruits
rather than fleshy fruits, as this reduces
the amount of water lost from the plant
when the fruits fall off.
28/5/08 2:38:13 PM

Structures in plants that assist the conservation
of water
■ perform a first-hand investigation to gather information
about structures in plants that assist in the conservation
of water
It is recommended that students review
‘Adaptations in Australian plants to minimise
water loss’ on pages 97–100 and answer
Question 1 in the Revision Questions at the end
of this chapter in preparation for, or as a follow-
up activity to, this first-hand investigation.
Aim
To gather information from plant specimens
about structures that assist in the conservation
of water.
Safety
Students should complete a table in which they
outline three risks that they may encounter in
this investigation, and identify and describe
strategies that they could put in place to
overcome these. Discuss what is meant by
‘non-destructive investigation’.
Materials
■ A range of plant material that demonstrates
adaptations to minimise water loss (e.g.
Eucalyptus, Banksia, Acacia, Casuarina,
Callistemon, Grevillea, Hakea and
porcupine grass—Miscanthus sinensis)
■ Hand lens
■ Stereo dissecting microscope
■ Compound microscope
■ Prepared microscope slide: cross-section
through the leaf of a xerophyte. (If this is not
available, you may refer to the micrograph in
Fig. 3.16b on page 99.)
Method
1. Analyse the plant material provided to
identify structures present that assist with
minimising water loss. Refer to the notes on
pages 97–100 to assist you.
Module 1-Chapter 3.indd 101
EXCRETION—WASTES, WATER AND SALT BALANCE
FIRST-HAND
INVESTIGATION
BIOLOGY SKILLS
H11.3
2. Using a stereo dissecting microscope H12.1; H12.2; H12.4
or hand lens, observe the presence of
scale leaves in some specimens such as H13.1
Casuarina (the she-oak). H14.1
3. Using a compound microscope, observe the
position of stomata in the cross-section of a
xerophytic leaf. SR TR
Results
1. On a piece of A4 paper, draw three plant
specimens that you have observed and
label on each diagram the structures that Table and questions for
reduce water loss. investigation
2. For each of the plant specimens studied (a
minimum of three specimens), complete
a table in which you identify the different
features evident for water conservation and
describe how each reduces water loss in
the example that you have studied. (See the
Student Resource CD for a sample table.)
Discussion questions
1. The need to reduce water loss has
presented three problems in plants.
Identify these three problems and describe
how one plant specimen that you have
studied has overcome each of these
problems. (A table is provided on the
Student Resource CD to guide you when
answering this question.)
2. Name one plant studied that has
sunken stomata and describe two other
characteristics that help that plant to reduce
water loss.
3. Describe measures taken to ensure that this
investigation was conducted in a manner
that is non-destructive.
Conclusion
Students should write a valid conclusion.
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 MAINTAINING A BALANCE

REVISION QUESTIONS

1. In the form of a table, summarise the features in plants that minimise water loss under the
following headings:

Mechanisms that minimise Explanation of how this

water loss Features evident in plants conserves water

Include the following mechanisms (in the first column):

■ features to reduce the internal temperature of plants
■ adaptations to reduce exposure of the leaves (or stomata) to the sun:
– reduced exposure of stomata
– reduced surface area of leaves or leaf-like structures
■ adaptations to reduce the difference in water concentration between the plant and the outside
air
■ features related to water storage:
– storing water
– reducing water loss in fruits.
2. Explain why it is essential to remove carbon dioxide and the nitrogenous waste ammonia from
cells.
3. Identify three reasons why it is essential to maintain the water concentration in living organisms.
4. Explain why energy is required for the reabsorption of glucose and amino acids in nephrons.
5. Copy a version of Figure 3.17 and complete the figure, showing the movement of water, salts,
urea, drugs and hydrogen ions. Provide a key and indicate which movement is by means of active
transport and which by means of passive transport (distinguish between osmosis and diffusion).
6. Analyse the information in Figure 3.18 and then use evidence from the diagram to explain the
relationship between the type of nitrogenous waste produced and the type of environment in
which the organism lives.
7. In renal dialysis, blood is taken from a vein and run past a dialysate fluid, separated by a
selectively permeable membrane. Describe what would happen if the concentration of glucose in
the dialysate was lower than the concentration of the patient’s blood.
SR TR
8. Compare the chemical composition of blood arriving at the glomerulus with the composition of
glomerular filtrate.
9. Identify the hormone absent from people who suffer from Addison’s disease and explain the
main role of this hormone in kidney functioning.
Answers to revision 10.
1 Name one Australian insect and one Australian plant that are adapted to minimise water loss and
questions describe this adaptation in each.

glomerulus neck

proximal distal arm

arm glucose
amino
acids
divalent
ions

collecting
intermedia
duct
segment
(loop of Henle)

reptile
semi-solid uric acid
Figure 3.17 Figure 3.18

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