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Mongolia
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article is about the modern sovereign state. For other uses, see Mongolia
(disambiguation).
Mongolia
?????? ???
Flag of Mongolia
Flag
Emblem of Mongolia
Emblem
Anthem:
?????? ????? ?????? ??????
Mongol ulsyn t�riin duulal
National anthem of Mongolia

Location of Mongolia (green)

Location of Mongolia (green)
Capital
and largest city Ulaanbaatar[a]
Coordinates: 47�55'N 106�53'E
Official languages Mongolian
Official scripts Mongolian Cyrillic
Mongolian script[1]
Ethnic groups (2010)
96% Mongols
4% Kazakhs[2]
Religion Buddhism (53%)
Shamanism (4%)
Islam (3%)
Christianity (2%)[2]
Demonym
Mongol Mongolian[b]
Government Unitary semi-presidential republic[3][4][5]
� President
Khaltmaagiin Battulga
� Prime Minister
Ukhnaagiin Kh�rels�kh
Legislature State Great Khural
Formation
� Xiongnu Empire
formed 209 BC
� Mongol Empire
formed 1206
� Declaration of independence from Qing dynasty, China
December 29, 1911
� Mongolian People's Republic was established
November 26, 1924
� Independence was recognized by Republic of China
January 5, 1946
� Current Constitution
February 13, 1992
Area
� Total
1,566,000 km2 (605,000 sq mi) (18th)
� Water (%)
0.43[6]
Population
� 2016 estimate
3,081,677[7] (134th)
� Density
1.97[8]/km2 (5.1/sq mi) (238th)
GDP (PPP) 2015 estimate
� Total
$36.6 billion
� Per capita
$11,024
GDP (nominal) 2015 estimate
� Total
$12.5 billion
� Per capita
$4,353
Gini (2011) 36.5[9]
medium
HDI (2014) Increase 0.727[10]
high � 90th
Currency T�gr�g (MNT)
Time zone (UTC+7/+8[11])
� Summer (DST)
(UTC+8/+9[12])
Date format yyyy.mm.dd (CE)
Drives on the right
Calling code +976
ISO 3166 code MN
Internet TLD .mn, .???
^ Also spelled "Ulan Bator".
^ "Mongolian" includes minorities such as Kazakhs or Tuvans.
Mongolia /m??'go?li?/ (About this sound listen) (Monggol Ulus in
Mongolian; ?????? ??? in Mongolian Cyrillic) is a landlocked unitary sovereign
state in East Asia. Its area is roughly equivalent with the historical territory of
Outer Mongolia, and that term is sometimes used to refer to the current state. It
is sandwiched between China to the south and Russia to the north. While it does not
share a border with Kazakhstan, Mongolia is separated from it by only 36.76
kilometres (22.84 mi).

At 1,564,116 square kilometres (603,909 sq mi), Mongolia is the 18th largest and
the most sparsely populated fully sovereign country in the world, with a population
of around 3 million people. It is also the world's second-largest landlocked
country behind Kazakhstan and the largest landlocked country that does not border a
closed sea. The country contains very little arable land, as much of its area is
covered by grassy steppe, with mountains to the north and west and the Gobi Desert
to the south. Ulaanbaatar, the capital and largest city, is home to about 45% of
the country's population.

Approximately 30% of the population is nomadic or semi-nomadic; horse culture is

still integral. The majority of its population are Buddhists. The non-religious
population is the second largest group. Islam is the dominant religion among ethnic
Kazakhs. The majority of the state's citizens are of Mongol ethnicity, although
Kazakhs, Tuvans, and other minorities also live in the country, especially in the
west. Mongolia joined the World Trade Organization in 1997 and seeks to expand its
participation in regional economic and trade groups.[13]

The area of what is now Mongolia has been ruled by various nomadic empires,
including the Xiongnu, the Xianbei, the Rouran, the Turkic Khaganate, and others.
In 1206, Genghis Khan founded the Mongol Empire, which became the largest
contiguous land empire in history. His grandson Kublai Khan conquered China to
establish the Yuan dynasty. After the collapse of the Yuan, the Mongols retreated
to Mongolia and resumed their earlier pattern of factional conflict, except during
the era of Dayan Khan and Tumen Zasagt Khan.

In the 16th century, Tibetan Buddhism began to spread in Mongolia, being further
led by the Manchu-founded Qing dynasty, which absorbed the country in the 17th
century. By the early 1900s, almost one-third of the adult male population were
Buddhist monks.[14][15] After the collapse of the Qing dynasty in 1911, Mongolia
declared independence from the Qing dynasty, and in 1921 established de facto
independence from the Republic of China. Shortly thereafter, the country came under
the control of the Soviet Union, which had aided its independence from China. In
1924, the Mongolian People's Republic was declared as a Soviet satellite state.[16]
After the anti-Communist revolutions of 1989, Mongolia conducted its own peaceful
democratic revolution in early 1990. This led to a multi-party system, a new
constitution of 1992, and transition to a market economy.

Contents [hide]
1 History
1.1 Prehistory and antiquity
1.2 Middle Ages to early 20th century
1.3 Modern history
2 Geography and climate
2.1 Climate
2.2 Wildlife
3 Demographics
3.1 Languages
3.2 Cuisine
3.3 Religion
4 Government and politics
4.1 Foreign relations
4.2 Military
4.3 Legal system
4.4 Administrative divisions
4.5 Major cities
5 Economy
5.1 Mineral industry
5.2 Agriculture
6 Environment
7 Infrastructure
7.1 Communications
7.2 Energy
7.3 Transportation
7.4 Education
7.5 Health
8 Culture
8.1 Visual arts
8.2 Architecture
8.3 Music
8.4 Media
8.5 Sports
8.6 Festivals
9 See also
10 References
11 Further reading
12 External links
History
Main article: History of Mongolia
Prehistory and antiquity
Main articles: Prehistoric Mongolia and Proto-Mongols
Homo erectus inhabited Mongolia from 850,000 years ago.[17] Modern humans reached
Mongolia approximately 40,000 years ago during the Upper Paleolithic. The Khoit
Tsenkher Cave[18] in Khovd Province shows lively pink, brown, and red ochre
paintings (dated to 20,000 years ago) of mammoths, lynx, bactrian camels, and
ostriches, earning it the nickname "the Lascaux of Mongolia". The venus figurines
of Mal'ta (21,000 years ago) testify to the level of Upper Paleolithic art in
northern Mongolia; Mal'ta is now part of Russia.

Pasture land in Arkhangai Province. Mongolia was the heartland of many nomadic
empires.

Mongolian ordos (palaces) were likened to "cities on the move" (Plano Carpini).
Neolithic agricultural settlements (c. 5500�3500 BC), such as those at Norovlin,
Tamsagbulag, Bayanzag, and Rashaan Khad, predated the introduction of horse-riding
nomadism, a pivotal event in the history of Mongolia and becoming the dominant
culture. Horse-riding nomadism has been documented by archeological evidence in
Mongolia during the Copper and Bronze Age Afanasevo culture (3500�2500 BC); this
culture was active to the Khangai Mountains in Central Mongolia. The wheeled
vehicles found in the burials of the Afanasevans have been dated to before 2200 BC.
[19] Pastoral nomadism and metalworking became more developed with the later Okunev
culture (2nd millennium BC), Andronovo culture (2300�1000 BC) and Karasuk culture
(1500�300 BC), culminating with the Iron Age Xiongnu Empire in 209 BC. Monuments of
the pre-Xiongnu Bronze Age include deer stones, keregsur kurgans, square slab
tombs, and rock paintings.

Although cultivation of crops has continued since the Neolithic, agriculture has
always remained small in scale compared to pastoral nomadism. Agriculture may have
first been introduced from the west or arose independently in the region. The
population during the Copper Age has been described as mongoloid in the east of
what is now Mongolia, and as europoid in the west.[18] Tocharians (Yuezhi) and
Scythians inhabited western Mongolia during the Bronze Age. The mummy of a Scythian
warrior, which is believed to be about 2,500 years old, was a 30- to 40-year-old
man with blond hair; it was found in the Altai, Mongolia.[20] As horse nomadism was
introduced into Mongolia, the political center of the Eurasian Steppe also shifted
to Mongolia, where it remained until the 18th century CE. The intrusions of
northern pastoralists (e.g., Guifang, Shanrong, Donghu) into China during the Shang
dynasty (1600�1046 BC) and Zhou dynasty (1046�256 BC) presaged the age of nomadic
empires.

The concept of Mongolia as an independent power north of China is expressed in a

letter sent by Emperor Wen of Han to Laoshang Chanyu in 162 BC (recorded in the
Hanshu):

� The Emperor of China respectfully salutes the great Shan Yu (Chanyu) of the
Hsiung-nu (Xiongnu)...When my imperial predecessor erected the Great Wall, all the
bowmen nations on the north were subject to the Shan Yu; while the residents inside
the wall, who wore the cap and sash, were all under our government: and the myriads
of the people, by following their occupations, ploughing and weaving, shooting and
hunting, were able to provide themselves with food and clothing...Your letter
says:--"The two nations being now at peace, and the two princes living in harmony,
military operations may cease, the troops may send their horses to graze, and
prosperity and happiness prevail from age to age, commencing, a new era of
contentment and peace." That is extremely gratifying to me...Should I, in concert
with the Shan Yu, follow this course, complying with the will of heaven, then
compassion for the people will be transmitted from age to age, and extended to
unending generations, while the universe will be moved with admiration, and the
influence will be felt by neighbouring kingdoms inimical to the Chinese or the
Hsiung-nu...As the Hsiung-nu live in the northern regions, where the cold piercing
atmosphere comes at an early period, I have ordered the proper authorities to
transmit yearly to the Shan Yu, a certain amount of grain, gold, silks of the finer
and coarser kinds, and other objects. Now peace prevails all over the world; the
myriads of the population are living in harmony, and I and the Shan Yu alone are
the parents of the people...After the conclusion of the treaty of peace throughout
the world, take notice, the Han will not be the first to transgress.[21] �

7th-century finds found 180 km (112 mi) from Ulaanbaatar. Kept in Ulaanbaatar. A
constant theme in Mongolian history is its relations with China.
Since prehistoric times, Mongolia has been inhabited by nomads who, from time to
time, formed great confederations that rose to power and prominence. Common
institutions were the office of the Khan, the Kurultai (Supreme Council), left and
right wings, imperial army (Keshig) and the decimal military system. The first of
these empires, the Xiongnu of undetermined ethnicity, were brought together by Modu
Shanyu to form a confederation in 209 BC. Soon they emerged as the greatest threat
to the Qin Dynasty, forcing the latter to construct the Great Wall of China. It was
guarded by up to almost 300,000 soldiers during marshal Meng Tian's tenure, as a
means of defense against the destructive Xiongnu raids. The vast Xiongnu empire
(209 BC�93 AD) was followed by the Mongolic Xianbei empire (93�234 AD), which also
ruled more than the entirety of present-day Mongolia. The Mongolic Rouran Khaganate
(330�555), of Xianbei provenance was the first to use "Khagan" as an imperial
title. It ruled a massive empire before being defeated by the G�kt�rks (555�745)
whose empire was even bigger.

The G�kt�rks laid siege to Panticapaeum, present-day Kerch, in 576. They were
succeeded by the Uyghur Khaganate (745�840) who were defeated by the Kyrgyz. The
Mongolic Khitans, descendants of the Xianbei, ruled Mongolia during the Liao
Dynasty (907�1125), after which the Khamag Mongol (1125�1206) rose to prominence.

Lines 3�5 of the memorial inscription of Bilge Khagan (684�737) in central Mongolia
summarizes the time of the Khagans:

� In battles they subdued the nations of all four sides of the world and
suppressed them. They made those who had heads bow their heads, and who had knees
genuflect them. In the east up to the Kadyrkhan common people, in the west up to
the Iron Gate they conquered... These Khagans were wise. These Khagans were great.
Their servants were wise and great too. Officials were honest and direct with
people. They ruled the nation this way. This way they held sway over them. When
they died ambassadors from Bokuli Cholug (Baekje Korea), Tabgach (Tang China),
Tibet (Tibetan Empire), Avar (Avar Khaganate), Rome (Byzantine Empire), Kirgiz,
Uch-Kurykan, Otuz-Tatars, Khitans, Tatabis came to the funerals. So many people
came to mourn over the great Khagans. They were famous Khagans.[22] �
Middle Ages to early 20th century
Main articles: Mongol Empire, Mongolia under Yuan rule, Northern Yuan dynasty,
Dzungar Khanate, and Mongolia under Qing rule
See also: List of medieval Mongol tribes and clans, List of Mongol states, and List
of Mongol rulers
Map of Asia
This map shows the boundary of the 13th-century Mongol Empire compared to today's
Mongols. The red area shows where the majority of Mongolian speakers reside today.

The Northern Yuan at its greatest extent.

In the chaos of the late 12th century, a chieftain named Tem�jin finally succeeded
in uniting the Mongol tribes between Manchuria and the Altai Mountains. In 1206, he
took the title Genghis Khan, and waged a series of military campaigns � renowned
for their brutality and ferocity � sweeping through much of Asia, and forming the
Mongol Empire, the largest contiguous land empire in world history. Under his
successors it stretched from present-day Ukraine in the west to Korea in the east,
and from Siberia in the north to the Gulf of Oman and Vietnam in the south,
covering some 33,000,000 square kilometres (13,000,000 sq mi),[23] (22% of Earth's
total land area) and having a population of over 100 million people (about a
quarter of Earth's total population at the time). The emergence of Pax Mongolica
also significantly eased trade and commerce across Asia during its height.[24][25]

After Genghis Khan's death, the empire was subdivided into four kingdoms or
Khanates. These eventually became quasi-independent after the Toluid Civil War
(1260�1264), which broke out in a battle for power following M�ngke Khan's death in
1259. One of the khanates, the "Great Khaanate", consisting of the Mongol homeland
and China, became known as the Yuan dynasty under Kublai Khan, the grandson of
Genghis Khan. He set up his capital in present-day Beijing. After more than a
century of power, the Yuan was replaced by the Ming dynasty in 1368, and the Mongol
court fled to the north. As the Ming armies pursued the Mongols into their
homeland, they successfully sacked and destroyed the Mongol capital Karakorum among
a few other cities. Some of these attacks were repelled by the Mongols under
Ayushridar and his general K�ke Tem�r.[citation needed]

Altan Khan (1507�1582) founded the city of Hohhot, helped introduce Buddhism and
originated the title of Dalai Lama

Castle built in northern Mongolia by Tsogt Taij in 1601.

T�vkh�n Monastery built in 1653 by Zanabazar. Here he created the Soyombo script in
1686.
After the expulsion of the Yuan dynasty rulers from China, the Mongols continued to
rule Mongolia homeland, known as the Northern Yuan dynasty. The next centuries were
marked by violent power struggles among various factions, notably the Genghisids
and the non-Genghisid Oirats, as well as by several Chinese invasions (such as the
five expeditions led by the Yongle Emperor). In the early 15th century, the Oirads
under Esen Tayisi gained the upper hand, and raided China in 1449 in a conflict
over Esen's right to pay tribute, capturing the Ming emperor in the process. When
Esen was murdered in 1454, the Borjigids regained power.[citation needed]

In the early 16th century, Dayan Khan and his khatun Mandukhai reunited the entire
Mongol nation under the Genghisids. In the mid-16th century, Altan Khan of the
T�med, a grandson of Dayan Khan � but not a hereditary or legitimate Khan � became
powerful. He founded Hohhot in 1557. After he met with the Dalai Lama in 1578, he
ordered the introduction of Tibetan Buddhism to Mongolia. (It was the second time
this had occurred). Abtai Khan of the Khalkha converted to Buddhism and founded the
Erdene Zuu monastery in 1585. His grandson Zanabazar became the first Jebtsundamba
Khutughtu in 1640. Following the leaders, the entire Mongolian population embraced
Buddhism. Each family kept scriptures and Buddha statues on an altar at the north
side of their ger (yurt). Mongolian nobles donated land, money and herders to the
monasteries. As was typical in states with established religions, the top religious
institutions, the monasteries, wielded significant temporal power in addition to
spiritual power.[citation needed]

An image of an early 20th-century Oirat caravan, traveling on horseback, possibly

to trade goods.
The last Mongol Khan was Ligden Khan in the early 17th century. He came into
conflicts with the Manchus over the looting of Chinese cities, and also alienated
most Mongol tribes. He died in 1634. By 1636 most Inner Mongolian tribes had
submitted to the Manchus, who founded the Qing dynasty. The Khalkha eventually
submitted to Qing rule in 1691, thus bringing all of today's Mongolia under Manchu
rule. After several wars, the Dzungars (the western Mongols or Oirats) were
virtually annihilated during the Qing conquest of Dzungaria in 1757�58.[26]

Some scholars estimate that about 80% of the 600,000 or more Dzungar were destroyed
by a combination of disease and warfare.[27] Outer Mongolia was given relative
autonomy, being administered by the hereditary Genghisid khanates of Tusheet Khan,
Setsen Khan, Zasagt Khan and Sain Noyon Khan. The Jebtsundamba Khutuktu of Mongolia
had immense de facto authority. The Manchu forbade mass Chinese immigration into
the area, which allowed the Mongols to keep their culture.

The main trade route during this period was the Tea Road through Siberia; it had
permanent stations located every 25 to 30 kilometres (16 to 19 mi), each of which
was staffed by 5�30 chosen families. Urga (present-day Ulaanbaatar) benefited
greatly from this overland trade, as it was the only major settlement in Outer
Mongolia used as a stopover point by merchants, officials and travelers on the Tea
Road.[citation needed]

Until 1911, the Qing dynasty maintained control of Mongolia with a series of
alliances and intermarriages, as well as military and economic measures. Ambans,
Manchu "high officials", were installed in Kh�ree, Uliastai, and Khovd, and the
country was subdivided into numerous feudal and ecclesiastical fiefdoms (which also
placed people in power with loyalty to the Qing). Over the course of the 19th
century, the feudal lords attached more importance to representation and less
importance to the responsibilities towards their subjects. The behaviour of
Mongolia's nobility, together with usurious practices by Chinese traders and the
collection of imperial taxes in silver instead of animals, resulted in poverty
among the nomads becoming widespread. By 1911 there were 700 large and small
monasteries in Outer Mongolia; their 115,000 monks made up 21% of the population.
Apart from the Jebtsundamba Khutuktu, there were 13 other reincarnating high lamas,
called 'seal-holding saints' (tamgatai khutuktu), in Outer Mongolia.

Modern history
Main articles: Mongolian Revolution of 1911, Mongolia (1911�24), Mongolian
Revolution of 1921, Mongolian People's Republic, 1990 Democratic Revolution in
Mongolia, and History of modern Mongolia

The eighth Jebtsundamba Khutuktu

With the fall of the Qing dynasty in 1911, Mongolia under the Bogd Khaan declared
independence. But, the newly established Republic of China considered Mongolia to
be part of its own territory. Yuan Shikai, the President of the Republic of China,
considered the new republic to be the successor of the Qing. Bogd Khaan said that
both Mongolia and China had been administered by the Manchu during the Qing, and
after the fall of the Qing dynasty in 1911, the contract of Mongolian submission to
the Manchu had become invalid.[28]

The area controlled by the Bogd Khaan was approximately that of the former Outer
Mongolia during the Qing period. In 1919, after the October Revolution in Russia,
Chinese troops led by Xu Shuzheng occupied Mongolia. Warfare erupted on the
northern border. As a result of the Russian Civil War, the White Russian Lieutenant
General Baron Ungern led his troops into Mongolia in October 1920, defeating the
Chinese forces in Niislel Kh�ree (Ulaanbaatar) in early February 1921 with support
by Mongols.

To eliminate the threat posed by Ungern, Bolshevik Russia decided to support

establishing a communist Mongolian government and army. This Mongolian army took
the Mongolian part of Kyakhta from Chinese forces on March 18, 1921, and on July 6
Russian and Mongolian troops arrived in Kh�ree. Mongolia declared its independence
again on July 11, 1921.[29] As a result, Mongolia was closely aligned with the
Soviet Union over the next seven decades.

In 1924, after the Bogd Khaan died of laryngeal cancer[30] or, as some sources
claim, at the hands of Russian spies,[31] the country's political system was
changed. The Mongolian People's Republic was established. In 1928, Khorloogiin
Choibalsan rose to power. The early leaders of the Mongolian People's Republic
(1921�1952) were not communists and many of them were Pan-Mongolists. The Soviet
Union forcefully established a communist regime in Mongolia by later exterminating
Pan-Mongolists. In the 1960s, Soviets recognized the Mongolian People's Party as
"real" communists, who took power after the suspicious death of Pan-Mongolist
leader Choibalsan.

Damdin S�khbaatar
Khorloogiin Choibalsan instituted collectivisation of livestock, began the
destruction of the Buddhist monasteries, and carried out the Stalinist repressions
in Mongolia, which resulted in the murders of numerous monks and other leaders. In
Mongolia during the 1920s, approximately one-third of the male population were
monks. By the beginning of the 20th century, about 750 monasteries were functioning
in Mongolia.[32]

In 1930 Russia stopped Buryats migration to the Mongolian People's Republic to

prevent Mongolian reunification. All leaders of Mongolia who did not fulfill
Russian demands to perform terror against Mongolians were executed by Russians,
including Peljidiin Genden and Anandyn Amar. The Stalinist purges in Mongolia,
which began in 1937, killed more than 30,000 people. Choibalsan died suspiciously
in Russia in 1952. Comintern leader Bohum�r �meral said, "People of Mongolia are
not important, the land is important. Mongolian land is larger than England, France
and Germany".[33]

After the Japanese invasion of neighboring Manchuria in 1931, Mongolia was

threatened on this front. During the Soviet-Japanese Border War of 1939, the Soviet
Union successfully defended Mongolia against Japanese expansionism. Mongolia fought
against Japan during the Battles of Khalkhin Gol in 1939 and during the
Soviet�Japanese War in August 1945 to liberate Southern Mongolia from Japan and
China.

The February 1945 Yalta Conference provided for the Soviet Union's participation in
the Pacific War. One of the Soviet conditions for its participation, put forward at
Yalta, was that after the war Outer Mongolia would retain its independence. The
referendum took place on October 20, 1945, with (according to official numbers)
100% of the electorate voting for independence.[34]

After the establishment of the People's Republic of China, both countries confirmed
their mutual recognition on October 6, 1949. However, the Republic of China used
its Security Council veto in 1955, to stop the admission of the Mongolian People's
Republic to the United Nations on the grounds it recognized all of Mongolia
�including Outer Mongolia� as part of China. This was the only time the Republic Of
China ever used its veto. Hence, and because of the repeated threats to veto by the
ROC, Mongolia did not join the UN until 1961 when the Soviet Union agreed to lift
its veto on the admission of Mauritania (and any other newly independent African
state), in return for the admission of Mongolia. Faced with pressure from nearly
all the other African countries, the ROC relented under protest. Mongolia and
Mauritania were both admitted to the UN on 27 October 1961.[35][36][37] (see China
and the United Nations)

On January 26, 1952, Yumjaagiin Tsedenbal took power in Mongolia. While Tsedenbal
was visiting Moscow in August 1984, his severe illness prompted the parliament to
announce his retirement and replace him with Jambyn Batm�nkh.

The collapse of the Soviet Union in 1989 strongly influenced Mongolian politics and
youth. Its people undertook the peaceful Democratic Revolution in 1990 and the
introduction of a multi-party system and a market economy.
A new constitution was introduced in 1992, and the "People's Republic" was dropped
from the country's name. The transition to market economy has often been rocky;
during the early 1990s the country had to deal with high inflation and food
shortages.[citation needed] The first election victories for non-communist parties
came in 1993 (presidential elections) and 1996 (parliamentary elections). China has
supported Mongolia's application for membership in to the Asia Cooperation Dialogue
(ACD), Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) and granting it observer status in
the Shanghai Cooperation Organization.[38]

Geography and climate

Main article: Geography of Mongolia

The southern portion of Mongolia is taken up by the Gobi Desert, while the northern
and western portions are mountainous.

The Khentii Mountains in Terelj, close to the birthplace of Genghis Khan.

At 1,564,116 km2 (603,909 sq mi), Mongolia is the world's 19th-largest country
(after Iran).[39] It is significantly larger than the next-largest country, Peru.
It mostly lies between latitudes 41� and 52�N (a small area is north of 52�), and
longitudes 87� and 120�E. As a point of reference the northernmost part of Mongolia
is on roughly the same latitude as Berlin (Germany) and Amsterdam (Netherlands),
while the southernmost part is on roughly the same latitude as Rome (Italy) and
Chicago (USA). The westernmost part of Mongolia is on roughly the same longitude as
Kolkata (India), while the easternmost part is on the same longitude as Qinhuangdao
(China) and Hangzhou (China), as well as the western edge of Taiwan. Although
Mongolia does not share a border with Kazakhstan, its westernmost point is only
36.76 kilometres (22.84 mi) from Kazakhstan.

The geography of Mongolia is varied, with the Gobi Desert to the south and with
cold and mountainous regions to the north and west. Much of Mongolia consists of
the Mongolian-Manchurian grassland steppe, with forested areas comprising 11.2% of
the total land area,[40] a higher percentage than the Republic of Ireland (10%).
[41] The whole of Mongolia is considered to be part of the Mongolian Plateau. The
highest point in Mongolia is the Kh�iten Peak in the Tavan bogd massif in the far
west at 4,374 m (14,350 ft). The basin of the Uvs Lake, shared with Tuva Republic
in Russia, is a natural World Heritage Site.

Climate
Main article: Climate of Mongolia
Mongolia is known as the "Land of the Eternal Blue Sky" or "Country of Blue Sky"
(Mongolian: "M�nkh kh�kh tengeriin oron") because it has over 250 sunny days a
year.[42][43][44][45]

Mongolia map of K�ppen climate classification.

Riverine forest of the Tuul River near Ulaanbaatar.

Uvs Lake, a World Heritage Site, is the remnant of a saline sea.

Most of the country is hot in the summer and extremely cold in the winter, with
January averages dropping as low as -30 �C (-22 �F).[46] A vast front of cold,
heavy, shallow air comes in from Siberia in winter and collects in river valleys
and low basins causing very cold temperatures while slopes of mountains are much
warmer due to the effects of temperature inversion (temperature increases with
altitude).

In winter the whole of Mongolia comes under the influence of the Siberian
Anticyclone. The localities most severely affected by this cold weather are Uvs
province (Ulaangom), western Khovsgol (Rinchinlhumbe), eastern Zavkhan
(Tosontsengel), northern Bulgan (Hutag) and eastern Dornod province (Khalkhiin
Gol). Ulaanbaatar is also strongly affected but not as severely. The cold gets less
severe as one goes south, reaching the warmest January temperatures in Omnogovi
Province (Dalanzadgad, Khanbogd) and the region of the Altai mountains bordering
China. A unique microclimate is the fertile grassland-forest region of central and
eastern Arkhangai Province (Tsetserleg) and northern Ovorkhangai Province
(Arvaikheer) where January temperatures are on average the same and often higher
than the warmest desert regions to the south in addition to being more stable. The
Khangai Mountains play a certain role in forming this microclimate. In Tsetserleg,
the warmest town in this microclimate, nighttime January temperatures rarely go
under -30 �C (-22 �F) while daytime January temperatures often reach 0 �C (32 �F)
to 5 �C (41 �F) .[47][48]

The country is subject to occasional harsh climatic conditions known as zud. The
annual average temperature in Ulaanbaatar is -1.3 �C/29.7 �F, making it the world's
coldest capital city.[46] Mongolia is high, cold, and windy. It has an extreme
continental climate with long, cold winters and short summers, during which most of
its annual precipitation falls. The country averages 257 cloudless days a year, and
it is usually at the center of a region of high atmospheric pressure. Precipitation
is highest in the north (average of 200 to 350 millimeters (7.9 to 13.8 in) per
year) and lowest in the south, which receives 100 to 200 millimeters (3.9 to 7.9
in) annually. The highest annual precipitation of 622.297 mm (24.50 in) occurred in
the forests of Bulgan Province close to the border with Russia and the lowest of
41.735 mm (1.64 in) occurred in the Gobi Desert (period 1961�1990).[49] The
sparsely populated far north of Bulgan Province averages 600 mm (23.62 in) in
annual precipitation which means it receives more precipitation than Beijing
(571.8mm) or Berlin (571mm).

Wildlife
Main article: Wildlife of Mongolia
See also: Category:Biota of Mongolia
The name "Gobi" is a Mongol term for a desert steppe, which usually refers to a
category of arid rangeland with insufficient vegetation to support marmots but with
enough to support camels. Mongols distinguish Gobi from desert proper, although the
distinction is not always apparent to outsiders unfamiliar with the Mongolian
landscape.

Bactrian camels by sand dunes in Gobi Desert.

Gobi rangelands are fragile and are easily destroyed by overgrazing, which results
in expansion of the true desert, a stony waste where not even Bactrian camels can
survive. The arid conditions in the Gobi are attributed to the rain shadow effect
caused by the Himalayas. Before the Himalayas were formed by the collision of the
Indo-Australian plate with the Eurasian plate 10 million years ago Mongolia was a
flourishing habitat for major fauna but still somewhat arid and cold due to
distance from sources of evaporation. Sea turtle and mollusk fossils have been
found in the Gobi apart from the more well-known dinosaur fossils. Tadpole shrimps
(Lepidurus mongolicus) are still found in the Gobi today. The eastern part of
Mongolia including the Onon, Kherlen rivers and Lake Buir form part of the Amur
river basin draining to the Pacific Ocean. It hosts some unique species like the
Eastern brook lamprey, Daurian crayfish (cambaroides dauricus) and Daurian pearl
oyster (dahurinaia dahurica) in the Onon/Kherlen rivers as well as Siberian prawn
(exopalaemon modestus) in Lake Buir.

Demographics
Main article: Demographics of Mongolia

Ulaanbaatar is the capital and largest city of Mongolia

In settlements, many families live in ger districts
Mongolia's total population as of January 2015 is estimated by U.S. Census
Bureau[50] at 3,000,251 people, ranking at around 121st in the world in terms of
population. But the U.S. Department of State Bureau of East Asian and Pacific
Affairs uses the United Nations (UN) estimations[51] instead of the U.S. Census
Bureau estimations. United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs
Population Division[52] estimates Mongolia's total population (mid-2007) as
2,629,000 (11% less than the U.S. Census Bureau figure). UN estimates resemble
those made by the Mongolian National Statistical Office (2,612,900, end of June
2007). Mongolia's population growth rate is estimated at 1.2% (2007 est.).[52]
About 59% of the total population is under age 30, 27% of whom are under 14. This
relatively young and growing population has placed strains on Mongolia's economy.

The first census in the 20th century was carried out in 1918 and recorded a
population of 647,500.[53] Since the end of socialism, Mongolia has experienced a
decline of total fertility rate (children per woman) that is steeper than in any
other country in the world, according to recent UN estimations:[52] in 1970�1975,
fertility was estimated to be 7.33 children per woman, dropping to about 2.1 in
2000�2005.[54] Recently, however, that trend has been stopped, so in 2005�2010
period, the estimated fertility value has actually increased to 2.5 and stabilised
afterwards at the rate of about 2.2�2.3 children per woman.

Ethnic Mongols account for about 95% of the population and consist of Khalkha and
other groups, all distinguished primarily by dialects of the Mongol language. The
Khalkha make up 86% of the ethnic Mongol population. The remaining 14% include
Oirats, Buryats and others. Turkic peoples (Kazakhs and Tuvans) constitute 4.5% of
Mongolia's population, and the rest are Russian, Chinese, Korean and American
nationalities.[55]

Languages

Para-Mongolic Khitan inscription dated 1058 found in south-eastern Mongolia.

The official language of Mongolia is Mongolian, and is spoken by 95% of the
population. A variety of dialects of Oirat and Buryat are spoken across the
country, and there are also some speakers of Mongolic Khamnigan. In the west of the
country, Kazakh and Tuvan, both Turkic languages, are also spoken. Mongolian Sign
Language is the principal language of the deaf community.

Today, Mongolian is written using the Cyrillic alphabet, although in the past it
was written using the Mongolian script. An official reintroduction of the old
script was planned for 1994, but has not taken place as older generations
encountered practical difficulties.[56] The traditional alphabet is being slowly
reintroduced through schools.[57]

Russian is the most frequently spoken foreign language in Mongolia, followed by

English, although English has been gradually replacing Russian as the second
language. Korean has gained popularity as tens of thousands of Mongolians work in
South Korea.[58]

Interest in Chinese, as the language of the other neighbouring power, has been
growing.[citation needed] A number of older educated Mongolian citizens speak some
German, as they studied in the former East Germany, while a few speak other
languages from the former Eastern Bloc. Many younger people are fluent in the
Western European languages as they study or work in, among other places, Germany,
France and Italy.[citation needed]

Cuisine
Mongolian cuisine is rooted in their nomadic history, and thus includes a lot of
dairy and meat, but little vegetables. Two of the most popular dishes are Buuz (a
meat filled steamed dumpling) and Khuushuur (a sort of deep-fried meat pie.)

Religion
Main articles: Religion in Mongolia and Freedom of religion in Mongolia

Grounds of Dambadarjaalin Monastery in Ulaanbaatar, with a stupa, in front of a

sacred mount with mantra inscribed on the slope and a shamanic ovoo on the top.
According to the 2010 National Census, among Mongolians aged 15 and above, 53% were
Buddhists, while 39% were non-religious.

Religions in Mongolia
(population aged 15 and above)[59]
Religion Population Share
%
Non-religious 735,283 38.6
Religious 1,170,283 61.4
Buddhism 1,009,357 53.0
Islam 57,702 3.0
Shamanism 55,174 2.9
Christianity 41,117 2.1
Other religions 6,933 0.4
Total 1,905,566 100.0
Mongolian shamanism has been widely practised throughout the history of what is now
Mongolia, with similar beliefs being common among the nomads of central Asia. They
gradually gave way to Tibetan Buddhism, but shamanism has left a mark on Mongolian
religious culture, and it continues to be practiced. The Kazakhs residing in
western Mongolia, some Mongols and other Turkic peoples in the country
traditionally adhere to Islam.

Throughout much of the 20th century, the communist government ensured that the
religious practices of the Mongolian people were largely repressed. It targeted the
clergy of the Mongolian Buddhist Church, which had been tightly intertwined with
the previous feudal government structures (e.g. from 1911 on, the head of the
Church had also been the khan of the country).[60] In the late 1930s, the regime,
then led by Khorloogiin Choibalsan, closed almost all of Mongolia's over 700
Buddhist monasteries and killed at least 30,000 people, of whom 18,000 were lamas.
[61] The number of Buddhist monks dropped from 100,000 in 1924 to 110 in 1990.[60]

The fall of communism in 1991 restored public religious practice. Tibetan Buddhism,
which had been the predominant religion prior to the rise of communism, again rose
to become the most widely practised religion in Mongolia. The end of religious
repression in the 1990s also allowed for other religions to spread in the country.
According to the Christian missionary group Barnabas Fund, the number of Christians
grew from just four in 1989 to around 40,000 as of 2008. In May 2013, The Church of
Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) held a cultural program to celebrate
20 years of LDS Church history in Mongolia, with 10,900 members, and 16 church
buildings in the country.[62] There are some 1,000 Catholics in Mongolia and, in
2003, a missionary from the Philippines was named Mongolia's first Catholic bishop.
[63]

Government and politics

Main article: Politics of Mongolia

State Great Khural chamber in session

Mongolia is a semi-presidential representative democratic republic, where the
President is directly elected.[3][4][5] The people also elect the deputies in the
national assembly, the State Great Khural. The President appoints the Prime
Minister, and nominates the Cabinet on the proposal of the prime minister. The
constitution of Mongolia guarantees a number of freedoms, including full freedom of
expression and religion. Mongolia has a number of political parties; the largest
are the Mongolian People's Party and the Democratic Party. The non-governmental
organisation Freedom House considers Mongolia to be free.[64]

The People's Party � known as the People's Revolutionary Party between 1921 and
2010 � formed the government of the country from 1921 to 1996 (in a one-party
system until 1990) and from 2000 to 2004. From 2004 to 2006, it was part of a
coalition with the Democrats and two other parties, and after 2006 it was the
dominant party in two other coalitions. The party initiated two changes of
government from 2004 until it lost power in a 2012 election. The Democrats were the
dominant force in a ruling coalition between 1996 and 2000, and an almost-equal
partner with the People's Revolutionary Party in a coalition between 2004 and 2006.
An election of deputies to the national assembly on 28 June 2012 resulted in no
party having an overall majority;[65] however, as the Democratic Party won the
largest number of seats,[66] its leader, Norovyn Altankhuyag, was appointed prime
minister on August 10, 2012.[67] In 2014, he was replaced by Chimediin
Saikhanbileg. The MPP won a landslide victory in the 2016 elecions and the current
Prime Minister is MPP's Jargaltulgyn Erdenebat.

The President of Mongolia has functions like vetoing the laws made by parliament,
appointing judges and justice of courts and appoint ambassadors abroad. The
parliament can override that veto by a two-thirds majority vote. Mongolia's
constitution provides three requirements for taking office as president; the
candidate must be a native-born Mongolian, be at least 45 years old, and have
resided in Mongolia for five years before taking office. The president must also
suspend their party membership. Tsakhiagiin Elbegdorj, a two-time former prime
minister and member of the Democratic Party was elected as president on May 24,
2009 and inaugurated on June 18 that year.[68] Elbegdorj was re-elected on June 26,
2013 and was inaugurated on July 10, 2013 for his second term as president.[69]

Mongolia uses a unicameral legislature, The State Great Khural, with 76 seats,
which is chaired by the speaker of the house. Its members are directly elected,
every four years, on parliamentary elections, by popular vote.[5]

Foreign relations

A Mongolian soldier, with an SA-7 man-portable air-defense system on the Pacific

Alaskan Range Complex during Red Flag-Alaska 07-3 in Alaska, United States.
Main article: Foreign relations of Mongolia
Mongolia maintains positive relations and has diplomatic missions in many countries
such as Russia, the People's Republic of China, Bangladesh, North and South Korea,
Japan, and the United States. The government has focused a great deal on
encouraging foreign investments and trade.

Mongolia has embassies in Almaty, Ankara, Bangkok, Berlin, Beijing, Brussels,

Budapest, Cairo, Canberra, Warsaw, Washington, D.C., Vienna, Vientiane, Havana, New
Delhi, Kuwait City, London, Moscow, Ottawa, Paris, Prague, Pyongyang, Seoul, Sofia,
Stockholm, Tokyo, Hanoi, and Singapore, consulates in Irkutsk, Breda and Ulan-Ude,
and diplomatic missions to the United Nations in New York City and in Geneva.[70]

Military

Mongolian Armed Forces engineers with the 017 Construction Regiment receive
instructions before participating in Khaan Quest 2013 in Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia,
July 22, 2013.
Main article: Mongolian Armed Forces
Mongolia supported the 2003 invasion of Iraq, and has sent several successive
contingents of 103 to 180 troops each to Iraq. About 130 troops are currently
deployed in Afghanistan. 200 Mongolian troops are serving in Sierra Leone on a UN
mandate to protect the UN's special court set up there, and in July 2009, Mongolia
decided to send a battalion to Chad in support of MINURCAT.[71]

From 2005 to 2006, about 40 troops were deployed with the Belgian and Luxembourg
contingents in Kosovo. On November 21, 2005, George W. Bush became the first-ever
sitting U.S. President to visit Mongolia.[72] In 2004, under the Bulgarian
chairmanship, the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE)
invited Mongolia as its newest Asian Partner.

Legal system
Main article: Judiciary of Mongolia
The judiciary of Mongolia is made up of a three-tiered court system: first instance
courts in each provincial district and each Ulaanbaatar district; appellate courts
for each province and also the Capital Ulaanbaatar; and the court of last resort
(for non-constitutional matters) at the Supreme Court of Mongolia.[73] For
questions of constitutional law there is a separate constitutional court.

A Judicial General Council (JGC) nominates judges which must then be confirmed by
the parliament and appointed by the President.

Arbitration centres provide alternative dispute resolution options for commercial

and other disputes.[74]

Administrative divisions
Main articles: Provinces of Mongolia and Districts of Mongolia
Mongolia blank.svgZavkhanGovi-AltaiKhovdBayan-
�lgiiUvsBayan.�v�r.�mn�goviDundgoviDornogoviArkhangaiKh�vsg�lT�vKhentiiS�khbaatarDo
rnodSelengeDarkh.BulganOrkhonUlaanbaatarGovisum.
Mongolia is divided into 21 provinces (aimags), which are in turn divided into 329
districts (sums).[75] The capital Ulaanbaatar is administrated separately as a
capital city (municipality) with provincial status. The aimags are:

Arkhangai
Bayan-�lgii
Bayankhongor
Bulgan
Darkhan-Uul
Dornod
Dornogovi
Dundgovi
Govi-Altai
Govis�mber
Khentii
Khovd
Kh�vsg�l
�mn�govi
Orkhon
�v�rkhangai
Selenge
S�khbaatar
T�v
Uvs
Zavkhan
Major cities
Main article: List of cities in Mongolia
About 40% of the population lives in Ulaanbaatar, and in 2002 a further 23% lived
in Darkhan, Erdenet, the aimag centers and sum-level permanent settlements.[76]
Another share of the population lives in the sum centers.
 v t e
Largest cities or towns in Mongolia
2008
Rank Name Province Pop. Rank Name Province Pop.
Ulaanbaatar
Ulaanbaatar
Erdenet
Erdenet 1 Ulaanbaatar Ulaanbaatar 1,340,000 11 S�khbaatar Selenge
19,626 Darkhan
Darkhan
Choibalsan
Choibalsan
2 Erdenet Orkhon 86,866 12 Sainshand Dornogovi 19,891
3 Darkhan Darkhan-Uul 74,300 13 Dalanzadgad �mn�govi 16,856
4 Choibalsan Dornod 38,150 14 Tsetserleg Arkhangai 16,300
5 M�r�n Kh�vsg�l 36,082 15 Uliastai Zavkhan 16,240
6 Khovd Khovd 28,601 16 Altai Govi-Altai 15,800
7 �lgii Bayan-�lgii 27,855 17 Z��nkharaa Selenge 15,000
8 Bayankhongor Bayankhongor 26,252 18 �nd�rkhaan Khentii
14,800
9 Arvaikheer �v�rkhangai 25,622 19 Zuunmod T�v 14,568
10 Ulaangom Uvs 21,406 20 Baruun-Urt S�khbaatar 12,994
Economy
Main article: Economy of Mongolia
Ambox current red.svg
This section needs to be updated. Please update this article to reflect recent
events or newly available information. (August 2016)

High end southern part of Ulaanbaatar valued for clean air in winter.
Economic activity in Mongolia has traditionally been based on herding and
agriculture, although development of extensive mineral deposits of copper, coal,
molybdenum, tin, tungsten, and gold have emerged as a driver of industrial
production.[77] Besides mining (21.8% of GDP) and agriculture (16% of GDP),
dominant industries in the composition of GDP are wholesale and retail trade and
service, transportation and storage, and real estate activities.[77] The grey
economy is estimated to be at least one-third the size of the official economy.[77]
As of 2006, 68.4% of Mongolia's exports went to the PRC, and the PRC supplied 29.8%
of Mongolia's imports.[78]

Mongolia is ranked as lower middle income economy by the World Bank.[79] Some 22.4%
of the population lives on less than US$1.25 a day.[80] In 2011, GDP per capita was
$3,100.[13] Despite growth, the proportion of the population below the poverty line
was estimated to be 35.6% in 1998, 36.1% in 2002�2003, and 32.2% in 2006.[81]

Because of a boom in the mining sector, Mongolia had high growth rates in 2007 and
2008 (9.9% and 8.9%, respectively).[77] In 2009, sharp drops in commodity prices
and the effects of the global financial crisis caused the local currency to drop
40% against the U.S. dollar. Two of the 16 commercial banks were taken into
receivership.[77] In 2011, GDP growth was expected to reach 16.4%. However,
inflation continued to erode GDP gains, with an average rate of 12.6% expected in
Mongolia at the end of 2011.[77] Although GDP has risen steadily since 2002 at the
rate of 7.5% in an official 2006 estimate, the state is still working to overcome a
sizable trade deficit. The Economist predicted this trade deficit of 14% of
Mongolia's GDP would transform into a surplus in 2013.[82]

Mongolia was never listed among the emerging market countries until February 2011
when Citigroup analysts determined Mongolia to be one of the "global growth
generating" countries, which are countries with the most promising growth prospects
for 2010�2050.[83] The Mongolian Stock Exchange, established in 1991 in
Ulaanbaatar, is among the world's smallest stock exchanges by market
capitalisation.[84][85] In 2011, it had 336 companies listed with a total market
capitalization of US$2 billion after quadrupling from US$406 million in 2008.[86]
Mongolia made a significant improvement on the ease of doing business in 2012,
moving up to rank 76 compared with 88 last year in the "Doing Business" report by
the International Finance Corporation (IFC).[87]

Mineral industry
Main article: Mining in Mongolia

Oyu Tolgoi employs 18,000 workers and expects to be producing 450,000 tonnes of
copper a year by 2020[88]
Minerals represent more than 80% of Mongolia's exports, a proportion expected to
eventually rise to 95%. About 3,000 mining licences have been issued.[82] Mining is
continuing to rise as a major industry of Mongolia as evidenced by the number of
Chinese, Russian and Canadian firms starting mining businesses in Mongolia.[13]

In 2009, the government negotiated an "investment agreement" with Rio Tinto and
Ivanhoe Mines to develop the Oyu Tolgoi copper and gold deposit,[77] the biggest
foreign-investment project in Mongolia, expected to account for one-third of
Mongolia's GDP by 2020.[82] In March 2011, six big mining companies prepared to bid
for the Tavan Tolgoi area, the world's largest untapped coal deposit. According to
Erdenes MGL, the government body in-charge of Tavan Tolgoi, ArcelorMittal, Vale,
Xstrata, U.S. coal miner Peabody, a consortium of Chinese energy firm Shenhua and
Japan's Mitsui & Co, and a separate consortium of Japanese, South Korean and
Russian firms are the preferred bidders.[89]

Agriculture
Main article: Agriculture in Mongolia
In 2002, about 30% of all households in Mongolia lived from breeding livestock.[90]
Most herders in Mongolia follow a pattern of nomadic or semi-nomadic pastoralism.
Due to the severe 2009�2010 winter, Mongolia lost 9.7 million animals, or 22% of
total livestock. This immediately affected meat prices, which increased twofold;
the GDP dropped 1.6% in 2009.[77]

Environment
Main article: Environmental issues in Mongolia
Infrastructure
Communications
See also: Telecommunications in Mongolia
Postal services are provided by state-owned Mongol Post and 54 other licensed
operators.[91]

Energy
See also: Mongolia Energy Corporation
Transportation
Main article: Transportation in Mongolia

Train in Zamyn-��d station in Dornogovi aimag

While the Mongolian horse continues to be revered as the national symbol, they are
fast being replaced by motorized vehicles.

Mongolian ferry Sukhbaatar on Lake Khovsgol in Khovsgol Province.

The Trans-Mongolian Railway is the main rail link between Mongolia and its
neighbors. It begins at the Trans-Siberian Railway in Russia at the town of Ulan-
Ude, crosses into Mongolia, runs through Ulaanbaatar, then passes into China at
Erenhot where it joins the Chinese railway system. A separate railroad link
connects the eastern city of Choibalsan with the Trans-Siberian Railway. However,
that link is closed to passengers after the Mongolian town of Chuluunkhoroot.[92]

Mongolia has a number of domestic airports with some of them having international
status. However, the main international airport is Chinggis Khaan International
Airport, located approximately 20 km (12 mi) from downtown Ulaanbaatar. Direct
flight connections exist between Mongolia and South Korea, China, Thailand, Hong
Kong, Japan, Russia, Germany, Kyrgyzstan, and Turkey. MIAT Mongolian Airlines is
Mongolia's national air carrier operating international flights, while other
domestic air carriers such as Aero Mongolia and Hunnu Airlines are serving both
domestic and regional routes.

Many overland roads in Mongolia are only gravel roads or simple cross-country
tracks. There are paved roads from Ulaanbaatar to the Russian and Chinese border,
from Ulaanbaatar east- and westward (the so-called Millenium Road), and from
Darkhan to Bulgan. A number of road construction projects are currently underway.
Mongolia has 4,800 km of paved roads, with 1,800 km of that total completed in 2013
alone.[93]

Education
During the state socialist period, education was one of the areas of significant
achievement in Mongolia. Before the People's Republic, literacy rates were below
one percent. By 1952, illiteracy was virtually eliminated,[94] in part through the
use of seasonal boarding schools for children of nomadic families. Funding to these
boarding schools was cut in the 1990s, contributing to slightly increased
illiteracy.

Primary and secondary education formerly lasted 10 years, but was expanded to 11
years. Since the 2008�2009 school year, new first-graders are using the 12-year
system, and a full transition to the 12-year system will not occur until the
2019�2020 school year, when the current third-graders graduate.[95]

As of 2006, English is taught in all secondary schools across Mongolia, beginning

in fourth grade.

Mongolian national universities are all spin-offs from the National University of
Mongolia and the Mongolian University of Science and Technology. Almost three in
five Mongolian youths now enroll in university. There was a six-fold increase in
students between 1993 and 2010.[96]

Health
Since 1990, key health indicators like life expectancy and infant and child
mortality have steadily improved, both due to social changes and to improvement in
the health sector. Yet, adult health deteriorated during the 1990s and the first
decade of the 21st century and mortality rates increased significantly.[97]

Serious problems remain, especially in the countryside.[98] According to a 2011

study by the World Health Organization, Mongolia's capital city of Ulaanbaatar has
the second-most fine particle pollution of any city in the world.[99] Poor air
quality is also the largest occupational hazard, as over two-thirds of occupational
disease in Mongolia is dust induced chronic bronchitis or pneumoconiosis.[100]

Average childbirth (fertility rate) is around 2.25[50]�1.87[52] per woman (2007)

and average life expectancy is 68.5 years (2011).[80] Infant mortality is at
1.9%[101]�4%[102] and child mortality is at 4.3%.[103]

Mongolia has the highest rate of liver cancer in the world by a significant margin.
[104]

The health sector comprises 17 specialized hospitals and centers, 4 regional

diagnostic and treatment centers, 9 district and 21 aimag general hospitals, 323
soum hospitals, 18 feldsher posts, 233 family group practices, 536 private
hospitals, and 57 drug supply companies/pharmacies. In 2002, the total number of
health workers was 33,273, of whom 6823 were doctors, 788 pharmacists, 7802 nurses,
and 14,091 mid-level personnel. At present, there are 27.7 physicians and 75.7
hospital beds per 10,000 inhabitants.

Culture
Main article: Culture of Mongolia
The symbol in the left bar of the national flag is a Buddhist icon called Soyombo.
It represents the sun, moon, stars, and heavens per standard cosmological symbology
abstracted from that seen in traditional thangka paintings.

Visual arts

Sita (White) Tara by �nd�r Gegeen Zanabazar. Mongolia, 17th century

Before the 20th century, most works of the fine arts in Mongolia had a religious
function, and therefore Mongolian fine arts were heavily influenced by religious
texts.[105] Thangkas were usually painted or made in applique technique. Bronze
sculptures usually showed Buddhist deities. A number of great works are attributed
to the first Jebtsundamba Khutuktu, Zanabazar.

In the late 19th century, painters like "Marzan" Sharav turned to more realistic
painting styles. Under the Mongolian People's Republic, socialist realism was the
dominant painting style,[106] however traditional thangka-like paintings dealing
with secular, nationalist themes were also popular, a genre known as "Mongol
zurag".

Among the first attempts to introduce modernism into the fine arts of Mongolia was
the painting Ehiin setgel (Mother's love) created by Tsevegjav in the 1960s. The
artist was purged as his work was censored.

All forms of fine arts flourished only after "Perestroika" in the late 1980s.
Otgonbayar Ershuu is arguably one of the most well-known Mongolian modern artists
in the Western world, he was portrayed in the film "ZURAG" by Tobias Wulff.[107]

Architecture
Main article: Architecture of Mongolia

A ger in front of the Gurvan Saikhan Mountains

The traditional Mongolian dwelling is known as a ger. In the past it was known by
the Russian term yurt, but this is changing as the Mongolian term becomes better
known among English-speaking countries. According to Mongolian artist and art
critic N. Chultem, the ger was the basis for development of traditional Mongolian
architecture. In the 16th and 17th centuries, lamaseries were built throughout the
country. Many of them started as ger-temples. When they needed to be enlarged to
accommodate the growing number of worshippers, the Mongolian architects used
structures with 6 and 12 angles[clarification needed] with pyramidal roofs to
approximate to the round shape of a ger. Further enlargement led to a quadratic
shape of the temples. The roofs were made in the shape of marquees.[108] The
trellis walls, roof poles and layers of felt were replaced by stone, brick, beams
and planks, and became permanent.[109]

Chultem distinguished three styles in traditional Mongolian architecture:

Mongolian, Tibetan and Chinese as well as combinations of the three. Among the
first quadratic temples was Batu-Tsagaan (1654) designed by Zanabazar. An example
of the ger-style architecture is the lamasery Dashi-Choiling in Ulaanbaatar. The
temple Lavrin (18th century) in the Erdene Zuu lamasery was built in the Tibetan
tradition. An example of a temple built in the Chinese tradition is the lamasery
Choijing Lamiin Sume (1904), which is a museum today. The quadratic temple Tsogchin
in lamasery Gandan in Ulaanbaatar is a combination of the Mongolian and Chinese
tradition. The temple of Maitreya (disassembled in 1938) is an example of the
Tibeto-Mongolian architecture.[108] Dashi-Choiling monastery has commenced a
project to restore the temple and the 25 metres (82 ft) sculpture of Maitreya.

Music
Main article: Music of Mongolia

Musician playing the traditional Mongolian musical instrument morin khuur

The music of Mongolia is strongly influenced by nature, nomadism, shamanism, and
also Tibetan Buddhism. The traditional music includes a variety of instruments,
famously the morin khuur, and also the singing styles like the urtyn duu ("long
song"), and throat-singing (khoomei). The "tsam" is danced to keep away evil
spirits and it was seen the reminiscences of shamaning.

The first rock band of Mongolia was Soyol Erdene, founded in the 1960s. Their
Beatles-like manner was severely criticized by the Communist censorship. It was
followed by Mungunhurhree, Ineemseglel, Urgoo, etc., carving out the path for the
genre in the harsh environment of Communist ideology. Mungunhurhree and Haranga
were to become the pioneers in the Mongolia's heavy rock music. Haranga approached
its zenith in the late 1980s and 1990s.

The leader of Haranga, famous guitarist Enh-Manlai, generously helped the growth of
the following generations of rockers. Among the followers of Haranga was the band
Hurd. In the early 1990s, group Har-Chono put the beginning for Mongolia's folk-
rock, merging elements of the Mongolian traditional "long song" into the genre.

By that time, the environment for development of artistic thought had become
largely liberal thanks to the new democratic society in the country. The 1990s saw
development of rap, techno, hip-hop and also boy bands and girl bands flourish at
the turn of the millennium.

Media
Main article: Media of Mongolia

Mongolian media interviewing the opposition Mongolian Green Party. The media has
gained significant freedoms since democratic reforms initiated in the 1990s.
Mongolian press began in 1920 with close ties to the Soviet Union under the
Mongolian Communist Party, with the establishment of the Unen ("Truth") newspaper
similar to the Soviet Pravda.[110] Until reforms in the 1990s, the government had
strict control of the media and oversaw all publishing, in which no independent
media was allowed.[110] The dissolution of the Soviet Union had a significant
impact on Mongolia, where the one-party state grew into a multi-party democracy,
and with that, media freedoms came to the forefront.

A new law on press freedom, drafted with help from international NGOs on August 28,
1998 and enacted on January 1, 1999, paved the way for media reforms.[111] The
Mongolian media currently consists of around 300 print and broadcasting outlets.
[112]

Since 2006, the media environment has been improving with the government debating a
new Freedom of Information Act, and the removal of any affiliation of media outlets
with the government.[113][114] Market reforms have led to an increasing number of
people working in the media year on year, along with students at journalism
schools.[113]

In its 2013 World Press Freedom Index report, Reporters Without Borders classified
the media environment as 98th out of 179, with 1st being most free.[115] In 2016,
Mongolia was ranked 60th out of 180.[116]

According to 2014 Asian Development Bank survey, 80% of Mongolians cited TV as

their main source of information.[117]

Sports
Main article: Mongolia at the Olympics

Naadam is the largest summer celebration

The main national festival is Naadam, which has been organised for centuries and
takes place over three days in the summer, consists of three Mongolian traditional
sports, archery, horse-racing (over long stretches of open country, not the short
racing around a track practiced in the West), and wrestling, traditionally
recognized as the Three Manly Games of Nadaam. In modern-day Mongolia, Naadam is
held on July 11 to 13 in the honour of the anniversaries of the National Democratic
Revolution and foundation of the Great Mongol State.

Another very popular activity called Shagaa is the "flicking" of sheep ankle bones
at a target several feet away, using a flicking motion of the finger to send the
small bone flying at targets and trying to knock the target bones off the platform.
At Naadam, this contest is very popular and develops a serious audience among older
Mongolians.

Riders during Naadam festival

Horse riding is especially central to Mongolian culture. The long-distance races
that are showcased during Naadam festivals are one aspect of this, as is the
popularity of trick riding. One example of trick riding is the legend that the
Mongolian military hero Damdin S�khbaatar scattered coins on the ground and then
picked them up while riding a horse at full gallop.

Mongolian wrestling is the most popular of all Mongol sports. It is the highlight
of the Three Manly Games of Naadam. Historians claim that Mongol-style wrestling
originated some seven thousand years ago. Hundreds of wrestlers from different
cities and aimags around the country take part in the national wrestling
competition.

Other sports such as basketball, weightlifting, powerlifting, and association

football, athletics, gymnastics, table tennis, jujutsu, karate, aikido, kickboxing,
mixed martial arts have become popular in Mongolia. More Mongolian table tennis
players are competing internationally.

Freestyle wrestling has been practised since 1958 in Mongolia.[118] Mongolian

freestyle wrestlers have won the first and the most Olympic medals of Mongolia.

Naidangiin T�vshinbayar won Mongolia's first ever Olympic gold medal in the men's
100-kilogram class of judo.[119]

Amateur boxing has been practised in Mongolia since 1948.[120] Mongolian olympic
boxing national team was founded in 1960. Communist government of Mongolia banned
boxing during the period 1964�1967 but the government ended ban on boxing soon.
Professional boxing began in Mongolia in the 1990s.

Mongolia's basketball team enjoyed some success recently, especially at the East
Asian Games.

Association football is also played in Mongolia. The Mongolian national team began
playing national games again during the 1990s; but has not yet qualified for a
major international tournament. The Mongolia Premier League is the top domestic
competition.

Several Mongolian women have excelled in pistol shooting: Otryadyn G�ndegmaa is a

silver medalist of the 2008 Olympic Games, Munkhbayar Dorjsuren is a double world
champion and Olympic bronze medal winner (now representing Germany), while
Tsogbadrakhyn M�nkhzul is, as of May 2007, ranked third in the world in the 25-
metre pistol event.[121]

Mongolian sumo wrestler Dolgors�rengiin Dagvadorj won 25 top division tournament

championships, placing him fourth on the all-time list . In January 2015,
M�nkhbatyn Davaajargal took his 33rd top division championship, giving him the most
in the history of sumo.

Ulaanbataar holds an annual marathon in June. 2015 will have the 6th marathon that
has been organized by Ar Mongol. The race starts at Sukh Bataar Square and is
always open to residents and runners who come especially for this unique event.
[122]

Festivals
Mongolia holds many traditional festivals throughout the year. Naadam Festival is
the largest festival, celebrated in every town and village across the country. It
features three sporting events: wrestling, archery and horse racing, amongst other
traditional games and exhibits. The Eagle festival draws about 400 eagle hunters on
horseback, including the traveler ????????? ????????? (Munkhbayart Batsaikhan), to
compete with their birds. The Ice festival and the Thousand Camel Festival are
amongst many other traditional Mongolian festivals.

See also
Book icon
Book: Mongolia
Index of Mongolia-related articles
Central Asia
Outline of Mongolia
List of World Heritage Sites in Mongolia
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Further reading
Elaine Ling; William W. Fitzhugh; Thubten Konchog Norbu (2009). Mongolia: Land of
the Deer Stone. Lodima Press. ISBN 978-1-888899-57-3. Retrieved 2013-06-28.
Mongolia, Encyclopadia Britannica
"Mongolia". The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency.
Background notes on Mongolia, US Department of State
Mongolia: Growth, Democracy, and Two Wary Neighbors (Q&A with Alan Wachman, May
2012)
This article incorporates public domain material from the Library of Congress
Country Studies website http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/.
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