FERENC GYULAI ENVIRONMENT AND AGRICULTURE IN BRONZE AGE HUNGARY @ BUDAPEST 1993ARCHAEOLINGUA Edited by SANDOR BOKONYI and WOLFGANG MEID Series Minor 4bee ARCHAEOLINGUA. ication Series jointly edited by the tute of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences. and the Linguistic Institute of the University of Innsbruck Editors: SANDOR BOKONYI and WOLFGANG MEID Assistant Editor: ERZSEBET JEREM ‘The Cover Photograph shows the Tell-Settlement from Tészeg — Laposhalom, excavated by I. Béna and I, Stanczik ISBN 963 7391 665 HU-ISSN 1216-6847 1993 ARCHAEOLINGUA ALAPITVANY Archaeological Institute of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences H-1250 Budapest, Uri utca 49 English Translation by Laszl6 Bantosiewicz Revised by Lyn Sellwood Word Processing by Andrés Kardos Desktop Editing by Ildik6 Perjés Tilustrations and Lay-out: Eresébet Jerem Printed by AKAPRINT, Budapest Contents Foreword 1. Introduction 2. Material and Method Studies in climatic ecology 3.1 The Bronze Age and the preceding Atlantic Phase 3.2 Transition between the Atlantic and Subboreal Phases 3.3 The Subboreal Phase 4. Plant cultivation culture 4.1 Plant cultivation during the Early Bronze Age 4.2 Plant cultivation during the Middle Bronze Age 4.3 Plant cultivation during the Late Bronze Age 4.4 The evolution of weed associations 4.5 Bronze Age viniculture and fruit consumption 4.6 The agriculture of Bronze Age people 4.7 Grain processing and storage Examinations in nutritional history 5.1 The basis of food analysis ‘5.2 Food remains in Hungary Summary References2. Material and Method According to Willerding (1970), archaeobot sified into the groups of either rect finds include ‘Some organs or parts of organs from ancient plants, which may have under- gone chemical (e.g. buming) or biochemical (e.g. peat formation) processes, but which under retain their external jlogical-microcher ‘and cytological-physical (e.g, studies of fibres in polarized Most of the archaeobotanical finds may be considered direct. Many of them were deposited as the result of both cons (hoarding, setilement refuse, detritus Additional parts of plants may be depo: a result ofnatural processes (wind, water, rotovinae). Among such deposited Plant remains, seeds and ft tively esistant. They may be preserved due to a number of edaphic, rs. Their conservation ‘ay be caused by the peat formation process or, more rarely, by the presence ‘ofheavy metal ions, They may also be incorporated in plaster work andhouses or preserved in extremely dry environments (e.g burial chambers). Most of them, however, occur in a carbonized form (Sagi and Fuzes 1960). Differences in preservation may thus be caused by structural differences tween the plants’ material, edaphic and climatic factors as well as human activity. The age ofthe find influences preservation as well. Consequently, the preparation and analysis of such materials may be carried out in anumber of ways using a variety of methods. Archacobotanical materials from Hungary were preserved by fire in most cases. Less commonly, these finds were preserved by an accumulation of humic acids during the humification (that is peat formation) process. Plant remains from archaeological times most typically survive in a carbonized state. They may result from a natural carbonization process of Panial burning by fire. Although Hungarian vemacular language uses the ms (Magyar Enelmez6 Sz6tér 1962), Ségi and Ww, natural carbonization resulting from the joint -mperature and time (szenesedés; Inkohlung in German) and rapid carbonization caused by fire (szenlés, e.g. charring: Verkohlung in German). Botanical finds from various archaeological periods usvally fall within the latter category (Novaki 1983). arts mixed (The pans yemselves may well be present in the direct palaeobotanical ‘material as well). As far asthe original parts are concemed, they may have fallen out of, or bumt inside the structures. Sometimes they were dissolved or consumed by micro- and macro-organisms, They may occur in the form of ional, oF negatives ). Caleified when the place of encapsulated plant materials is taken by precipitated calcium salts carried and deposited by the soil’s water content. icro remains (pollen, spores) often survive stuck to the macrobotanical remains (Greguss 1937). Palynology is a special branch of botany developed for the identification of these materials (Bertsch 1942; Zolyomi 1953; Straka 1975). Depending on their type and preservation, the plant remains recovered from excavations may be analyzed by means of cytological, histological and morphological procedures. Fibrous plant materials may be evaluated by means of cytomorphological, microchemical (staining and dilluting) and physical methods (observations made in polarized light). The description of these techniques is extensively published (Hollendonner 1923; Greguss 1937; Zilahi, Herezeg and Kéczy 1951 1953; Ramaseder 1960; Fzes 1977). ‘The series of histol ns was started by Unger in 1851, who identified the botanical remains brought to light from the Hallstatt salt mine near Salzburg. In Hungary, such studies were first pursued in 1892 by Deininger, director of the Keszthely Agricultural Study Institute, His work was continued by Hollendonner (1933), Greguss (op. cit), Sérkény (1939), Szalay (1941), Stieber (1952), Fzes (1956), Valk6 (1970) and Gyulai (1991), During the analysis of seed and fruit remains morphological ident is of prime importance and enjoys a priority over any of the previously mentioned methods, regardless of the preservation of finds. Experience showed that although handbooks (Beijerinck 1947; Schermann 1966) and anticles may be used during the identification procedure, the results must always be cross-checked using modem referenct'specimer times even necessary to use computer models, Morphol ‘change as a function of bot uation process fied species were compared to reference specimens ical and modem collections and herbaria of the Balaton Museum at Keszthely, the Hungarian Agricultural Museum in2 Budapest and the Botanical Institute of the University of Basel in Switzerland . $06 herb.). The scientific nomenclature of plants follows the lists (Mansfeld 1986) uniformly accepted by archaco- botanists, while Hungarian ts were adopted from So6 and Kérpéti (1968) and Priszter (1986). The English translation of these names is based ‘on works by Priszter (1983) as well as Williams and Hunyady (1987). ‘The development of new chemical methods during the last few decades tated the application of certain analytic, laboratory, techniques to anical research. Gas chromatography and absorption spectrochromatography are of instrumental help in mapping the macro- and micto-element structures of seed and fruit finds. These methods, as well as amino-acid analyses, provide valuable i obtained any other way on the nutritional value of ancient grains. As will be demonstrated here, this information is not even biased by differences in the level of carbonization. 3. Studies in climatic ecology 3.1 The Bronze Age and the preceding Atlantic Phase ‘The Holocene, also known as Flander interglacial, started in 8200 BC. Around 3000 BC a new phase of this period started which lasted until 800, BC. This entire time interval is called the Subboreal Phase which, archacologically speaking, includes the Late Neolithic and the entire Bronze Age. ‘The stratigraphic analysis of bore samples used in palynological research poses a number of difficulties. Layers may in some cases merge, while in Other cases they may be missing. Pollen analyses of the sediment gathered in Lake Balaton showed that the maximum extent of forest ‘occured during this phase in the Carpathian Basin ( of deforestation followed from around 3000 BC which corresponds to the Copper Age (2400-1900 BC) in Hungarian archacology (Jérai-Koml6di, Kordos and Tardy 1982). New human populations moving into the Carpathi Basin satisfied their need for arable land by large scale forest clearing. The Neolithic way of life could thus be maintained. The samples available for analysis contained increasing proportions of grains and seeds from weeds of cultivation (Zélyomi 1980). The new immigrant populations maintained plant cultivation and animal husbrandy as their chief occupations, although this latter gained in importance, probably as a consequence of climatic changes (see T: ‘The beginning of the Hungarian Neolithic coincides with the beginning of the Atlantic Phase (5500-2800 BC; Ferenczy 1958). This time period, also called the Atlantic Oak Phase in Hungary, was characterized by a warm, humid but temperate, near Sub-mediterranean climate. Consequently, the Carpathian Basin could serve as a link between the knowledge of plant cultivation in the “Fertile Crescent” ofthe Middle East and the rest of Central Europe. On the basis of palynological research carried out on the Great Hungarian possible to reconstruct the flora and ic conditions of the Alantic Phase (Jérai-Koml6di 1966; Szujk6-Lacza 1991). This informat ate. A brief outline of the Atlantic vegetation is summarized in the work of Julia Szujk6-Lacza (1991). ‘The topography of the area between the Danube and Tisza rivers became varied due to changes Danube’s course. The altitude of this area4 sometimes reaches 200 m above the Adriatic sea level. On the other hand, the elevation on the eastem, left bank of the Tisza river does not even reach 100m. The Tisza had a definite impact on the formation of th It created more even surfaces which are covered by loess, while some parts are characterized by acidic riverine deposits. Both areas were open in a floristic sense to the north (Hungarian Hill region), west (Transdanubia) and south (westem and eastem Illyrian and south situation of this area encouraged the immigr tude of related plant species. On the other hand, due to the specific character of the region, it developed many individual features as well. ‘The Atlantic Phase seems to have been the riche within the ‘every sample taken in sand dunes. It is for this reason that juniper associations (Junipero-Populetum) can be regarded as characte sandy areas of the Great Hungarian Plain. Common pine (Pinus sylvestris) retreated to enclares characterized exclusively as Myrtillo-Pinetum. The Ericaceae family is only represented by heather a sp.), although the expansion of woodland did not favour these photophilous species. Associations characterized by ash and elm (Fraxino pannonicae-Ul- metum) were dominated by Hungarian narrow-leaved ash (Fraxinus angus- subsp. pannonica) of Balkanic origin. Common maple (Acer campestre) was frequent in this association while in some areas great maple (Acer pseudoplatanus) also occurred. Since then these species have become trees, \ew species appeared. Hungarian hawthom (Crataegus nigra) and wayfaring tree (Viburnum lantana) were of Balkanic origin. Plants fon the grass level included ramsons (Allium ursinum), wood anemone (Anemona nemorosa), European ginger (Asarum europacum), lily of the valley (Convallaria majalis), the common ivy (Hedera helix) of Atlantic immer snowflake (Leucojum aestivum), broad-leaved Solomon's i), (Scilla vindobonensis), figwort (Scrophularia umbrosa). The ‘occurrences of false brome (Brachypodium sylvaticum), yellow dead-nettle (Lamium syn, Lamiastrum galeobdolon) and herb-Paris (Paris quadrifolia), which probably first appeared at the beginning of the Flanders intergl: are still limited. It has not yet been decided, to what extent the Hungarian ash-alder associ Pannonicae-Alnetum) was separated from the peat furn-alder association (Thelypteridi-Alnetum), 1s It may be assumed that in addition to common maple (Acer campestris) ‘ombeam (Carpinus betulus) also played Other characteristic species ofthe shrub luded ‘Tatarlan maple (Acer tataricum) and dog-berry (Comus cerned during the Atlantic Phase, the Great lar to the Balkans, the Crimean Peninsula of today. Parallels in modern Hungary include Transdanubia and the Northern Mountains, At the same time, there was a difference between the species composition of oak forests in the northem and the southern regions of the Great Hungarian Plain. ‘Common oak-hombeam associations (Querco robori-Carpinetum) char- the +. Studying the modern occurrence of this common it may be seen that it contains species which are also present in durmas oak-horbeam (Quercus petreae-Carpinetum), sub- montane beach (Melitti-Fagetum sylvaticae) as well as durmas oak-Austrian ‘oak (Querceto petreae-cerris) associations which have existed continuously in the Northern Mountains and Transdanubia since those times. These species in common include spindle tree (Euonymus europaeus). common privet (Ligustrum vulgare), velvet lungwort (Pulmonaria molissima), lesser celan- dine (Ranunculus ficaria) and Wood Sanicle (Sanicula europea). Climatic-zonal relict forest types of the present day area between the Danube and Tisza rivers include oak and lily of the valley associations (Convallario-Quercetum) in sandy areas as well as common oak-hormbeam associations (Querco robori-Carpinetum). ‘These are indicative of a high correlation between geographical altitude and the niveau of the water table (Papp and Szodfridt 1967). It may be assumed that the same relationship influenced the distributions of the previously mentioned plant associations «during the Atlantic Phase, although the expansion of such forests in the Great Hungarian Plain wes more limited than during the Subboreal Phase. During the Atlantic Phase the common oak-hombeam association (Querco robori-Carpinetum) served as a refuge for Preboreal relict species oak-hombeam associ (present day Yugoslavia) have already indicated that during the Atlantic Phase the sandy16 plain provided an ideal environment for the migration of species to both the southwest and the north, When the results of his study are adopted within the context of sandy plains located in the southern section of the Great Hungarian Plain, it becomes possible to reconstruct forests with varying abundances of species. Among the groups of silver lime (Tilia argentea syn. tomentosa) and common oak (Quercus robur) wig tree (Cotinus coggygria) also occured. ‘Common juniper Guniperus communis) also formed thickets. The rich flora of forest clearings included broad-leaved wormwood (Artemisia latifolia), iris species (is. variegata), field scabious (Knautia arvensis) and tassel-hyacinth (Muscari comosum). Open sandy grassland associations (Festucatum vaginatae danubium) dominated in extensive areas. 3.2 Transition between the Atlantic and Subboreal Phases ‘Atthe end of the AUantic Phase and around the beginning of the Subboreal Phase, that is at the end of the Neolithic Period preceding the Bronze Age (approximately 2800 BC) the warm, humid and balanced climate, previously free of extremes, gradually deteriorated. Extensive Neolithic mixed oak forests (oak, elm, lime and ash trees with hazelnut growing on the shrub level, often referred to as EMW standing for Eichenmischwald in the German language literature) occupied loess soils which provided an ideal basis for agricultural cultivation. The species jon of these forests started changing. llen analyses, the mass invasion of beech humid (Jacomet, Brombacher and Dick 1989). Parallel to this phenomenon, the contribution of oak gradually declined, although its percentual proportion remained significant. Birch, elm and hombeam were also important as well ‘a spruce and fir on higher altitudes. The pollen of walnut (Juglans regia) ‘occured first at this time as a result of floristic influences spreading from the Balkans. The crown level of oak trees lets sunlight permeate. Consequently ‘oak forests have thick undergrowth as opposed to beech woods which grow a closed foliage resulting in a poor development of shrubs. Alder and hombeam, which formed parkland as well as fragmentary forests were present but played a minor role. Maximum forest cover lasted simultaneously with the cooling of climate. First the propor hombeam increased as temperatures fell and reached the 30 % of non arbor "7 pollen (NAP). The temperature fell to its minimum around 2600 BC. By the beginning of the Bronze Age these changes stabilized. As a result of prolonged forest cover, chemozem soils tumed into brown forest soils. Podzol formation also started on slopes at higher altitudes. During the transition between the Copper and Bronze Ages, large deciduous forests with thick undergrowth occupied the Great Hungarian Plain in combination with parkland steppe areas. As a consequence of lastingly cool ‘weather the parkland steppe vegetation slowly disappeared and was replaced by a mixture of beech and oak forests. Bushy hornbeam parkland forests, ‘occupied the extensive floodplains of rivers. Large mixed beech forests spread over the area of Transdanubia with occassional intrusions by oak, elm and lime. The closed crown level of these trees limited access to sunlight on the ground level thus preventing the development of substantial undergrowth. ‘The shrub and grass levels were enriched only by occasional extra sunlight in the areas where trees fell. During the Subboreal Phase, referred nomenclature developed for the jeterioriation of the climate started Carpathian Basin, a slow but deci Which lasted until 2000 BC. ‘The changes in vegetation resulting from this gradual cooling process influenced the fauna as well as its exploitation. In spite of their complex al data also reflect the trend of the warm and dry ic to become cool and humid by the Bronze Age 'Boikényi (1974a) this climatic change may have been one of the factors that led to a decrease in the exploitation of domestic animals for example at the settlement of Tészeg — Laposhalom in the great Hungarian Plain. On the other hand, a clear diachronic increase in the contribution of animals occurs at the tell site of J4szd6zsa - Képolnahalom (BOkOnyi 1992), This may be largely due to the contribution of red deer, for example, which remains high in the bone inventories of sites located in the ecozone between the plain and the hilly northem region (e.g. Als6vadész.- Vérdomb and Mende ~ Lednyvér; Choyke 1984a). This trend, however, may often be overestimated when antler fragments are taken into consideration as wel ‘Shed antler may be gathered at any time. Consequently, pieces of antler in a faunal assemblage may be indicative of red deer habitats, but do not ‘necessarily mean intensive hunting (Choyke 1987). ‘The keeping of domestic animals itself is influenced by an interaction between local geographical conditions, the physiological capacity of animals and the culturally determined expectations of the human population18 (Choyke 1983). Animal species also compete with each other within the subsistence economy. Due to their complementary habitat preferences and relatively rapid reproduction Caprids and keeping of sheep and/or ‘goat often in favour of pig, a species preferring more humid, forested habitats. This tendency is clearly apparent at later Bronze Age occupation sites such as the animal remains from the Fuzesabony and Koszider culture layers of ‘Tészeg ~ Laposhalom (BokOnyi 1952), the Gyulavarsénd culture fauna of Békés ~ Véroserd6 (BokOnyi 1974b), and the Tumulus culture bone material from Igar — Vémpuszta (Choyke 1984b). This tendency is, however, less Pronounced in the Great Hungarian Plain (Choyke 1984b: Table 8). 3.3 The Subboreal Phase ‘The weather characterized by heavy precipitation became somewhat drier at this time. Among the arboreal species forming forests the percentual contribution of common beech (Fagus sylvatica) decreased. At the same time, the importance of oak (Quercus sp.) and hazelnut (Corylus aveliana) somewhat increased. Palynological research showed that atthe time of the ‘Late Bronze Age (around 1300 BC) anew climatic deterioration started which lasted until the beginning of the Iron Age. This period is referred to as the time of late Subboreal cooling (1450/1300 BC - 800/600 BC). Asa result of the Late Bronze Age climatic deterioration the previous continental character of vegetation also changed and species of Subatlantic temperatures cessation of climatic extremes, All these led to a change in the soil’s water budget. The levels of both still waters and rivers as we raised. Floods common characteristic, many low areas were constantly covered by water. In contrast to the mixed oak forests of the Neolithic, Bronze Age beech forests were characterized by a very small number of species and thus did not provide sufficient amounts of nutrients for subsistence gatherers, This led to large scale deforestation, aimed at opening areas forthe cultivation of grains id legumes which secured a more reliable source of nutrients. Pollen diagrams show that in the case of weeds and other wild plants both the number of species and number of individuals increased during the Late Bronze Age. 19 ‘This may be regarded as a direct consequence of forest clearing (Z6lyomi 1980). The second great deforestation period of the Hortobgy area may be dated tothis time (Léczy 1988). Itis for this reason that, in addition to climatic ‘changes, tuman influences (the effects of plant cultivation, grazing and forest clearing) must also be taken into consideration as part of the study of ‘vegetation cover from the Atlantic Phase. Subsequent climatic changes followed only at the beginning of the Subatlantic Phase. In archaeological terms, this started during the Iron Age (800/600 BC - 0) and continues even today. Botanical evidence suggests that the continental character ef the climate became more pronounced, the water table sunk. The cool, rainy but balanced climate of the Subboreal Phase tumed drier but milder. This resulted in a mountain character in the vegetation of extensive floodplains. Natural vegetation in the Great Hungarian Plain was replaced by land cultivation, cop production and animal keeping cultures. AS a consequence of decreasing precipitation beech forests retreated. Oak forests mixed with Tatarian maple populating the eess elevations in peripheral areas and in addition oak forests characterized by the presence of lily of the valley in sandy plains suffered a particular decline. The vegetation of areas under constant water cover did not change. ‘The reduction of natural vegetation which was alsc due to anthropogenic luences led to the increasing desolation of the plains. As a result of drier te and the retreat of forested areas, the formation of chemozem-type started in the Great Hungarian Plain,4, Plant cultivation culture vation during the Early Bronze Age ature there isa tendency to view the subsistence of prehistoric societies in a normative manner, i.e. as single homogeneous units and under single labels like “settled agriculturalists". On the other hand, local conditions, both cultural and environmental exercise an influence over the nature of species found at each individual settlement (Choyke 1983). At the beginning of the Bronze Age, around 2000 BC, the people of the Pit Grave Kurgans of steppe origin arrived to the Carpathian Basin from the ‘east. Animal keeping is supposed to have been their chief form of subsistence. Atthe same time, people pract cultivation came from the south. The merger of these two different lifestyles gave rise to the Z6k culture. The culture covered by this collectiv i several groups characterized by different ways of life. The population which inhabited the Nyirség area in Easter Hungary was more involved with transhumant animal keeping and ci settlements. The Mak6 and Vutedol groups, on of the Pit Grave Kurgans of steppe origin (Kali archaeobotanical material from the Z6k culture is known only sf Pécs — Nagydrpdd (Hartyanyi and Nov4ki 1975; the majority summarized here. Newly excavated sites are referred to ith the exception of dwarf wheat (Triticum aestivum subsp. dicoccum), barley (Hordeum vuigar (Pisum sativum). Archacobotanical finds from the Nagyrév culture site of Dunaféldvér — Klvéria are indicative of widespread gardening and crop cultivation (Gyula, sntils (Lens culinaris) and peas preliminary data). Of the grain remains, cincom occurred in significant number of seeds from narrow-leaved vetch (Vicia angu: present. Vicia species of Mediterranean origin, which ar of the Bronze Age. The weed flora was very variable as (Agrostemma githago), field brome (Bromus arvensis), (Chenopodium album), black bindweed (Fallopia convolvulus), common knotgrass (Polygonum aviculare). Tis site provided the earliest flax (Linum discovered in the pros cone of the houses. A significant quantity of acoms from oak (Quercus sp.) ‘came to light from the same part of the settlement. This hoard may have been gathered in the mixed oak forests in the area for the purposes of human consumption. ‘Additional data on Early Bronze Age plant cultivation are provided by archaeobotanical finds brought ‘eincom. The deposit also included barley cleaning and the removal of chaff following the harvest. This hypothesis is supported by the evidence of spike axes and spikelets. The relative absence of weed seeds points to the same possibility. 4.2 Plant cultivation during the Middle Bronze Age ‘Transhumant animal husbandry characteristic of the Early Bronze Age ‘was replaced by a sedentary agricultural way of life combined with animal keeping by the Middle Bronze Age. This change started in the Great ‘Hungarian Plain and the Danube river seems to have played the role of a major barrier to the westem extent of this pattem, Thus it reached Transdanubia at a later time, and even then, it remained mostly ‘Transdanubia. The origin of cultures who lived in the previously mentioned areas provides partial explanation of this phenomenon. Of the two significant Early Bronze Age cultures of the Great Hungarian Plain, the Nagyrév culture had southem connections, while the Hatvan culture seems to have be linked with the east. As a consequence of its origin, the Hatvan culture was relatively late in abandoning simple animal husbandry- Although the origins of the Middle Bronze Age cultures in Transdanubia were varied, they developed an undoubtedly more homogeneous way of life. The Bell Beaker culture, which arrived from the west, practised steppe-type animal keeping similar to people of the Kisapostag and Transdanubian Lime Incrusted Ware cultures. This latter 2410 the natural environment of Transdanubia of those ir as cultures involved with more advanced land concemed, a strong correlation was found between the so geographical distributions of cultures, The Nagyrév and Vs which the latter may be considered a descendant of the former, occupied fertile chernozem type soils in the central section of the Great Hungarian Plain, as well as on the eastem edge of Transdanubia, The Hatvan culture an: descendant the Fizesabony culture were distributed over simi chemozem regions in the north of the Great Hungarian Pl 1975). ‘The richest finds of seeds and fruits came of the Vatya and Nagyrév cultures. These are located in the pro. ture hill forts does not extend beyond the fertile Mez6f01d region. Archacobotanical investiga systematically in recent years, cast light on the tell settlements of the Vatya and Ottomény cultur later a survival from the Early Bronze Age). Archaeobotanical materials recovered from sites of the Middle Bronze Age Vatya culture are indicative of the that have been carried out more tant grain species while barley (Hordeum valgare) occupied the second place. Of the other chaffed wheat spe icum turgidum subsp. dicoccum) played only a minor role, heat (Triticum aestivam subsp. spelta) ‘occurred only in the ic finds. Although no quantities of rye cereale) were brought to light, the consistent presence of its remains sistent cultivation of this plant. The grains were cleaned 2B bindweed (Convolvulus arvensis) and white goosefoot (Chenopodium album), are indicative of spring sowing. Since no other weed remains were found, and spontaneous floristic Were rare, it is 100 early to discuss ns of the vegetation and climatic reconstruction. noteworthy, however, that species of the steppe vegetation, for example fescue (Festuca sp.), are absent. The same holds true for weeds which are indicators of a continental climate such as wild oat (Avena fatua), and even weeds which prefer warmer climates, for example comcockle spontaneously nigra) and blackthom (Prunus spinosa), are found as which we know to have been gathere from the forest margins, from strips of un: plant species first group may have ori Szizhalombatta — Foldvér (Gyulai, unpublished Significant quantities of seed finds were of excavations at the late Vatya culture hill fort of Mende — Leényvér (Hantyanyi, Novaki yy 1968; Hantyényi and Novéki 1974), Similar amounts of emmer (Triticum turgidum subsp. dicoccum) and eincom (Triticum monococeum) were found, The remains of included fragments ‘axes. The quantity (Hordeum vulgare subsp. white goosefoot (Chenopo incon and emmer) and spring shown by both the numbers of settlement of Tiszaalpér — Vérdomb located by the Tisza river (Hartyényi 1982). When these samples are compared, eincom turns ut to have been the ‘most Important wheat species. Amelcom is fepresented by a smaller number of grains, which were most! with those of eincom. Ahhough dwarf wheat was also identi ust have played only a negligibie role. In addition to eincom, barley was the most important cereal cultivated at this site. In addition to the seeds of common barley (Hordeum vulgare subsp.24 hhexastichum), grain from common gromwell (Hordeum vulgare subsp. hexastichum var. nudum) was also found. The identifiable species of weeds in these samples include field bromegrass (Bromus arvensis), rye brome (Bromus secalinus), comcockle (Agrostemma githago), common gromwell lack bindweed (Fallopia convolvulus), common knotgrass (Polygonum aviculare), white goosefoot (Chenopodium album) and lesser bindweed (Convolvulus arvensis), The presence of these weeds is indicative of the cultivation of predominantly autumn cereals. Of the protein rich legumes lentils (Lens culinari), peas (Pisum sativum) and a new species, chickling vetch (Lathyrus sativus) were cultivated. The raw seeds of the papilionaceous chickling vetch are poisonous. It may therefore be assumed that these seeds were roasted or cooked prior 10 consumption, thereby rendering inactive their toxic ingredients. Before archaeobotanical find material from the previously mentioned ‘Nagyrév culture settlement of Dunafoldvar — Kalvaria became available for study, the earliest known occurrence of flax (Linum usitatissimum) was recorded from the tel settlement of Tiszaalpér — Vardomb. Carbonized seeds from this plant are of remarkably small size at both settlements, The scarce occurrence of flax is particularly surprising since seed samples from Western and Central Europe show that from the Ne mnwards, linen seeds served asa major source of Papaver somniferum) and the i sativa), Flax was also known due to bias in these samp jietary patterns. Namely, animal fats may ‘The inventory of legumes cultivated since the Early Bronze Age, Lednyvér, Szdzhalombatta — Foldvér, B&leske — VOrdsgyir, Laposhalom (Gyulai 1992), Subsequent investigations (Gyulai, unpublished data) corroborated the evidence for legumes atthe site of Szézhalombatta ~ Foldvér. Of the species of chaffed wheat mentioned earlier, eincorn and emmer ‘were the most widely distributed. However, although the cultivation of bare seeded common wheat (Triticum aestivum) was not very significant at this time, it was identified at several sites (Hantyényi and Novaki 1975; Kroll Arokt6 ~ Dongdhalom, Fels6dobsza - Vardomb, Jészd6zsa. — Képolnahalom, Tészeg — Laposhalom, Feudvar/Vojvodina — Yugoslavia, 25 Barca — Véthegy near Kosice in the entire Carpathian Basin. hypothesized that the find of these seeds placed insi container together with remains of eincom and emmer, has cult significance (Hajnalové 1991). In contrast to the earlier views, it can now demonstrated that this species of chaffed wheat also originates from the Middle East (Zohary and Hopf 1988). ‘The geographical distribution of species in the Triticum genus is to some extent pattemed (Fig. 1). The various wheat finds indicate two major regions. The first of these covers the easter and northeastem sections of ‘Transdanubia as well as the northem ion between the Danube and Tisza ant wheat species while emmer and Jay only secondary roles. The second area includes the left bank of the Tisza river and the eastem section of the area between the Danube and Tisza rivers. Amelcom is the dominant wheat species within this region. In regions where these two areas overlap with each other (Tészeg — Laposhalom, Mende ~ Leényvér, Tiszaalpér— Vardomb) eincom and emmer were cultivated in comparable proportions. This distribution suggests that, although there were differences between the wheat species cultivated in various regions, they do not demarcate a distinct boundary. Clear cut boundaries between the Bronze Age cultures in Hungary do not emerge from ‘ consideration of other forms of archaeological data, Barley occurs in all the archaeobotanical samples from this period. It Ihave been the second most important cereal (both for human consumption and animal feed) in the Carpathian Basin during the Middle Bronze Age. The quantity of barley seeds is usually greater than those of wheat species indicating that barley must have been more widely distrit in Early and Middle Bronze Age Europe than wheat. The contribu barley may be as much as 90 % of the cereal crop in Northem Europe (Bakkevig 1991). This situation was consequence of the fact that the e: of wheat, demanding in terms of s and needs less precipitation. Barley may achieve favourable yields even in arid environments, The preference for barley cultivation supports the theory that, in spite of occasional rainstorms|: The distribution of wheat (Updated map after Nov “The dingram shows the geogepticd lbotion ofthe semsmanze! pereonge of wheat peice Beep 23 for detailed explosion. 2 and floodings, the climate was warmer and drier during the Middle Bronze ‘Age than in subsequent Late Bronze Age times (Evenari 1982), By studying the species proportions of grain samples from Hungary it may be concluded that barley was the second most important cereal crop cultivated by the peoples who inhabited the Carpathian Basin during the Early and Middle Bronze Ages. ties in identification, detailed descriptions. wed barley (Hordeum vulgare subsp. distichum) is known from Tis .~ Bashalom and'T¢steg.- Laposhalom. The nude variety (Hordeum vulgare subsp. distichum var. nudum) occurred at Szérhalombatta ~ Foldvar. Both the chatfed and nude varieties of common (Hordeum vulgare subsp. hexastichim — Baracs - Bottydnsénc; deum vulgare subsp. hexastichum var. nudum ~ Dunadjvéros ~ Koszider) is peculiar that oat was identified only as a weed (Avena fatu zaeszldr — Bashalom, ted only by sporadic finds during the Neo gained importance as a major cereal species during the Middle Bro (Boleske — Vorisgyir, Tiszalue ~ Dankadomb, T6szeg — Laposhalom), The carliest occurrence of rye (Secale cereale) in the Carpathian Basin ited to this period as well (Arokt6 — Dongéhalom). Palynological ions provided evidence of continuous rye cultivation from the end nze Age, Weeds in the Chenopodium genus, related to white goosefoot prefer nitrogen rich soils and may be considered ruderalia, Their remains occur as ‘archaeobotanical samples of almost all excavations. ‘A hoard of cleaned many-seeded goosefoot (Chenopodium poly- spermum) seeds recovered from a house at the Vatina cul everyday consumption. This find may aso be inten tof fishing baits (Kroll 1990a). Seeds of rocket (Sisymbrium sp.), flixweed (Descurainia sp.) and marsh spurge (Euphorbia palustris) recovered28 in the form of accumulations at the same site may have served medicinal purposes 1990b). “The cultivation of flax is illustrated by several remains as well. Evidence of this plant is known in the form of remains from a string found at the Sz6reg Bronze Age C cemetery, while sporadic seed finds were identified in the sample from Tiszaalpér. This evidence, however, is not sufficiently substantial to answer the question of wheter the seeds were used in oil production or as a dye. Flax was not the only source of oil in this period. Bronze Age people cultivated gold of pleasure (Camelina sativa) and poppy (Papaver somniferum) as oil plants (Hopf and Blankenhorn 1987). Both the seeds and podlets of gold pleasure were found at the Pécsvérad ~ Nagyérpéd site of the Z6k culture. Seed hoards of this plant recovered at Feudvar/Vojvodina are good illustrations the significance of this plant (Kroll 1991). To date, no unambiguous evidence, for the use of poppy (Papaver somniferum) is available. ‘The archaeobotanical study of Ottomény culture finds from Trkeve ~ Terehalom has not yet been completed (Gyulai, unpublished data). Preliminary results, however, show that plant cultivation at that settlement ‘was not radically different from the agriculture of the Vatya culture, and they are representative of the exploitation of plants in Middle Bronze Age cultures. to eincom and emmer, developed forms of barley ((Hordeum um), jetils and ervil occured. On the fe milletis surprising. Seeds of various weeds found among the remains of grain are suggestive of cereal associations sown during the autumn. These weeds were identified as green goosegrass (Galium spurium), brome (Bromus sp.), black bind convolvulus) which all remains recovered are al indicative of lime rich, fertile butnot fertilized loess soils. The great number of seeds from white goosefoot found on the floor levels of burnt down houses point to the deliberate accumulation of these seeds for the purposes of consumption. Safflower (Cartamus tinctorius), @ ic plant may have been grown to provide face paints. The species mn of this seed assemblage is similar to that of the archaeobotanical material gathered at the Feudvar/V tell settlement excavated by the Tisza river (Kroll 1990a). 2» ion during the Late Bronze Age According to palynological research carried out in the Balaton region, the incidence of cereal pollens increased during the second half of the Bronze ‘Age. This must be a direct consequence of expanding ploughland cultivation (Zoryomi 1980). The same trend is illustrated by the great number of pollens from ploughland weeds such as comflower (Centaurea sp.), plantain (Plantago sp.), polygonums (Polygonum sp.) and dock (Rumex sp. ‘Around 1300 BC, that is during the Middle Bronze Age, tel settlements created by centuries of continuous habitation were abandoned. A new culture arrived in the Carpathian Basin from an eastem direction. It is known as the ‘Tumulus culture. Itis predominantly the cemeteries ofthese people which are the chief form of subsistence practised by this group. ‘At the same time, archaeobotanical finds brought to light from a Tumulus culture refuse pit at the settlement of Balatonmagyaréd ~ Hidvégpuscta provide evidence of a highly developed horticulture (Gyulai, unpublished seeds of pea: Common millet wwere excavated not surprising that grain accumulations were not discovered. On the other hand, grain finds dominate the archaeobotanical material from the Late Bronze Age settlement of Gér (Gyulai, unpublished data. ‘Samples gathered from the thick carbonized grain deposit found at the bottom ‘of one of the refuse pits offers a glimpse of plant cultivation at ths site. Small spelt was the most important cereal species followed by emmer. Rye was the third most important bread cereal in terms of the number of seed specimens. Finds of barley lagged behind considerably. Spelt wheat also occurred. Great numbers of chaffed wheat as well as fragments of spike axes from barley indicate that threshing and cleaning preceded storage. The presence of legumes is limited to lentils in this assemblage. ‘The number of individuals calculated for weeds, however, is great. Weed species include wild oat (Avena fatua), comcockle (Agrostemma githago), rye brome (Bromus secalinus), field bromegrass (Bromus arvensis), upright ‘brome (Bromus erectus), white goosef00t (Chenopodium album), wall barley (Hordeum murinum) and green goosegrass (Galium spurium). These weeds are indicative of autumn sowing.in settlement pattern and way Increasing precipitation as well as fear from attacks by other peoples probably played a role in these develop- ‘ments, At the same time, these long lived fortified settlements also represent. increased specialization in labour; that is they may have served as centres for trading and craft activities. They probably also formed nodes within a network Of settlements which has not yet been fully investigated. ‘The increasing importance of agriculture - and crop cultivation in Particular — is supported by both archaeological and archaeobotanical ‘evidence (see Table 2). In addition to the great numer of sickle finds, rich seed deposits are also known from this period (see According to the the Gava culture settlement of Poroszl6 — Aporh Is were cultivated. Seeds in the sample show that emmer however, was cultivated in alm same quantity. The third most frequently encountered species was common wheat, represented by half as many seeds as spelt wheat, Re incom occurred only in negligible d forms of genetically improved wh were cultivated. In contrast to eincom, the cultivation ofthese wheats required improved agricultural techniques, A (Trifolium repens) may be regarded as the vidence of pasturing ‘wheat and common wheat are known from the site the Titel area (Kroll 1991). The role of barley, however, remained dominant and the consumption of true millet was also Popular. Seeds recovered from the Middle Umifield culture settlement at Feudvar/Vojvodina (12th to 9th century BC) are representative of plant ation during the Late Bronze Age and Early Iron Age. In addition to ym and emmer, more improved forms of barley, re, common wheat true lentils, chickling vetch, flax and poppy were grown. Part of the ed remains mixed withthe seeds and grains ~ a plant association autumn sowing ~ could be idemtfied as well, The cereal weeds luded orlaya (Orlaya grandifio common homed poppy stia paniculata), hare's ear f= bomebean (Via faba) f= goldot pleasure Camlin tvs) Figure 2: Seed and fruit remains from Hungary (Updated after Hartydnyi 1982) 3132 forking larkspur (Consolida regalis), field madder (Sherardia arvensis) blue ‘woodruff (Asperula arvensis), green goosegrass (Gallium spurium), groun pine (Ajuga cham: dentata) which all point seeds recovered from the sample a soil which, was not however, ad Borojevi¢ 1988). A special h the safflower (Cartham material for face paints (Kroll 19908). ‘The high number of als obtained for legumes in the kitchen garden (Vicia ervilia, Lens culinaris, Pisum sativum) is a new phenomenon, although the values obtained for Lathyrus sativus and Vicia faba are significantly smaller. It is possible, that their cultivation is associated with the continuous development of agricultural echnologies. Could an increasing demand for plant proteins have stimulated the intensifying cultivation of ing of the first millennium BC? ig of eincom. In addition the weed ive ofa lime rich and fertile locss ‘enriched using manure (Kroll and f Bronze Age people may be illustrated by 5) find which could possibly serve as a raw {ed to the same period, Short-handled Bronze Age scythes may have for harvesting grass. The storage of hay thus Inthe Late Bronze Age of Hungary, remains of flax are known only from the Late Bronze Age layer of Lengyel. The chronological position of this stratum was revised on the basis of its archaeobotanical material (Hartyényi, nigra/racemosa). Water-chestnut (Trapa natans) may have been gathered of rivers for the purposes of either alimentation or ). reaches 200 square meters. A variety of buildings stood within these areas. 3 ‘The demographic explosion that took place during the period of the ‘Umield culture may be understood when the original natural environment, requirements as well as yields of cultivated ized predominantly medium loughland and horticultural compact, fertile soils with high water tables cultivation, ‘The Late Bronze Age settlement structure consisted of “fortified towns” ‘occupying large areas as well as smaller farming units. Itis possible even that slave labour was exploited at the latter type of settlements. 4.4 The evolution of weed associations One of the most important questions which naturally follows from ‘by the typical coexistences of certain characteristic species, provide 2 good basis for studying the natural vegetation. Plant associations occupy well separated habitats. It is for this reason that as basic units in plant sociology they provide the best key to the ecological characterization of an arca. The development of present plant associations is the result of a long process. ‘Consequently, direct extrapolations to prehistoric times are prone to a number of biases. In archaeobotany, the complete set of plant materials retrieved is called thanatocoenosis, while plant remains reflecting human influence on the vegetation are distinguished by the term palaeobiocoenosis(Willerding 1986). Duc to the great number of criteria involved, ecological eval ut using cumputers. The richer the inventory of taxa obtained during the course of excavations, the more reliable the resuts of such analyses will be. Plant remain from te Umeld culture segarding culvated species) are indicati to those found at some larger Ni apparent, that the contribution of species gathered at the forest edge is significantly smaller. At the same time, Late Bronze Age ploughland weed associations became similar to those a difference emerged ‘between groups of weeds characteristic of autumn sowing (Seacalinetea) and those indicative of spring sowing (Polygeno-Chenopodietalia). As a atic changes, the vegetation of periods, fewer bushes provided edible fruits and seeds. The species composition of Late Bronze Age ‘grazing areas was not essentially different from those of modem pastures.34 Depending on the immediate environment, marshy meadows in the parkland habitats of floodplains were formed by associations characterized by creeping bent (Agrostetum albac), meadow foxtail (Alopecuretum pratensis) and ‘meadow fescue (Festucetum pratensis). In Transdanubia similar habitats are dominated by tufted hair-grass associations (Deschampsietum caepositum). Marshy meadows with purple moor-grass associations (Molinietum coeruleae) seem to have been common in the Nyfrség region of northeastem. Hungary, between the Danube and Tisza rivers and in Transdanubia, In hilly areas and mountain habitats pastures characterized by red fescue and dogstail (Festuco rubrae-Cynosuretum) provided fodder for cattle rearing, Seed and fruit remains and ploughland weed associations represent an abundant source of information. The life cycles of certain weeds adapted to those of the conditions, the use of manure, changes in crop rotation ete, Seed remains from weeds also show that in prehistoric times cereals were harvested at medium height, somewhere between the spike and ground These plants were rarely cut more closel; round level. At the same time, emmer could be harvested ‘common wheat 43. Bronze Age viniculture and fruit consumption optimum of the Adantic Phase, the distribution area sylvestris) reached far beyond the Carpathian Basin. the form of numerous finds thatthe fruit ofthis plant ‘was gathered in many parts of Europe as early as the Neolithic and the Copper Age. lis occurrences were recorded, in Northern Italy, Belgium and Switzerland (Stummer 1911), Greece’ and Spain (Hopf 1978), Germany (Schiemann foravia (Opr Sweden (Hjelmay’ ‘Auvemier (Lake Neue of domestication, that mn toward the domestic form (Vitis vinifera; Villaret-Rochow 1971). This plant was also known from the Atlantic Phase in Hungary. It was found near Szombathely in westem Hungary Late Neolithic Lengyel culture settlement of Sé (Facsar and Jerem 19 Additional Bronze Age woodland grape finds from Europe include specimens from various floodplain areas of the Danube river, the Po plain, surrounds of Lake Garda and Parma, Bosnia and Germany (Stummer 1911; Ammerman et al. 1978; Bertsch and Bertsch 1949). Materials recovered at Bronze Age sites in the Balkans and coastal areas of the Mediterranean play an important role in tracing the evolution of common grape. Although seeds of woodland grape were recovered from archaeobotanical samples gathered at the sites of the late Dimini culture (Arapi, Sesklo, Pefkakia) and Tolkos (Greece), even these may be regarded as evolutionary stages in the evolution of common grape (Renfrew 1966). According to the opinion of Renfrew (Kroll 1983) the oldest find of common ‘rape came to light at the site of Dikili-Tash (2400 BC). In addition to the possible Anatolian origins of common grape, Facsar assumes that the actual site of grape domestication should be sought somewhere in Palestine, Egypt or Syria (Facsar and Jerem 1985). He neither denies nor confirms the possibili grape seeds found at the site of Kastanas, northern Makedonia (Ki ) belong to the domestic form, In fi i ical and metrical indices, and the Fequires immense expertise. In contrast to the Bronze Age of the areas mentioned above, no evidence of early viticulture is available in the form of seed finds from this period in Hungary. Although a bumt piece of a vine shoot came to light from the Gyulavarsénd culture layer of the tell settlement at Békés ~ Vérdomb, this ed from woodland grape (Valké and Before the unambiguous archacobotanical evidence of seeds is available, indirect finds such as the large size ‘essel known from the Nagyrév culture cannot be accepted as viniculture (Hartyényi and Novaki 1975). Having reviewed the archaeobotanical finds from Bronze Age sit became apparent that Bronze Age people often gathered vitamin rc fruits and berries available in their most immediate environmer Archaeobotanical finds indicative of consumption, hoarding or perhaps even preservation (jam, syrup etc.) of these fruits include the following species blackberry (Rubus caesius) from Tiszaalpér, elder and red elder from the sites of Arokt6 ~ Dongéhalom and J4szd6zsa ~ Kpolnahalom, Comelian cherry (Corus mas) from the J4szd6zsa— K4polnahalom and Lengyel settlements, crab apple (Malus sylvestris) from the hill fort of Pékozd — Var, and blackthom (Prunus spinosa) from Bolcske ~ Vordsgyir (Hartyényi, Novaki and Patay 1968; Hartyényi and Novaki 1974),4.6 The agriculture of Bronze Age people Late Bronze Age people divided cultivated lands into ploughlands, gardens, pastures, orchards and possibly hop growing areas as well as vineyards (?). Plots exploited by forestry and fisheries may also have been delineated (Goldmann 1987). These areas may have replaced each other during the course of cultivation. Shallow lakes, when drained, may have served as fertile ploughland for cereals. Ploughlands, in general, were ion of the cultivated areas was, in many w cal analysis of Umfield culture archaeobotanical finds from ‘Hagnau - Burg in the Lake of Constance region (R8sch 1991). ‘Areas designated for subsequent land cultivation were cleared using the slash and bur method then cleaned of leftover plant remains. While land tillage was frequently practiced using ploughs in this period, evidence for the direct restoration of soil fertility is unknown. Fields were continuously used until their prod potential was completely exhausted. Once this happened, new areas, perhaps pastures, were brought into cultivation, and the previously exploited pieces of land were abandoned to ensure’ natural recovery. At the beginning of the Bronze Age, differences existed between the agricultural practises pursued in the southeastern and central parts of Europe. In the Balkans and particularly in northem Bulgaria, the recuperation of soils was facilitated by the inundation of alluvial flats as is shown by tell settlements in the region (Todorova 1982). Furrows were made in the soil thus loosened before the sowing of cereals. In Central Europe, fields were cultivated using wooden ploughs pulled by oxen. The oldest specimens of, ploughs with a shoe are known from the Mediterranean region. They are dated 1o the end of the third and beginning of the second millenni ‘conceming the use of ploughs with a so middle of the second millennium. In addition to the actual remains of ploughs and prehistoric ploughmarks are also known in northem and northwestern Europe (Balassa 1973), The requirements of ploughland cult in the Carpathian Basin existed by the beginning of the third millennium BC, ploughland crops and draft animals were available, wagons and hamesses were known. Its for this reason that one may reasonably assume that by the end of that millennium, 37 ploughing was practiced in this region as well (Balassa 1973), The dominant wheat species was eincom in the Balkans as well as in the eastern part of Central Europe, while in the rest of Central and Western Europe emmer was predominantly cultivated. ‘The per capita annual grain consumption during this period may be estimated as 200 kg. Minimum wheat yields may have been 150 kg/ha wheat orthe equivalent in the form of other grains (Goldmann 1982). Consequently, a cultivated land surface of 1000 square ters could theoretically support 800 000 people. Taking into consideration Early Bronze Age agricultural standards, one square kilometre of ploughland may have provided grain for 75 pe estimation, however, also includes areas unaffected by agricultural cultivation. On the other hand, population density was well below these estimations during the period under discussion here. In Denmark, for example, estimations resulted in a (Poulsen 1983). Due to the previous! liscrepancy means there is no explosion. 4.7. Grain processing and storage In the case of chaffed forms of wheat cultivated during prehistoric times atthe spike was separated into spikelets. In order to obtain aff also had to be removed. This could not be achieved by since ground chaff makes flour unpalatable. The removal of chaff ‘may be achieved in two different ways: roasting and softening. Experimental archaeological investigations showed that roasting in a special dish is a very efficient method, however, in spite of all the effort, chaff ‘completely removed using this technique. On the other hand, sof subsequent, heating for several hours loosened the chaff to such an extent that it became separated from the grain and could be removed by winnowing, Even the toughest pieces of chaff could be easily removed by hand shelling. When ‘emmer was heated for two hours to 50 centigrades, the removal of chaff took less than two hours (Meurers-Balke 1985). A great number of pits are usually encountered during the course of excavations on Bronze Age settlements. The majority of these features are ‘automatically classified as refuse pits on the basis of their fills, while others are identified as grain storage pits. This latter, widely discussed, group of features is characterized by “bee-hive” shaped pits which have a narrow toptowards the base. Their walls are usually unplastered and are sometimes fired. It is suggested here, that these pits were indeed suitable for ge of threshed and cleaned grain for varying lengths of time. ‘Willerding (1970), on the other hand, doubts that storage pits excavated at the Late Copper Age Baden culture settlement near Ossarn in Austria could have served such a purpose. Late Bronze Age pits excavated at the site of Palkau. and Burgschl Iso in Austria, seem to have been used for storing grain, although they were mixed with seeds from legumes (Wemeck 1949). A “storage pit” with plastered walls was found at the Urnfield culture settlement of Ichterhausen in Germany. Grain seeds at the bottom of this feature were indicative of its function (Schultze-Motel and Gall 1967). pits was not the only way grain was stored. At forward by Knorzer (1972), who recovered the jich may have been a bam at the Bronze Age settlement of Langweiler in Germany. Bumt seeds of wheat and barley were found in the post holes of this building. lar to those in neighboring countries, also occur in Hungary. They may be. ‘on the basis of evidence in the form of grains recovered by water sieving from their fill, Questions concerning grain storage pits from Hungary were discussed comprehensively by Novki (1983). On the basis of archaeobotanical finds brought to light at the Early Bronze Age Z6k/Vutedol culture settlement of Pécs — Nagyérpad only one of the numerous pits Bronze Age Fiizesabony culture settlement of Arokt6 - Dongéhalom. Dishes from the Middle Bronze Age settlement of Sz4zhalombatta ~ Foldvar elonging to the Vatya cultre contained grain carbonized by burning. Pits without plastering or firing were excavated at the Vatya culture tell site of Boleske ~ Vordsgyir. Pits were also investigated in the Late Bronze Age layers of Lengyel - Snc, the Late Bronze Age Gava culture site of Poroszi6 = Aporhét as well as the Umfield culture sites of Bakonszentkirdly — ‘Zorbghegy and Gér. A common feature of all these pits is that they contained carbonized seed remains from cultivated plants mixed with a variety of other antfacts, It seems therefore that these features were not true grain storage pits. Cereal remains may be regarded as secondary deposits in them. According to the layer that contained grains. One of the skeletons showed signs of violent death, A similar case was reported by Tempir (1961) from the Aunjenitz t excavated at the site of Prasklice in Bohemia, Ninety percent ‘ofthe 3to 4 cm thick deposit of carbonized grain in that feature was composed of emmer, while the remaining ten percent was made up cincom. Three human skeletons and several vessels were found above this layer. Grinding must have been a relatively time consuming process. According to Gunda (1961) two hours of single-handed grinding were required to jones. When elongated the length ofthis work could be somewhat reduced (Hennig 1966). The basic shape of the tw jones used in processing grain did not change until the Iron Age. The srinding process took place in three steps, which undoubtedly involved the use of some sort of sieves (probably made of hair). Naturally, the aim was not necessarily the production of flour reaching modem industrial qu: ground to. less refined state probably provided a better raw mater and cereal meals, According to experimental results, first the grain may have been roasted at a temperature of 200° centigrade which made rough grinding easier (Meurers-Balke 1985).40 5, Examinations in nutritional history 5.1. The basis of food analysis: Prehistoric housewives must have spent many hours of work before grain ‘made its way to the family table in the form of meals. Naturally, everything, depended on the aims of food preparation. Several questions, however, remain open. Did cereals play a role in everyday nutrition and were they served as main meals? What was the proportion of meat, vegetables, fruits and gathered plants in everyday diet and to what extent was the preparation of these foods independent from the meals made from grain? If the procurement of drinking water, fire making and maintenance, the processing of hides and plant fibres, weaving and sewing as well as the gathering of medicinal and other plants are considered to have been part of the daily chores, it becomes apparent that prehistoric women had more than enough things to do to fill their day. When cooking and baking are added to this ist, itis clear that only a very short time was eft forthe cleaning of grains (Chaff removal), no matter how long this activity may have taken. ‘What kinds of food and drink were prepared and consumed in prehistoric times? Where and under what circumstances might such products be preserved? Where can food and drink remains be found? How and to what le to analyze these remains? Is it possible at all to identify dients and reconstruct the manner in which they were prepared? the grave famiture observed during the of cult behavior. That is, the deceased was supplied with food and drink for the long joumey tothe “other world”. If so, what sorts of food and drink were placed by the body during the mortuary ritual? Food remains are rarely encountered during the excavation of cemeteries and settlements. Most ofthe organic food components are chemically unstable and they quickly decompose under the influence of microorganisms. Under special circumstances of preservation (carbonization caused by charring, ‘water logged deposits, very dry microctimate), however, they may survive. ‘An additional problem is posed by the fact that both great expertise and ification methods of microscopy and technically advanced analytical procedures in chemistry have permitted the appropriately precise study of such occasionally 41 recovered food remains. It is exactly the spora: ‘character and the differential nature of these finds that, although ancient fooc ‘materials carry a lot of information, no standardized methodology has ye been developed for the comprehensive body of examinations referred to a: the analysis of food remains. The identification of these finds contributes tc reconstruction of ancient ways of life and gastronomic history. Food remains may occu selves (for example flour and meal finds pieces of bread) or in association with other archaeological artifacts (for example on the surface of metal objects or stuck to the surface of sherds). The analysis of stomach contents from mummies as well as moor and glacie: victims, and scatological studies must also be mentioned here (Richter 1988) ‘The analysis of drink remains is a significantly more complex problert and is loaded with speculative elements. No prehistoric drink remains are known to date. It may be assumed, however, that wild fruits and berries wert used in making preserves and syrups of some sort. Should drinks have beer made from honey, palyotgia research may be instrumental in providing evidence for thi Grtss (193, 1935) identified phosphate remain (possibly orig among other things, Ik) as well as honey on the inside of pot sherds ‘According to Helck (1971) the consumption of beer may be recognized it Ancient Egypt after 2900 BC. We does not rule out the knowledge of beer product imported from the Mic listed a number of Egypt occurrence, specific ting ‘The existence of Bronze Age viniculture and wine production c be convincingly demonstrated. On the other hand, the idea of beer prod ‘Age seed and frui seek the evidence of germinating grains which might have been used i brewing beer (Kster 1989). In addition to utilizing barley as a raw material malt may also be produced using all sorts of wheat. According to Medieva written sources, common hop (Hunulus tupulus) was used in Wester anc Central Europe in the flavoring and preservation of beer. In Northern Europe sweet gale (Myrica gale) was used for the same purpose. It is for this reaso1 that the occurrence of these plants in archaeobotanical samples may bx associated with beer produ hre 1984). However, no such fruit remain, have yet been found at sites of the Hungarian Bronze Age.a In spite ofthe fact that rapid burning ‘posure to fire) leads to structural als, it may also conserve certain procedures. Thus remaining parts may become available for microscopic studies. Naturally, the posse af such analyses always determine by he ae of preservation ‘must occur (Lochte 1951, 1954; Piperno 1987). Asa result of sophisticated microscopic investi chemical preparations, morphological de fragments of the vascular syst recognizable even after the itzky (1927) in the microscopic evaluation of food remains deserves particular attention. A combination of microscopic techniques and macroscopic analysis was developed by Wahren (1988, 1989) for the evaluation of flour, meal, bread, cake and other food ret recovered from the lacustrian settlements of Souther Germany Switzerland. Similar research is pursued by Hjelmqvist (1984, 1990) in ‘Norther Europe, Schlichtherle (1983) in Germany, Richter (1987, 1988) and ‘Wahren (1984, 1987, 1988, 1989b) in Switzerland, as well as Hajnalové (1989), Pieta and Plaché (1989) in Czechoslovakia. Their research contributed to the elucidation of the long road that led to the production of pies and leavened bread, thereby enriching our knowledge of prehistoric gastronomic culture and food consumption habits. Instrument aided analytical chemical investigations offer additional ‘possibilities in the evaluation of food remains. Results of such studies permit conclusions conceming the types of prehistoric foods, their raw materials as well as the additives used in them, Even the methods of preparation may be reconstructed, 43 Under the climatic conditions prevalent in the Carpathian Basin, food remains are usually preserved in a carbonized form, probably as a result of exposure to relatively mild heat in an anaerobic or at least oxygen poor environment. As early as 1916 Maurizio investigated the origins of flat breads recovered from prehistoric pile dwellings using the analysis of ash. However, it was only the procedure of modem analytical chemistry (atom emission and atom absorption spectrophotometry) which made the analysis of the main ‘components and trace elements in food remains possible. Research in this direction showed that although part of the elements is preserved in ical food remains, several factors must also be taken into ion. The partial presence or absence of mobil elements which may Due to the previously mentioned moderate carbonization caused by ited group of compounds may be expected to survive. It t prehistoric food reraains usually do not contain starch, sugar and protein any more. On the other hand, free amino acids, cholesterol as well as fatty acids may sometimes be detected, ‘The differential decomposition times of various amino acids resul proportions between these compounds that change through time (Csap6, ‘Téth-Pésfai and Csap6-Kiss 1986). In grain some 85 to 90 percent of amino acids decompose during four hundred years, while 93 to 95 percent may disappear in a 1700-2000 years time interval (J. Csap6, unpublished data). It is for this reason that the mere presence of amino acids does not provide sufficient information for reconstructing the types of proteins, their original concentration and proportions relative to each other. They make, however, the age determination of organic materials possible. Cnrrent results. have shown, that as with the amino-acid racemization method used in the dating. ‘of bone remains, the same procedure may be used in the evaluation of archaeobotanical finds (Csap6, Téth-Pésfai and Csap6-Kiss 1986). ‘Another analytical method is the gas-chromatographic analysis of fatty these compounds are less sensitive to the influence of heat. for this reason that their study isa suitable method for identifying the sources of organic materials of both plant and animal origin (Rottlinder 1983; Rottlander and Schlichtherle 1980).44 5.2 Food remains in Hungary ‘An increasing number of archaeological excavations have been accompanied by scientific analyses during the past few decades. As a result, prehistoric food remains have also been recovered. Remains of carbonized bread were found following the water-sieving of samples gathered on the floor level of bumt Ottomény culture houses at the tell settlement of Tiitkeve ~ ‘Terchalom (Gyulai, unpublished data). The porosity of charred pieces, that is, the size and shape of holes, shows the typical structure of leavened bread. Carbonized food remains recovered from a Tumulus culture refuse at ‘Although these pieces puffed up as a result of buming, their elongated shape ‘may still be recognized. Germs fell out of these seeds which may be indicative of cleaning: germs are often lost during the course of threshing and cleaning, Carbonized lumps of meal, composed of two to ten seeds cemented together, were also found. The great degree of similarity between these seeds of true a short period of time, ifnot simultaneously. Itis possible that they were burt already during the cooking process or subsequently, together with other antifacts. When the residue was sorted under a stereo light microscope, numerous animal remains were found as well. Within this assemblage, the archaeozoologist I. Takécs identified a number of bones from fish and small binds, which showed signs of roasting. ‘The material obtained for study also contained a significant number of carbonized remains originating from a homogeneous but spongy material, ‘They seem to be fragments ofa piece of larger volume. None of the fractured surfaces displayed holes. bubbles or cracks: the small, round pores were 4 se fine holes cannot be the result of fermentation caused by Lactobé jicative of the baking of at evenly kneaded, fine dough. The even porosity is also suggestive of bakin, at a high temperature in a hot and evenly heated oven. evenly distributed. Archaeobotanical investigations by the author on this substance wen complemented by macroscopic studies carried out by M. Wahren in Bem Results of microscopic evaluations were contributed by B. Richterin Zirich Laboratory of the Faculty of Animal Breeding at the Pannon Agricultura University of Kaposvar all indicated that remains of Bronze Age strawberr, shortcake were found, The dough was made of wheat flour reaching moden industrial quality as well as millet flour using lard.46 Summary ‘Around 3000 BC a new phase of Holucene (also known as Flanders interglacial, beginning 8200 BC) commenced which lasted until 800/600 BC. In archaeological terms, this period, called the Subboreal Phase, included the late Neolithic and the entire Bronze Age. The beginring of she Subboreal Phase (often referred to as BUk I. Phase within the context of the Carpathian Rasin) was marked by a deterioration of the climate which lasted until 2000 BC. Subsequently, the rainy climate became somewhat drier. Of the forest forming tree species, the proportion of beech (Fagus sylvatica) also declined. tthe same time oak (Quercus sp.) and hazel (Corylus avellana) became more common. Palynological research showed that a new deterioriation o Nomadic/transhumant animal husbandry characteristic of the Eatly Bronze Age, was replaced by a combination of animal keeping and a sedentary agri Archaeobot recovered from several sites of the Middle at ocurred only in or (Avena farua). True millet (Panicum miliaceum) became a bread cereal during this time. In the Carpathian Basin, the earliest finds of rye (Secale cereale) are dated to the same period. The diet of prehistoric people was made more variable by the continued {gathering of vitamin rich fruits and berries in the proximity of settlements. Around 1300 BC people abandoned the tell seitlemenis whose layers had been created by centuries of occupation. Archaeobotanical finds from the settlements of the Tumulus culture which arrived in Hungary from the most show that, in contrast to previous hypotheses, these people practised large scale land cultivation. The same holds true for the Umfield and Gava culcures, The high numbers of individuals for plant species characteristic of horticulture is another new phenomenon. Their production may perhaps be related to new agricultural technologies which developed at the time, Food remains from the Late Bronze Age Tumulus culture settlement of Balatonmagyaréd — Hidvégpuszta shed some light on the gastronomic tradition of Late Bronze Age people. References Ammerman, A. J., Butler, J. J. Diamond, G., Manozzi, P., Pals, J.P., Sevink 4J., Smit, A. and Voorrips, A. 1978, Report on the excavation at Mont Leoni, A bronze age settlement in the Parma Valley. Helinium 1 126-164, Arendés, V., 1982, A magyarorszégi archaeobotanikai adatok Osszehasonilt: vizsgélata (The comparative study of archaeobotanical data fron Hungary). Agrdrt6rt. Szeml, 24/1-2, 1- 53. Bakkevig, S., 1991, Charred seeds from Forsandmoen, a prehistoric villag in SW-Norway. 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