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Outline
Photovoltaic Cell:
Construction and working
principle
Solar photovoltaic
technologies
Types of solar photovoltaic
systems
Designing of a solar
photovoltaic system
Advantages and disadvantages
of solar energy and systems
Applications of solar energy
What is Solar Energy?
Originates with the thermonuclear fusion reactions occurring in
the sun.
This energy consists of radiant light and heat energy from the sun.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Breakdown_of_the_incoming_solar_ener
Air Mass
Solar Heating
Solar Photovoltaic
Solar Concentrators
Electricity Generation From Solar
Energy
Solar Energy can be used to generate electricity in 2 ways:
Solar Thermal Energy:
Using solar thermal technologies for heating fluids which can be
used as a heat source or to run turbines to generate electricity.
Solar Photovoltaic Energy:
Using solar energy for the direct generation of electricity
using photovoltaic phenomenon.
Technology Options for Solar Power
Solar Power
Thermal PV
Low
High Temp. Production
Temperature Med Temp Technology
>400°C Process
<100°C. <400°C
Amorphous
Solar Pond
Silicon
Energy Band Diagram of a Conductor,
Semiconductor and Insulator
Semiconductors are interested because their conductivity can be readily modulated (by impurity
doping or electrical potential), offering a pathway to control electronic circuits.
Semiconductors used for solar
cells
II III IV V VI
B C (6)
Al Si (14) P S
Zn Ga Ge (32) As Se
Cd In Sb Te
Semiconductors:
Elementary – Si, Ge.
Compound – GaAs, InP, CdTe.
Ternary – AlGaAs, HgCdTe, CIS.
Quaternary – CIGS, InGaAsP, InGaAIP.
Silicon Shared electrons
Si Si Si
Si Si Si
Si Si Si
-
Energy of a photon,
Extrinsic Semiconductor, n-type
Doping
Conducting band, Ec
Si Si Si
Extra
Ed ~ 0.05 eV
Electron
Si As Si Eg = 1.1 eV
Si Si - Si
Valence band, Ev
Doping silicon lattice with group V elements can creates extra electrons in the conduction
band — negative charge carriers (n-type), As- donor.
Doping concentration #/cm3 (1016/cm3 ~ 1/million).
Extrinsic Semiconductor, p-type
doping
Conducting band, Ec
Si Si Si
Hole
Eg = 1.1 eV
Si B Si
Ea ~ 0.05 eV
Si Si - Si
Valence band, Ev
Electron
Doping silicon with group III elements can creates empty holes in the valence band
positive charge carriers (p-type), B-(acceptor).
p-n Junction diode
p n
I
V
i R O F
depletion layer
p n p n
V<0 - + V>0 V>0 V<0
2) Lattice thermalization
5) Recombination
Blocking Diodes
During sun shine, as long as the voltage produced by the panels is greater
than that of the battery, charging will take place.
In the dark, the voltage of the battery would cause a current flow in
reverse direction through the panels, which can lead to the discharging of
battery.
A blocking diode is used in series with the panels and battery in reverse
biasing to prevent reverse flow of the current.
Normal p-n junction diodes can be used as blocking diodes.
To select a blocking diode, following parameters should be kept in mind:
The maximum current provided by the panels.
The voltage ratings of the diode.
The reverse breakdown voltage of the diode.
Hot- Spot and Bypass Diodes
Module,Panel
100 - 200 W
Cell
2–3W
8.5%
CdTe
efficiency
Non Silicon
based
9-11%
CIGS
Thin film efficiency
Silicon 5-7%
Amorphous
based efficiency
Technology Differences
Optical Properties Electrical Properties
Manufacturing Performance
Lifetime
Average time carriers spend in excited state.
Diffusion
Carrier movement due to concentration difference.
Diffusion Length
Average length travelled by carrier before recombining due to concentration difference.
Drift
Carrier movement due to electric field.
Drift length
Average length travelled by carrier before recombination under electric field.
Electrical Properties:
Drift and Diffusion lengths
High quality material Low quality material
scenario scenario
Second generation materials have been developed to address energy requirements and
production costs of solar cells.
Alternative manufacturing techniques such as vapour deposition and electroplating are
advantageous as they reduce high temperature processing significantly.
Produced from cheaper polycrystalline materials and glass
High optical absorption coefficients
Bandgap suited to solar spectrum
3. Third Generation
Front Surface
(N-Type side)
128W 120W
(26.5V ,4.8A) (25.7V, 4.7A)
1200mm
1200mm
(3.93ft) (3.93f)
Efficiency = 6 – 8 %
Disadvantages
Not as efficient as Mono-Si.
Large amount of Si.
High Embodied Energy.
Mono-Si Panel
Advantages
Partially shade tolerant
More effective in hotter climate
Uses less silicon - low embodied energy
No aluminum frame - low embodied energy
Disadvantages
Less efficient with efficiency between 6 to 9% .
Less popular - harder to replace.
Takes up more space for same output .
New technology - less proven reliability.
Thin Film Silicon Solar Cells
Cadmium Telluride Solar Cell
CdTe/CdS Solar Cell
NREL has demonstrated an efficiency of 19.9% for the CIGS solar cell.
Typically requires relatively high temperature processing (> 500C).
Comparison of Si on the basis of crystallinity
Comparison of Mono-Si, Poly-Si and Thin film Panels
Mono-Si Panels Poly-Si Panels Thin Film Panels
1. Most efficient with max. 1. Less efficient with efficiency of 1. Least efficient with max.
efficiency of 21%. 16% (max.) efficiency of 12%.
RL
q V IRS
V IRS Pmax Vmp I mp VOC I SC FF
I I ph I 0 exp 1 en, PV
kTC A
RSh Pin APV G APV G
Open circuit voltage and short circuit current
•Voltage on normal operation point
P
0.5V (in case of Silicon PV)
A
•Current depend on
N - Intensity of insolation
(A)
Short Circuit - Size of cell
High insolation
Normal operation point
Current(I)
Low insolation P
V
IxV=W N
Open Circuit
(V)
Voltage(V)
about 0.5V (Silicon)
(A) Depend on cell-size
5.55A Depend on
Solar insolation
4.95A
Depend on
Current(I)
type of cell or
cell-material
( Si = 0.5V )
(V)
Voltage(V)
0.49 V 0.62 V
A
P To obtain maximum power, current
V control (or voltage control) is very
important.
(A) N
P1
I/V curve PMAX
Ipmax
P- Max control
Current(I)
P2
(V)
Voltage(V)
Vpmax
Estimate obtained power by I / V curve
Ohm’s theory
6
V
4 I
R
2 I V / 0.05
0 (V)
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
Voltage(V)
I / V curve vs. Insolation intensity
P
Current is affected largely by change
5A
of insolation intensity.
N Mismatch
Partially shaded serial cell will P
produce current mismatch.
1A
(A) N
High intensity insolation
5A
Current(I)
P
Low intensity insolation
1A 5A Bypass
Diode
N
IxV=W P
1A 4A
(V)
Voltage(V) N
Effects of Temperature
As insolation decreases
amperage decreases
while voltage remains
roughly constant
Shading on Modules
Depends on orientation of
internal module circuitry relative
to the orientation of the shading.
Area = 200 m2
(2,178 feet2)
Room
10m(33feet)
2. Cell Dimension (in inches/mm.): Defines the size of cell used in the module.
e.g.- 125(l) × 125 mm(b) (5 inches).
Design Implication: This determines the output power of a single solar cell.
5. Glazing or front Glass: Defines the type and width of the front glass used.
e.g.- 3.2 mm (0.13 inches) tempered glass.
Design Implication: Width determines the strength of the covering. The type of glass
used depends upon thermal insulation requirements or strength requirement.
2. Optimum operating Voltage: Defines the highest operating voltage of panel at the
maximum power at STC.
e.g.- Vmp: 36.6V
Design Implication: Determines the number of panels required in series.
3. Optimum operating current: Defines the highest operating current of panel at the
maximum power at STC.
e.g.- Imp: 5.33A
Design Implication: Determines the wire gauge.
Used to calculate the voltage drops across the modules or cells.
Solar Panel specifications
Electrical Specifications
4. Open Circuit Voltage: Defines the output voltage when no load is connected under STC.
e.g.- Voc : 45.4V
Design Implication: Determines the maximum possible voltage.
Determines the maximum number of modules in series.
5. Short Circuit Current: Defines the protection level of electrical casing at the back of
panel. Also includes the no. of bypass diodes (if used).
e.g.- Isc: 5.69A
Design Implication: Determines the current rating of fuse which is to be used for
protection.
Determines the conductor size.
Solar Panel specifications
Electrical Specifications
7. Module Efficiency: Defines the conversion efficiency given by a given module (which is
generally lesser than the single solar cell used in the module).
e.g.- 15.3%
Design Implication: This parameter helps in solving the problem of choosing a module.
8. Operating Temperature: Defines the range of temperature for which the module can
function.
e.g.- -40°C to 85°C
Design Implication: Determines the temperature range for the environment in which the
panel can be kept.
9. Max. Series Fuse Rating: Defines the max. current which can be handled by the module
without damage.
e.g.- 15 A
Design Implication: This defines the rating of fuse to be used with the module.
Solar Panel specifications
Electrical Specifications
10. Power Tolerance: Defines the range of power deviation from its stated power ratings due
to change in its operating condition. It is defined in %.
e.g.- 0/+5 %
Design Implication: This parameter determines the upper limit for power of a module.
11. Parameters defined under NOCT: These parameters are same as defined under STC
conditions with different values.
Electrical Specifications
12. Temperature Coefficients: These coefficients are defined to show the possible rate of
change of values under varying module temperature and irradiance.
Design Implication: These parameters can be used to calculate the power, current and
voltage of the module.
Temperature Coefficient of Voc can also be used to determine the maximum panel voltage
at the lowest expected temperature.
Comparison between Suntech, Trina and Sanyo 190W
Monocrystalline modules
Parameters at STC Sanyo (HIP-190DA3) Suntech (STP190S-24/Ad+) Trina (TSM-190DC01A)
Module Dimension 53.2 x 35.35 x 2.36 in. 62.2 × 31.8 × 1.4 inches 62.24 x 31.85 x 1.57in.
(1351 x 898 x 60 mm) (1580 × 808 × 35mm) (1581 x 809 x 40mm)
Warranty : 90% power output 20 Years 12 years 10 years
80% power output 20 Years 25 years 25 years
Hybrid systems - those systems which use photovoltaics and some other
form of energy, such as diesel generation or wind.
The load is being supplied by the stored energy device, usually the battery,
4. Assessing the need for any back-up energy of flexibility for load growth
Determining Load
The appliances and devices (TV's, computers, lights, water pumps etc.) that
consume electrical power are called loads.
Make a list of the appliances and/or loads to be run from solar electric
system.
Find out how much power each item consumes while operating.
Most appliances have a label on the back which lists the Wattage.
List all AC loads, wattage and hours of use per week (Hrs/Wk).
Add all the watt hours per week to determine AC Watt Hours Per Week.
Determine the discharge limit for the batteries ( between 0.2 - 0.8 )
Determine A-hrs of battery and # of batteries needed - Round off to the next
highest number.
Irradiance is the amount of solar power striking a given area and is a measure of the
intensity of the sunshine.
PV engineers use units of Watts (or kiloWatts) per square meter (W/m2) for
irradiance.
http://rredc.nrel.gov/solar/old_data/nsrdb/
Peak Sun Hours
Peak sun hours is defined as the equivalent number of
hours per day, with solar irradiance equaling 1,000 W/m2,
that gives the same energy received from sunrise to
sundown.
Then divide your Amps by the Peak Amps produced by your solar module
Then multiply the number (for A and for V) together to get the amount of
power you need
P=IV [W]=[A]x[V]
Charge Controller
Charge controllers are included in most PV systems to protect the batteries
from overcharge and/or excessive discharge.
The minimum function of the controller is to disconnect the array when the
battery is fully charged and keep the battery fully charged without damage.
The charging routine is not the same for all batteries: a charge controller
designed for lead-acid batteries should not be used to control NiCd
batteries.
Selecting the correct size and type of wire will enhance the
performance and reliability of the PV system.
The size of the wire must be large enough to carry the maximum
current expected without undue voltage losses.
This resistance causes a drop in the voltage from the source to the
load. Voltage drops cause inefficiencies, especially in low voltage
systems ( 12V or less ).
Refrigerator 60 24 1440
Lighting fixtures 150 4 600
Device A 12 8 96
Total DC Watt-hrs/Day = 2,136
Step 2: Determine the AC Load, Convert to DC
Pump 80 0.5 40
Television 175 2 350
Total AC Watt-hrs/Day = 1440
+ +
+ 6A
3A 3A Parallel: Current is additive
12 V 12 V - 12 V
- -
Step 16: Determine the need for a Standby
Generator to reduce other Components (number of Modules and
Batteries). Several iterations may be necessary to optimize costs.
Step 17: Complete Balance of System
a. Complete the design by specifying the:
Charge Controller
Inverter
Wire Sizes (Battery will have larger gage due to higher currents)
Fuses and Disconnects
Standby Generator, if needed
Battery Charger, if needed
Manual Transfer Switch, if needed.
b. Determine mounting method:
Roof mount
Ground mount with racks
Ground mount with pole.
c. Assure proper grounding for safety.
d. Obtain permits as required.
Advantage
Commercial use