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Chapter 1 – Fundamentals
Dr. Zifeng Yang
1.1 Introduction
a. Basic laws
- Law of conservation of mass
- Newton’s law
- Laws of thermodynamics
b. Divergence theorem – the way to convert certain types of surface integrals to volume
integrals
= ∭ ∇ ∙
∬ ∙
.
(1.1.1)
c. Three laws can be expressed in the following descriptive form :
- Let (/ 0/1 , 21 , 31 , 4, 2 0/1 , 21 , 31 , 4, 3 0/1 , 21 , 31 , 4) be the position at time t of a
particle initially at the point (/1 , 21 , 31 ). Then the velocity and acceleration of that
particle is given by
5/0/1 , 21 , 31 , 4
", 0/1 , 21 , 31 , 4 =
5
520/1 , 21 , 31 , 4
"- 0/1 , 21 , 31 , 4 =
5
530/1 , 21 , 31 , 4
". 0/1 , 21 , 31 , 4 =
5
And
5", 0/1 , 21 , 31 , 4 5 * /0/1 , 21 , 31 , 4
, 0/1 , 21 , 31 , 4 = =
5 5 *
5"- 0/1 , 21 , 31 , 4 5 20/1 , 21 , 31 , 4
*
- 0/1 , 21 , 31 , 4 = =
5 5 *
5". 0/1 , 21 , 31 , 4 5 30/1 , 21 , 31 , 4
*
, 0/1 , 21 , 31 , 4 = =
5 5 *
The partial derivatives signify that differentiation is performed holding /1 , 21 , 31 fixed.
- Stokes’ theorem
A B ∙ = D 0∇ × A
4 ∙ dS
C
- Divergence theorem
D B ∙ = H I∇ ∙ BJ
- Gradient theorem
D K = H ∇K"
1.3 The local continuity Equation
- The net rate of change of mass inside and entering the control volume is expressed
5L
H
+ D L" ∙ = 0
5
- According to Divergence Theorem (Green’s theorem)
5L
+ ∇ ∙ 0L"4 = 0
5
An alternate expression of it can be obtained by expanding the divergence term to obtain
5L
+ " ∙ ∇ρ + L∇ ∙ " = 0
5
? 7
≡ 79 + " ∙ ∇, the above equation becomes
?9
Since
QL
+ L∇ ∙ " = 0
Q
- Incompressible flow is defined as one where the mass density of a fluid particle does
not change as the particle is followed. It can be expressed as
QL
=0
Q
Copyright 2013 by Zifeng yang
Chapter 1 of Advanced Fluid Mechanics
4
Q"
H L
= D 0−K + [0\4 4 + H L
Q
D −K = H −∇p
Q"
H L
= H 0−∇p + L4
+ D [0\4
Q
∆c
[ 0.4 = lim = [., f̂ + [.- ĥ + [.. 'i
∆de →1 ∆B.
Change the surface integral to a volume integral using divergence theorem,
D [0\4 = D j, I[,, + [,- k + [,. 'J + - I[-, + [-- k + [-. 'J
+ . I[., + [.- k + [.. 'Jl
5 5
=H M I[,, + [,- k + [,. 'J + I[ + [-- k + [-. 'J
56 5 -,
5
+ I[., + [.- k + [.. 'JN
58
pq yz{{ yz|{ yz}{ yz{| yz|| yz}|
o st = 0−uv + ow 4st + x m + + n + ~m + + n
pr y{ y| y} y{ y| y}
yz{} yz|} yz}}
+ m + + n
y{ y| y}
- Symmetric stress tensor
[,- = [-, , [-. = [.-, [,. = [.,
The important geometric quantity that describes the fluids’ behavior under stress is the rate of
deformation.
∂v
M∆y + v + ∆y ∆tN − j∆y + v ∆tl ∂v
∂y
d = =
∆y∆t ∂y
∂v
M∆z + v + ∆z
∆tN − ∆z + v ∆t ∂v
∂z
d = =
∆z∆t ∂z
The ,, , -- , .. are the normal rates of deformation and can loosely be thought of
as rate of normal, or extensional, strain.
- Dilatational strain rate – the rate of change of volume per unit volume
0∆6 + ,, ∆6∆4I∆ + -- ∆∆J0∆8 + .. ∆8∆4 − ∆6∆∆8
lim
∆,,∆-,∆.,∆9→1 ∆6∆∆8∆
= d + d + d = ∇ ∙ "
- Rate of change of angles
5"-
tan( ∆( ∆6∆ ∂v
( ≈ ≈ 56 ≈
∆ 5" ∂x
∆6∆ 1 + , ∆
56
5",
tan( ∆* ∆∆ ∂v
* ≈ 5
≈ ≈
∆ 5"- ∂y
∆∆ 1 + ∆
5
- Rate of shear deformation
1 ∂v ∂v
,- = -, = 0.5I( + * J = m + n
2 ∂x ∂y
1 ∂v ∂v.
-. = .- = m + n
2 ∂z ∂y
1 ∂v ∂v,
., = ,. = +
2 ∂x ∂z
1.8 Constitutive Relations
Considering a fluid of simple molecular structure, such as water or air, experience and
many experiments suggest the following:
1. Stress will depend explicitly only on pressure and the rate of deformation.
Temperature can enter only implicitly through coefficients such as viscosity.
2. When the rate of deformation is identically zero, all shear stresses vanish, and the
normal stresses are each equal to the negative of the pressure.
3. The fluid is isotropic. That is, the material properties of a fluid at any given point are
the same in all directions.
4. The stress must depend on rate of deformation n a linear manner, according to the
original concepts of Newton.
The most general constitutive relation satisfying all of the above requirements is
Here, µ is the viscosity and is the second viscosity coefficient. Both of these viscosities can
depend on temperature and even pressure. The fluid descried by equation is called a Newtonian
fluid, although the term Navier-Stokes fluid is also used.
Up until now, pressure has deliberately been left undefined. The definition of pressure varies in
different instances. For instance, in elementary thermodynamics texts, the term pressure is
commonly used for the negative of mean normal stress. Summing our constitutive equation gives
9 99 \S 9S ¡¢\\9 £ee ¤£¥¥ ¤£¦¦
Mean normal stress = +
=
+
When ρ and µ are constant, and for incompressible flows, this simplifies greatly with the help of
the continuity condition ∇ ∙ " = 0 to the vector form
Q"
L = −∇K + L + ∇* "
Q
Where
5* 5* 5*
∇ ≡ *+ *+ *
*
56 5 58
If the boundary is moving, as in the case of a flow with a free surface or moving body,
then, with c06, 4 = 0 as the equation of the boundary surface, the above equation is
satisfied if
Qc
= 0 ℎ & c = 0
Q
This condition is necessary to establish that c = 0 is a material surface – that is , a
surface moving with the fluid that always contains the same fluid particles.
2. Stress must be continuous everywhere within the fluid. If stress were not continuous, an
infinitesimal layer of fluid with an infinitesimal mass would be acted upon by a finite
force, giving rise to infinite acceleration of that layer.
3. Velocity must be continuous everywhere. That is, in the interior of a fluid, there can be
no discrete changes in ". If there were such changes, it would give rise to discontinuous
deformation gradients and, from the constitutive equations, results in discontinuous
stresses.
The velocity of most fluids at a solid boundary must have the same velocity tangential to
the boundary as the boundary itself. This is the “no-slip” condition that has been
observed over and over experimentally. The molecular forces required to peel away fluid
from boundary are quite large, due to molecular attraction of dissimilar molecules.
In considering the transformation of ABC into B′′®′, it is seen that two thins have happened:
The Angle has changed, or deformed, by an amount of ( + * , and the bisector of the angle
ABC has rotated an amount 0.50( − * 4. Considering only this rotation, the rate of rotation
of the bisector is seen to be
1 5"- 5",
m − n
2 56 5
We therefore define the vorticity vector as being the curl of the velocity – that is
Note that ∇ × " = 2I.- + ,. k + -, 'J. Thus the vector and the second-order tensor contain
the same information.
If we present the rate of deformation and voracity in index notation, we can summarize some of
our findings as follows:
( 7; 7;² ( 7; 7;²
ª° = * 7,± + 7, = °ª , ¯ª° = * 7,± − 7, = −¯°ª ,
² ± ² ±
7;±
ª° + ¯ª° =
7,²
,
Flows with vorticity are said to be rotational flows; flows without vorticity are said to be
irrotational flows. Note for later use that, from a well-known vector identity, it follows that
= ∇ ∙ 0∇ × "4 = 0
"¯
Differential equations governing the change of vorticity can be formed from the Navier-Stokes
equations. Dividing equation by the mass density and then taking the curl of the equation the
result after some manipulation and use of the continuity equation is
Q¯
1
= 0¯
∙ ∇4" − ∇ × ∇K + ∇* ¯
Q L L
The right-hand side of equation tells us that as we follow a fluid particle, there are three
mechanisms by which its vorticity can change. The first term, 0¯ ∙ ∇4", is vorticity change due to
vortex line stretching. The operator ¯ ∙ ∇ is the magnitude of the vorticity times the derivative in
the direction of the vortex line. Consequently, if the velocity vector changes along the vortex line
(thus “stretching” the vortex line), there will be a contribution to the change of vorticity. The
second term says that unless the pressure gradient and the density gradient are aligned so that
they are parallel to one another, the local vorticity will be changed by the density gradient. The
third term says that vorticity will be diffused by viscosity.
- The circulation taken over any cross-sectional area of a vortex tube is a constant.
- Vortex lines can neither originate nor terminate in the interior of the flow. Either they
are closed curves (e.g, smoke rings) or they originate at the boundary.
Q "∙"
L
= L" ∙ + "
Q 2
5[,, 5[-, 5[., 5[,- 5[-- 5[.-
∙ V m + + n+km + + n
56 5 58 56 5 58
5[,. 5[-. 5[..
+'m + + nW
56 5 58
50", [,, 4 5I", [-, J 50", [., 4 5I"- [,- J 5I"- [-- J 5I"- [.- J
= L" ∙ + V + + W+V + + W
56 5 58 56 5 58
50". [,. 4 5I". [-. J 50". [.. 4 5", 5", 5",
+V + + W − [,, + [-, + [.,
56 5 58 56 5 58
5"- 5"- 5"- 5". 5". 5".
− m[,- + [-- + [.- n − [,. + [-. + [..
56 5 58 56 5 58
5 5
= L" ∙ + I", [,, + "- [,- + ". [,. J + I" [ + "- [-- + ". [-. J
56 5 , -,
5
+ I", [., + "- [.- + ". [.. J
58
5", 5", 5"- 5", 5". 5"- 5"- 5".
− V[,, + [-, m + n + [., + + [-- + [.- m + n
56 5 56 58 56 5 58 5
5".
+ [.. W
58
7 7
= 0K − ∇ ∙ "4∇" + L" ∙ + 7, I", [,, + "- [,- + ". [,. J + 7- I", [-, + "- [-- + ". [-. J +
7
7.
I", [., + "- [.- + ". [.. J − Ф ,
Where
= [,, ,, + [-- -- + [.. .. + 2I[-, -, + [., ., + [.- .- J + 0K − ∇ ∙ "4∇ ∙ "
= 2j,,
*
+ --
*
+ ..
*
+ 2I,-
*
+ -.
*
+ .,
*
Jl
The function Ф represents the rate of dissipation of energy by viscosity and is called the
dissipation function. Since the viscosity is always positive, the quantity Ф is positive definite.
The conservation of energy principal in its rate from states that the rate of change of energy of
the system is equal to the rate of heat addition to the system due to conduction from the
surroundings, radiation, and internal reactions plus the rate at which work is done on the system.
In equation form, that is
´ µ ¶
= +
For the rate of energy change we have
´ 50L4
=H
+ D L" ∙
; 5
" ∙ "
= +
2
With u being the specific internal energy. Also, write
µ
= − D · ∙ + H
;
Where · is the heat flux vector represent heat transfer from the surroundings. The body term
dr/dt represents heat generated either internally or transferred by radiation. Fourier’s law of
conductivity is used to relate the heat flux vector to the temperature. This law states that · =
−'∇¸, T being the temperature and k the coefficient of thermal conduction.
The rate at which work is being done by the various forces can be written as
¶
= H L ∙ "
+ D " ∙ [0\4
;
Putting these expressions into the first equation in this section and with the help of divergence
theorem, this becomes
50L4
H V + ∇ ∙ 0L"4W
=
; 5
5 5
H M−∇ ∙ · + + L ∙ " + I", [,, + "- [-, + ". [., J + I" [ + "- [-- + ". [.- J
; 56 5 , ,-
5
+ I", [,. + "- [-. + ". [.. JN
58
The differential equation can be obtained as
50L4 Q QL
+ ∇ ∙ 0L"4 = L +
5 Q Q
5 5
= −∇ ∙ · + + L ∙ " + I", [,, + "- [-, + ". [., J + I" [ + "- [-- + ". [.- J
56 5 , ,-
5
+ I", [,. + "- [-. + ". [.. J
58
By using the work-energy equation, we can obtain
" ∙ "
Q QL Q 2
L + −L = −∇ ∙ · + − 0K − ∇ ∙ "4∇ ∙ " + Ф
Q Q Q
Combining the first and the third term, and applying continuity equation, we can obtain
Q
L = −∇ ∙ · + + Ф + 0−K + L + ∇ ∙ "4∇ ∙ "
Q
In words, this equation states that the internal energy of the fluid will be changed by t he addition
of heat transfer from the surroundings (first term), heat generated internally (second term),
viscosity (third term), and compressibility effects (fourth term).
Q
L = −∇ ∙ · + +Ф
Q
The thermodynamic field quantities are thus seen to be coupled to the mechanical portion
through the convective change of the internal energy, the viscous dissipation, and the pressure.
-The Froude number was named after William Froude, a British mathematics professor who
became interested in ship construction. The Froude number represents the ratio of the convective
Copyright 2013 by Zifeng yang
Chapter 1 of Advanced Fluid Mechanics
16
acceleration terms in the Navier-Stokes equation to the wave forces as represented by the gravity
º»
terms. It is typically used in the form , although the square of this is also used.
- The Richardson number ∆½¾¿
, named after Colonel A. R. Richardson. It is used in studying
¼
½
- The Strouhal number is named after C. Strouhal, a German physicist who studied the Aeolian
sounds generated by wind blowing through trees. It is an important parameter in studying the
À? ?
, where &is the frequency and ¯ the circular
shedding of vortices and is written as or
frequency.
∆¢
- The pressure coefficient Á , sometimes called the Euler coefficient, is a form suited for the
¹ Â
Â
presentation of pressure data.
ÃÄ
- The drag coefficient Á is used for presenting the drag force (the force in the direction of
¹ Â d
Â
motion), where A is the projected area.
ÃÅ
- The lift coefficient Á is similar to the drag force but perpendicular to the direction of
¹ Â d
Â
motion.
Æ
- The moment coefficient Á is convenient for measuring the moment on a wing or rubber.
¹ Â dÇ
Â
¹ Â ?
È
- The Weber number was named after Moritz Weber, a professor of naval mechanics at the
Polytechnic Institute of Berlin. He introduced the name similitude to describe model studies that
were scaled both geometrically and using dimensionless parameter for forces, and introduced a
capillary parameter, including surface tension.
Fluids such as large molecular weight polymers that do not obey the Newtonian constitutive
equation are encountered frequently in the chemical and plastics industry. Paints, slurries,
toothpastes, blood, drilling mud, lubricants, nylon, and colloids all exhibit non-Newton behavior.
The most general form of constitutive equation we could propose for flows that are described by
only stress and rate of deformation is given by
where is an additional viscosity coefficient. Note that its dimensions differ from the standard
viscosity by an additional unit of time. This constitutive law describes what are called Stokesian
fluids, after George Stokes, or sometimes Reiner – Rivlin fluids.
Suspensions such as paint, clays and wood pulp solutions appear to behave as if they must have a
certain level of stress applied before the fluid deforms. Such fluids have been referred to as
Bingham fluids, or sometimes visco-plastic fluids. The constitutive equation that has been
proposed for them is
(
[ª° = ¸ª° if ¸ ¸ ≤ ¸ * , or
* ª° °Ê
(
[ª° = ¸ª° + 0−K + ∇ ∙ "4ɪ° + ª° if ¸ ¸ > ¸*
* \ \
*Í
In the latter case, ¸ª° = ª° . Here, ¸ª° are components of the yield stress tensor and T is
º*ÍÎÏ ÍÎÏ
the yield stress according to the von Mises yield criterion.
Here "« is the velocity with respect to a nonmoving axes system "S is the velocity measured
in the moving system, and is the position in the moving system. The acceleration is given by
This result for the acceleration can be put in a more useful form by a bit of rearranging. Consider
the following:
5
= + Ω1 × +"S ∙ ∇ "«
5
Since
Q"« 5"«
= + Ω1 × "« + 0"« − "1 − Ω1 × 4 ∙ ∇ "«
Q 5