c

c 


 

 is the process of creating electricity from other forms of energy.

The fundamental principles of electricity generation were discovered during the 1820's and early
1830's by the British scientist Michael Faraday. His basic method is still used today: electricity is
generated by the movement of a loop of wire, or disc of copper between the poles of a magnet.

For electric utilities, it is the first process in the delivery of electricity to consumers. The other
processes, electric power transmission, electricity distribution, and electrical power storage and
recovery using pumped storage methods are normally carried out by the electrical power
industry.

Electricity is most often generated at a power station by electromechanical generators, primarily

driven by heat engines fueled by chemical combustion or nuclear fission but also by other means
such as the kinetic energy of flowing water and wind. There are many other technologies that can
be and are used to generate electricity such as solar photovoltaics and geothermal power.

 
Centralised power generation became possible when it was recognized that alternating current
power lines can transport electricity at very low costs across great distances by taking advantage
of the ability to raise and lower the voltage using power transformers.

Electricity has been generated at central stations since 1881. The first power plants were run on
water power or coal, and today we rely mainly on coal, nuclear, natural gas, hydroelectric, and
petroleum with a small amount from solar energy, tidal harnesses, wind generators, and
geothermal sources.






 
There are seven fundamental methods of directly transforming other forms of energy into
electrical energy:

? ^

 , from the physical separation and transport of charge (examples:
triboelectric effect and lightning)
? 
 
, where an electrical generator, dynamo or alternator
transforms kinetic energy (energy of motion) into electricity
? 
 
 , the direct transformation of chemical energy into electricity, as in a
battery, fuel cell or nerve impulse
? º

 

, the transformation of light into electrical energy, as in solar cells
?



 

, direct conversion of temperature differences to electricity, as in
thermocouples and thermopiles
 ? º


 

, from the mechanical strain of electrically anisotropic molecules or
crystals
? 
   , the creation and acceleration of charged particles (examples:
betavoltaics or alpha particle emission)

Static electricity was the first form discovered and investigated, and the electrostatic generator is
still used even in modern devices such as the Van de Graaff generator and MHD generators.
Electrons are mechanically separated and transported to increase their electric potential.

Almost all commercial electrical generation is done using electromagnetic induction, in which
mechanical energy forces an electrical generator to rotate. There are many different methods of
developing the mechanical energy, including heat engines, hydro, wind and tidal power.

The direct conversion of nuclear energy to electricity by beta decay is used only on a small scale.
In a full-size nuclear power plant, the heat of a nuclear reaction is used to run a heat engine. This
drives a generator, which converts mechanical energy into electricity by magnetic induction.

Most electric generation is driven by heat engines. The combustion of fossil fuels supplies most
of the heat to these engines, with a significant fraction from nuclear fission and some from
renewable sources. The modern steam turbine invented by Sir Charles Parsons in 1884 - today
generates about 80 percent of the electric power in the world using a variety of heat sources.

 


All turbines are driven by a fluid acting as an intermediate energy carrier. Many of the heat
engines just mentioned are turbines. Other types of turbines can be driven by wind or falling
water.

Sources includes:

? ^
 - Water is boiled by:
O? nuclear fission,
O? the burning of fossil fuels (coal, natural gas, or petroleum). In hot gas (gas
turbine), turbines are driven directly by gases produced by the combustion of
natural gas or oil. Combined cycle gas turbine plants are driven by both steam and
natural gas. They generate power by burning natural gas in a gas turbine and use
residual heat to generate additional electricity from steam. These plants offer
efficiencies of up to 60%.
O? Êenewables. The steam generated by:
Î? Biomass
Î? The sun as the heat source: solar parabolic troughs and solar power towers
concentrate sunlight to heat a heat transfer fluid, which is then used to
produce steam.
Î? Geothermal power. Either steam under pressure emerges from the ground
and drives a turbine or hot water evaporates a low boiling liquid to create
vapour to drive a turbine.
 ? Other renewable sources:
O? [
(hydroelectric) - Turbine blades are acted upon by flowing water,
produced by hydroelectric dams or tidal forces.
O? [ - Most wind turbines generate electricity from naturally occurring wind.
Solar updraft towers use wind that is artificially produced inside the chimney by
heating it with sunlight, and are more properly seen as forms of solar thermal
energy.?
O?
 
, sometimes called  

, is a form of hydropower that
converts the energy of tides into electricity or other useful forms of power.
Although not yet widely used, tidal power has potential for future electricity
generation. Tides are more predictable than wind energy and solar power.


 



Small electricity generators are often powered by reciprocating engines burning diesel, biogas or
natural gas. Diesel engines are often used for back up generation, usually at low voltages. Biogas
is often combusted where it is produced, such as a landfill or wastewater treatment plant, with a
reciprocating engine or a microturbine, which is a small gas turbine.

º  


Unlike the solar heat concentrators mentioned above, photovoltaic panels convert sunlight
directly to electricity. Although sunlight is free and abundant, solar electricity is still usually
more expensive to produce than large-scale mechanically generated power due to the cost of the
panels. Low-efficiency silicon solar cells have been decreasing in cost and multijunction cells
with close to 30% conversion efficiency are now commercially available. Over 40% efficiency
has been demonstrated in experimental systems. Until recently, photovoltaics were most
commonly used in remote sites where there is no access to a commercial power grid, or as a
supplemental electricity source for individual homes and businesses. Êecent advances in
manufacturing efficiency and photovoltaic technology, combined with subsidies driven by
environmental concerns, have dramatically accelerated the deployment of solar panels. Installed
capacity is growing by 40% per year led by increases in Germany, Japan, California and New
Jersey.







Various other technologies have been studied and developed for power generation. Solid-state
generation (without moving parts) is of particular interest in portable applications. This area is
largely dominated by thermoelectric (TE) devices, though thermionic (TI) and
thermophotovoltaic (TPV) systems have been developed as well. Typically, TE devices are used
at lower temperatures than TI and TPV systems. Piezoelectric devices are used for power
generation from mechanical strain, particularly in power harvesting. Betavoltaics are another
type of solid-state power generator which produces electricity from radioactive decay. Fluid-
based magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) power generation has been studied as a method for
extracting electrical power from nuclear reactors and also from more conventional fuel
combustion systems. Osmotic power finally is another possibility at places where salt and sweet
water merges (eg deltas, ...)

Electrochemical electricity generation is also important in portable and mobile applications.

Currently, most electrochemical power comes from closed electrochemical cells ("batteries"),
which are arguably utilized more as storage systems than generation systems, but open
electrochemical systems, known as fuel cells, have been undergoing a great deal of research and
development in the last few years. Fuel cells can be used to extract power either from natural
fuels or from synthesized fuels (mainly electrolytic hydrogen) and so can be viewed as either
generation systems or storage systems depending on their use.

è   

It has been suggested that emissions of pollutants and greenhouse gases from electricity
generation account for a significant portion of world greenhouse gas emissions; in the United
States, electricity generation accounts for nearly 40 percent of emissions, the largest of any
source. Transportation emissions are close behind, contributing about one-third of U.S.
production of carbon dioxide .












 ^!"º[


^  
is the result of converting sunlight into electricity. Sunlight can be converted
directly into electricity using photovoltaics (PV), or indirectly with concentrating solar power
(CSP), which normally focuses the sun's energy to boil water which is then used to provide
power. The largest solar power plants, like the 354 MW SEGS, are concentrating solar thermal
plants, but recently multi-megawatt photovoltaic plants have been built. Completed in 2008, the
46 MW Moura photovoltaic power station in Portugal and the 40 MW Waldpolenz Solar Park in
Germany are characteristic of the trend toward larger photovoltaic power stations. Much larger
ones are proposed, such as the 550 MW Topaz Solar Farm, and the 600 MW Êancho Cielo Solar
Farm. Solar power is a predictably intermittent energy source, meaning that whilst solar power is
not available at all times, we can predict with a very good degree of accuracy when it will and
will not be available. Some technologies, such as solar thermal concentrators have an element of
thermal storage, such as molten salts. These store spare solar energy in the form of heat which is
made available overnight or during periods that solar power is not available to produce
electricity.

" 
Solar power is the conversion of sunlight into electricity. Sunlight can be converted directly into
electricity using photovoltaics (PV), or indirectly with concentrating solar power (CSP), which
normally focuses the sun's energy to boil water which is then used to provide power, and
technologies such as the Stirling engine dishes which use a Stirling cycle engine to power a
generator. Photovoltaics were initially used to power small and medium-sized applications, from
the calculator powered by a single solar cell to off-grid homes powered by a photovoltaic array.

Solar power plants can face high installation costs, although this has been decreasing due to the
learning curve. Developing countries have started to build solar power plants, replacing other
sources of energy generation.
Since solar radiation is intermittent, solar power generation is usually combined either with
storage or other energy sources to provide continuous power, although for small distributed
producer/consumers, net metering makes this transparent to the consumer. On a slightly larger
scale, in Germany, a combined power plant has been demonstrated, using a mix of wind,
biomass, hydro-, and solar power generation, resulting in 100% renewable energy.


 


Solar energy is not available at night, making energy storage an important issue in order to
provide the continuous availability of energy. Both wind power and solar power are intermittent
energy sources, meaning that all available output must be taken when it is available and either
stored for O
 it can be used, or transported, over transmission lines, to O

it can be used.
Wind power and solar power can be complementary, in locations that experience more wind in
the winter and more sun in the summer, but on days with no sun and no wind the difference
needs to be made up in some manner.

Solar energy can be stored at high temperatures using molten salts. The Solar Two used this
method of energy storage, allowing it to store enough heat in its 68 m³ storage tank to provide
full output of 10 MWe for about 40 minutes, with an efficiency of about 99%.

Salts are an effective storage medium because they are low-cost, have a high specific heat
capacity and can deliver heat at temperatures compatible with conventional power systems, have
the potential to eliminate the intermittency of solar power, by storing spare solar power in the
form of heat; and using this heat overnight or during periods that solar power is not available to
produce electricity. This technology has the potential to make solar power dispatchable, as the
heat source can be used to generate electricity at will. Solar power installations are normally
supplemented by storage or another energy source, for example with wind power and
hydropower.

Off-grid PV systems have traditionally used rechargeable batteries to store excess electricity.
With grid-tied systems, excess electricity can be sent to the transmission grid. Net metering
programs give these systems a credit for the electricity they deliver to the grid. This credit offsets
electricity provided from the grid when the system cannot meet demand, effectively using the
grid as a storage mechanism. Credits are normally rolled over month to month and any remaining
surplus settled annually.

Pumped-storage hydroelectricity stores energy in the form of water pumped when surplus
electricity is available, from a lower elevation reservoir to a higher elevation one. The energy is
recovered when demand is high by releasing the water: the pump becomes a turbine, and the
motor a hydroelectric power generator.

Combining power sources in a power plant may also address storage issues. The Institute for
Solar Energy Supply Technology of the University of Kassel pilot-tested a combined power
plant linking solar, wind, biogas and hydrostorage to provide load-following power around the
clock, entirely from renewable sources.
ÿ
ÿÿÿ  ÿ
ÿÿ
 ÿ 
Every day, households around the world use the planet¶s energy resourcesConventional energy
sources will be depleted quickly, unless more renewable sources are utilized. One source of
clean and renewable energy is solar power.

" 
^  º


Since solar energy comes directly from the sun, it is not only renewable, but also accessible in
any part of the world. As long as the proper equipment is utilized, unlimited amounts of solar
power can be collected and put to good use.

Solar power is also one of the cleanest forms of energy, since it creates no pollution, and
produces no greenhouse gases or waste products.

For residential uses, the use of solar power minimizes negative impacts on the surrounding
environment, making it a safer alternative to wind or hydro power.

Not only is solar energy non-pollutant, in terms of gases, but it also causes zero noise pollution2K
2since there are no moving parts in any of the devices which are used to capture the sunlight.

Because no moving parts are used, maintenance costs are low as well2K2only occasional
cleaning and periodic battery replacements are needed. Most manufacturers of solar panels
provide twenty-year warranties for their equipment, guaranteeing long-life operation.

Solar panels placed on rooftops also double as a heat absorbers, slightly cooling the top area of
the house which is directly below the roof.

 
^  º


The most obvious drawback of solar energy is its sole dependence on the sun. Once the weather
becomes cloudy, or nighttime strikes, energy collection comes to a halt. However, recent
advancements of technology now allow the generated power to be stored in special batteries
which provide roughly enough electricity to last a night. This is why solar-powered devices,
including flashlights, are gaining in popularity and are proving to be efficient energy savers.

Solar panels can also be expensive, because of the materials that are used to create them. And
even when these materials are taken out of the equation, the entire process, considering the other
devices involved, can be a bit costly. This includes portable devices that utilize solar energy.
But most of the cost involved is in the initial purchase and installation of a solar power system2K
2not running costs.

Fortunately, there are some people who sell damaged solar cells, which are much cheaper. These
damaged solar cells can be used to build fully functional solar panels, using the application of
simple do-it-yourself techniques.
Although in every part of the world, there is at least some point in time when the sun shines, it is
also true that direct sunlight is needed in order to make the most of the sun¶s energy2K2and to
generate the highest amounts of power. This significantly restricts the placement of solar panels.
And some areas in the world may receive little benefit, due to lesser sunlight.

[
  
 

More research and development continues to be invested into this growing technology, and that¶s
a good sign for the future of our households2K2as solar power may one day be used more
frequently than other energy sources. Of course, solar energy isn¶t perfect, but it makes a great
complimentary addition to other energy forms

[c º[
 
[
is the conversion of wind energy into a useful form of energy, such as electricity,
using wind turbines. At the end of 2008, worldwide nameplate capacity of wind-powered
generators was 121.2 gigawatts (GW). In 2008, wind power produced about 1.5% of worldwide
electricity usage; and is growing rapidly, having doubled in the three years between 2005 and
2008. Several countries have achieved relatively high levels of wind power penetration, such as
19% of stationary electricity production in Denmark, 11% in Spain and Portugal, and 7% in
Germany and the Êepublic of Ireland in 2008. As of May 2009, eighty countries around the
world are using wind power on a commercial basis.

Large-scale wind farms are connected to the electric power transmission network; smaller
facilities are used to provide electricity to isolated locations. Utility companies increasingly buy
back surplus electricity produced by small domestic turbines. Wind energy as a power source is
attractive as an alternative to fossil fuels, because it is plentiful, renewable, widely distributed,
clean, and produces no greenhouse gas emissions. However, the construction of wind farms is
not universally welcomed due to their visual impact and other effects on the environment.

Wind power is non-dispatchable, meaning that for economic operation, all of the available output
must be taken when it is available. Other resources, such as hydropower, and standard load
management techniques must be used to match supply with demand. The intermittency of wind
seldom creates problems when using wind power to supply a low proportion of total demand.
Where wind is to be used for a moderate fraction of demand such as 40%, additional costs for
compensation of intermittency are considered to be modest.







!"º[
 

 
is any nuclear technology designed to extract usable energy from atomic nuclei
via controlled nuclear reactions. The only method in use today produces power via nuclear
fission, though other methods might one day include nuclear fusion and radioactive decay (see
below). All utility-scale reactors heat water to produce steam, which is then converted into
mechanical work for the purpose of generating electricity or propulsion. In 2007, 14% of the
world's electricity came from nuclear power. Also, more than 150 nuclear-powered naval vessels
have been built, and a few radioisotope rockets have been produced.



As of 2005, nuclear power provided 2.1% of the world's energy and 15% of the world's
electricity, with the U.S., France, and Japan together accounting for 56.5% of nuclear generated
electricity. In 2007, the IAEA reported there were 439 nuclear power reactors in operation in the
world, operating in 31 countries.

In 2007, nuclear power's share of global electricity generation dropped to 14%. According to the
International Atomic Energy Agency, the main reason for this was an earthquake in western
Japan on 16 July 2007, which shut down all seven reactors at the Kashiwazaki-Kariwa Nuclear
Power Plant. There were also several other reductions and "unusual outages" experienced in
Korea and Germany. Also, increases in the load factor for the current fleet of reactors appear to
have plateaued.

The United States produces the most nuclear energy, with nuclear power providing 19% of the
electricity it consumes, while France produces the highest percentage of its electrical energy
from nuclear reactors²78% as of 2006. In the European Union as a whole, nuclear energy
provides 30% of the electricity. Nuclear energy policy differs between European Union
countries, and some, such as Austria, Estonia, and Ireland, have no active nuclear power stations.
In comparison, France has a large number of these plants, with 16 multi-unit stations in current
use.

In the US, while the Coal and Gas Electricity industry is projected to be worth $85 billion by
2013, Nuclear Power generators are forecast to be worth $18 billion.
Many military and some civilian (such as some icebreaker) ships use nuclear marine propulsion,
a form of nuclear propulsion. A few space vehicles have been launched using full-fledged
nuclear reactors: the Soviet ÊOÊSAT series and the American SNAP-10A.

International research is continuing into safety improvements such as passively safe plants, the
use of nuclear fusion, and additional uses of process heat such as hydrogen production (in
support of a hydrogen economy), for desalinating sea water, and for use in district heating
systems.


The economics of nuclear power plants are primarily influenced by the high initial investment
necessary to construct a plant. In 2009, estimates for the cost of a new plant in the U.S. ranged
from $6 to $10 billion. It is therefore usually more economical to run them as long as possible, or
construct additional reactor blocks in existing facilities. In 2008, new nuclear power plant
construction costs were rising faster than the costs of other types of power plants. A prestigious
panel assembled for a 2003 MIT study of the industry found the following:

In deregulated markets, nuclear power is not now cost competitive with coal and natural gas. However,
plausible reductions by industry in capital cost, operation and maintenance costs, and construction time
could reduce the gap. Carbon emission credits, if enacted by government, can give nuclear power a cost
advantage.




 

Proponents of nuclear energy contend that nuclear power is a sustainable energy source that
reduces carbon emissions and increases energy security by decreasing dependence on foreign oil.
Proponents also emphasize that the risks of storing waste are small and can be further reduced by
using the latest technology in newer reactors and that the operational safety record in the
Western world is excellent when compared to the other major types of power plants.

Critics believe that nuclear power is a potentially dangerous energy source, with decreasing
proportion of nuclear energy in production, and dispute whether the risks can be reduced through
new technology. Proponents advance the notion that nuclear power produces virtually no air
pollution, in contrast to the chief viable alternative of fossil fuel combustion. Proponents also
point out that nuclear power is the only viable course to achieve energy independence for most
Western countries. Critics point to the issue of storing radioactive waste, the history of and
continuing potential for radioactive contamination by accident or sabotage, the continuing
possibility of nuclear proliferation, and the disadvantages of centralized electricity production.

Arguments of economics and safety are used by both sides of the debate.
 DEMAND FOÊ ELECTÊICITY
Consumers and businesses may finally be seeing some relief from rising utility bills, thanks to
the biggest decline in U.S. electricity demand in decades.

Prices on wholesale markets are expected to decline for the rest of 2009, according to the Energy
Information Agency. While rates will probably begin edging up again in 2010, it will likely be
less than half the 6.2 percent jump recorded last year.

For decades as Americans bought more electronics, more appliances, air conditioners and other
gizmos, energy demand has only moved in one direction and prices have followed suit.

The decline in power usage over the past year is a rarity and also an indication of how badly the
recession has jolted the economy and changed the way Americans spend.

The shift began last year, when power consumption fell 1.6 percent. Government forecasters see
consumption falling another 2.7 percent this year. That would mark the first time since 1949 that
the nation has seen energy demand fall in consecutive years.

Given the broad apprehension over the economy, any money consumers can keep in their
pockets may help.

"You might see a decrease in your bill or, at the very least, less of an increase. And these days
that's not bad," said Charlie Acquard, executive director of the National Association of State
Utility Consumer Advocates.

You can trace the shift from major industrial power users all the way back to individual
consumers to see what has happened.

The number of unemployed Americans is nearing 15 million and prospects for the job market
remain gloomy. Êetailers just reported their 12th straight month of declining sales and many
people are buying only what they must.

Power consumption by the industrial and manufacturing companies that make everything from
cars to cotton swabs has fallen faster than anywhere else - 10 percent this year by government
estimates. Industrial consumption fell about 20 percent in parts of the Midwest, Carolinas and the
South during the second quarter, utilities say.

This pullback by some of the biggest energy users in the U.S. may provide a silver lining for
millions of people and businesses in the form of declining or flattening utility bills.

The recession has suppressed demand for coal, natural gas and oil. This has sent a ripple through
wholesale electric markets, where fossil fuels are turned into energy.
In the PJM wholesale market that coordinates prices in all or parts of 13 states in the eastern half
of the country, prices are down about 40 percent from a year ago.

The weather is helping as well. After a very mild summer in which it made more sense to open
the windows of your home rather than crank up the air conditioning, most meteorologists see a
relatively warm winter on the way.

How much of a break you get in your bill, if any, and for how long comes down to where you
live.

If you reside in the Northeast, West or in a central state like Texas where rates are based on spot
prices, you stand a good chance of getting some relief.

Customers in more regulated markets or in spots where utilities calculate bills based on long-
term contracts will not benefit so much. In those markets, rates tend to be more stable.

In Texas, about 250,000 of the 2.2 million customers of TXU Energy saw monthly rates fall 15
percent in August. In the Washington, D.C. area, prices for Pepco's 750,000 customers are up
this summer.

The difference is that TXU buys power based off spot natural gas prices, down about 80 percent
in the past year; Pepco buys power on wholesale markets with a three-year time horizon that is
designed to eliminate roller-coaster like swings in prices.

"Nobody wants that when you're budgeting energy for home or business," Pepco spokesman
Clay Anderson said.

He expects prices to begin dropping gradually.

If you are getting a break from your power provider already, enjoy it while you can. There are
many factors that affect your bill and most of them tend to drive it higher.

A rebounding economy will certainly give energy prices a boost.

What's more, the U.S. power infrastructure is aging and new plants and transmission lines must
be built or replaced. That is going to cost businesses and consumers in the years ahead.

The big wild card is the legislation pending in Congress that may require utilities to cut
emissions of carbon dioxide to address global warming. Utilities, especially those that rely on
coal, will spend tens of billions of dollars to come up with ways to remove carbon dioxide from
emissions.

They are going to want to recoup some of those costs. Customers will feel it in their wallets
when they do.
 SUPPLY OF ELECTÊICITY
Electricity is the most preferred source of energy, because of its quality and convenience of
usage. It is probably one of the most vital infrastructural inputs for economic development of a
country. Indeed it is the fulcrum which can leverage the future pace of growth and development.
These reasons have made the electric power industry one of the fastest growing sectors in most
developing countries and particularly in India. Therefore it is not surprising to observe the
economic growth of a country being related to the increase in electricity consumption. In India,
the growth rate of demand for power is generally higher than that of Gross Domestic Product
(GDP). However, to achieve this kind of growth in electricity supply, the capital investments
required are very huge. Even though the electricity sector generally gels a major share in the
budgetary allocations in India, this is inadequate to add the required quantum of new generation
capacity to keep pace with the increase in demand for electricity. Additional constraints like
capital scarcity in the public sector, lack of enthusiasm among the private and foreign investors,
and strong opposition from the environmentalists have further contributed to this slow pace of
new generating capacity addition. This has resulted in severely constrained systems in India. The
main focus of the present research work is on the development of an integrated approach for
electricity planning using a mathematical modeling framework in the context of resource
constrained systems. There are very few attempts in the literature to integrate short, medium and
long term issues in electricity planning. This is understandable from the point of view of
unconstrained electricity systems where this type of integration is unnecessary since such
systems have a luxury of surplus capacity to meet the current demand and capacity additions are
required only for meeting predicted future increase in demand. However, in the case of
constrained electricity systems, which are characterized by shortages, this kind of integration is
very essential. These systems have to manage with inadequate capacity in the present, plan
capacity additions to bridge the existing gap and to meet future increase in demand, and always
explore the possibility of adding capacity with short gestation period. The integrated approach is
expected to achieve effective supply-demand matching on a continuous basis encompassing both
the short term and long term horizons. To achieve this, we have considered three alternatives-
existing supply, new supply and non-supply (rationing) of electricity. The electricity system of
the state of Karnataka, which is severely constrained by both limited capital and energy
resources, has been selected for this purpose. As a first step, the supply and demand situation has
been studied in the context of resource constraints. In terms of supply, both existing and future
additions are studied in detail with respect to the potential created, generation types, import
potential, technical constraints, energy and power shortages, planned and proposed capacity
additions by public and private sectors, etc. The demand patterns have been studied by
introducing a new concept of "Êepresentative Load Curves (ÊLCs)". These ÊLCs are used to
model the temporal and structural variations in demand for electricity. Also, appropriate non-
supply options (rationing measures) for effective management of shortages are identified.
Incorporating this information, an integrated mathematical model, which is expected to generate
a target plan for a detailed generation scheduling exercises and a requirement plan for a regular
generation expansion planning, has been developed. The other important alternative "Demand-
Side-Management (DSM)", which could be considered as an effective option to achieve efficient
supply-demand matching has not been included in the present research work. The major reason
for not including the DSM alternatives is due to the difficulty in integrating these in the modeling
approach adopted here. In the present approach we have used typical daily load curves (ÊLCs) to
represent the demand for electricity. These are aggregate load curves and do not contain any
sector-wise or end-use-wise details. On the other hand, DSM alternatives are end-use focused.
To incorporate DSM alternatives, we should have information on end-use-wise power demand
(kW or MW), savings potential, time-of-use, etc. For this purpose it may be required to have
end-use-wise daily load curves. This information is not available and a separate detailed survey
may be required to generate these load curves. This, we felt, is out of the scope of this present
research work and a separate study may be required to do this. Therefore, we restricted our focus
to supply planning alone. A detailed literature review is conducted to understand different types
of modeling approaches to electricity planning. For the present study, however, the review of
literature has been restricted to the methods of generation expansion planning and scheduling. In
doing so, we attempted to bring out the differences in various approaches in terms of solution
methods adopted, alternatives included and modifications suggested. Also, we briefly reviewed
the literature on models for power and energy rationing, because management of shortages is an
important aspect of the present study. Subsequently, a separate section is devoted to present an
overview of the non-supply of electricity and its economic impacts on the consumers. We found
that the low reliability of the electrical system is an indicator of the existence of severe shortages
of power and energy, which cause non-supply of electricity to the consumers. The overview also
presented a discussion on reasons for non-supply of electricity, and the types of non-supply
options the utilities adopt to overcome these shortages. We also attempted to explain what we
mean by non-supply of electricity, what are its cost implications and the methods available in the
literature to estimate these costs. The first objective of the research pertains to the development
of a new approach to model the varying demand for electricity. Using the concept of
Êepresentative Load Curves (ÊLCs) we model the hourly demand for a period of four years,
1993-94, 1994-95, 1995-96 and 1996-97, to understand the demand patterns of both
unconstrained and constrained years. Multiple discriminant analysis has been used to cluster the
365 load curves into nine ÊLCs for each of the four years. The results show that these ÊLCs
adequately model the variations in demand and bring out the distinctions in the demand patterns
existed during the unconstrained and constrained years. The demand analysis using ÊLCs helped
to study the differences in demand patterns with and without constraints, impacts of constraints
on preferred pattern of electricity consumption, success of non-supply options in both reducing
the demand levels and greatly disturbing the electricity usage patterns. Multifactor ANOVA
analyses are performed to quantify the statistical significance of the ability of the logically
obtained factors in explaining the overall variations in demand. The results of the ANOVA
analysis clearly showed that the considered factors accounted for maximum variations in demand
at very high significance levels. It also brought out the significant influence of rationing
measures in explaining the variations in demand during the constrained years. Concerning the
second objective, we explained in detail, the development of an integrated mixed integer-
programming model, which we felt is appropriate for planning in the case of resource
constrained electricity systems. Two types of integrations are attempted (i) existing supply, non-
supply and new supply options for dynamically matching supply and demand, (ii) operational
and strategic planning in terms of providing target plans for the former and requirement plans for
the latter. Broadly, the approach addresses the effective management of existing capacity,
optimal rationing plan to effectively manage shortages and rationally decide on the new capacity
additions both to bridge the existing gap between supply and demand, and to meet the future
increases in demand. There is also an attempt to arrive at an optimal mix of public and private
capacity additions for a given situation. Finally, it has been attempted to verify the possibility of
integration of captive generation capacity with the grid. Further, we discussed in detail about the
data required for the model implementation. The model is validated through the development of
a number of scenarios for the state of Karnataka. The base case scenario analyses are carried out
for both the unconstrained and constrained years to compare the optimal allocations with actual
allocations that were observed, and to find out how sensitive are the results for any change in the
values of various parameters. For the constrained years, a few more scenarios are used to
compare the optimal practice of managing shortages with to what has been actually followed by
the utility. The optimal allocations of the predicted demand to various existing supply and non-
supply options clearly showed that the actual practice, reflected by the actual ÊLCs, are highly
ad hoc and sub-optimal. The unit cost comparisons among different scenarios show that the least
cost choice of options by the utility does not necessarily lead to good choices from the
consumers¶ perspective. Further, a number of future scenarios are developed to verify the ability
of the model to achieve the overall objective of supply-demand matching both in the short and
long term. For this purpose both the short horizon annual scenarios (1997-98 to 2000-01) and
long horizon terminal year scenarios (2005-06 and 2010-11) are developed assuming capacity
additions from only public sector. Overall, the results indicated that with marginal contributions
from non-supply options and if the public sector generates enough resources to add the required
capacity, optimal matching of supply and demand could be achieved. The scenario analyses also
showed that it is more economical to have some level of planned rationing compared to having a
more reliable system. The quantum of new capacity additions required and the level of
investments associated with it clearly indicated the urgent need of private sector participation in
capacity additions. Finally, we made an attempt to verify the applicability of the integrated
model to analyze the implications of private sector participation in capacity additions. First, a
number of scenarios are developed to study the optimal allocations of predicted hourly demand
to private capacity under different situations. Secondly, the impacts of privatization on the public
utility and consumers are analyzed. Both short term and long term scenarios are developed for
this purpose. The results showed the advantage of marginal non-supply of electricity both in
terms of achieving overall effective supply-demand matching and economic benefits that could
be generated through cost savings. The results also showed the negative impacts of high
guarantees offered to the private sector in terms of the opportunity costs of reduced utilization of
both the existing and new public capacity. The estimates of unit cost of supply and effective cost
of supply facilitated the relative comparison among various scenarios as well as finding out the
merits and demerits of guarantees to private sector and non-supply of electricity. The unit cost
estimates are also found to be useful in studying the relative increase in electricity prices for
consumers on account of privatization, guarantees and reliable supply of electricity. Using the
results of scenario analyses, likely generation expansion plans till the year 2010-11 are
generated. The analyses have been useful in providing insights into fixing the availability and
plant load factors for the private sector capacity. Based on the analysis, the recommended range
for plant utilization factor is 72.88 - 80.57%. The estimated generation losses and the associated
economic impacts of backing down of existing and new public capacity on account of guarantees
offered to private sector are found to be significantly high. The analyses also showed that the
backing down might take place mainly during nights and low demand periods of monsoon and
winter seasons. Other impacts of privatization that studied are in terms of increased number of
alternatives for the utility to buy electricity for distribution and the associated increase in its cost
of purchase. Êegarding the consumers, the major impact could be in terms of significant increase
in expected tariffs. The major contributions of this thesis are summarized as follows: i. An
integrated approach to electricity planning that is reported here, is unique in the sense that it
considers options available under various alternatives, namely, existing supply, non-supply and
new supply. This approach is most suited for severely constrained systems having to manage
with both energy and capital resource shortages. ii. The integration of operational and strategic
planning with coherent target plans for the former and requirement plans for the latter bridges the
prevailing gap in electricity planning approaches. iii. The concept of Êepresentative Load Curves
(ÊLCs), which is introduced here, captures the hourly, daily and seasonal variations in demand.
Together, all the ÊLCs developed for a given year are expected to model the hourly demand
patterns of that year. These ÊLCs are useful for planning in resource constrained electricity
systems and in situations where it is required to know the time variations in demand (e.g. supply-
demand matching, seasonal scheduling of hydro plants and maintenance scheduling). ÊLCs are
also useful in identifying the factors influencing variations in demand. This approach will
overcome the limitations of current method of representation in the form of static and aggregate
annual load duration curves. iv. A new term, "non-supply of electricity" has been introduced in
this thesis. A brief overview of non-supply presented here includes reasons for non-supply, type
of non-supply, methods to estimate cost of non-supply and factors influencing these estimates. v.
The integrated mixed integer programming model developed in the study has been demonstrated
as a planning tool for- ‡ Optimal hourly and seasonal scheduling of various existing supply, non-
supply and new supply options ‡ Estimation of supply shortages on a representative hourly basis
using the information on resource constraints ‡ Effectively planning non-supply of electricity
through appropriate power/energy rationing methods ‡ Estimation of the need for the new
capacity additions both to bridge the existing gap and to take care of increase in future demand
levels ‡ Optimal filling of gaps between demand and supply on a representative hourly basis
through new supply of electricity ‡ Optimally arriving at the judicious mix of public and private
capacity additions ‡ Studying the impacts of private capacity on the existing and new public
sector capacity, and on the consumers ‡ Optimally verifying the feasibility of integrating the
captive generation with the total system vi. The demand analysis using ÊLCs helped to bring out
the differences in demand patterns with and without constraints, impacts of constraints on
preferred pattern of electricity consumption, success of non-supply options in both reducing the
demand levels and greatly disturbing the electricity usage patterns. Multifactor ANOVA analyses
results showed that the logically obtained factors accounted for maximum variations in demand
at very high significance levels. vii. A comparison of optimal (represented by optimal predicted
ÊLCs) and actual (reflected by actual ÊLCs) practices facilitated by the model showed that the
actual practice during constrained years is highly ad hoc and sub-optimal. viii. The results of the
scenario analyses showed that it is more economical to have some amount of planned rationing
compared to having a more reliable system, which does not allow non-supply of electricity. ix.
The scenarios, which analyzed the impacts of high guarantees offered to the private sector,
showed the negative impacts of these in terms of reduced utilization of both the existing and new
public capacity. x. Generation expansion plans till the year 2010-11 are developed using the
results of various kinds of scenario analyses. Two groups of year-wise generation expansion
plans are generated, one with only public sector capacity additions and the other with private
sector participation. xi. The impacts of privatization of capacity additions are studied from the
point of view of the utility and consumers in terms of expected increase in cost of purchase of
electricity and tariffs. xii. The analyses are also made for developing some insights into fixing
the availability and plant load factors for the private capacity. Based on the analysis, the
recommended range for plant utilization factor is 72.88 - 80.57%. We believe that the integrated
approach presented and the results obtained in this thesis would help utilities (both suppliers and
distributors of electricity) and governments in making rational choices in the context of resource
constrained systems. The results reported here may also be used towards rationalization of
Government policies vis-a-vis tariff structures in the supply of electricity, planning new
generation capacity additions and effective rationing of electricity. It is also hoped that the fresh
approach adopted in this thesis would attract further investigations in future research on resource
constrained systems.
 COMPANIES PÊOVIDING DIFFEÊENT
TYPES OF POWEÊ



#""è 
The Êeliance Anil Dhirubhai Ambani Group is among IndiaÕs top three private sector
business houses on all major financial parameters, with a market capitalisation of
Ês.325,000 crores (US$ 81 billion), net assets in excess of Ês.115,000 crores (US$ 29
billion), and net worth to the tune of Ês.55,000 crores (US$ 14 billion). The interests of
the Group range from communications (Êeliance Communications) and financial
services (Êeliance Capital Ltd), to generation, transmission and distribution of power
(Êeliance Energy), infrastructure and entertainment.
" 
º
^
$º

Suppliers and dealers of kirloskar genset, kirloskar diesel power generator, kirloskar
green engines generator, kirloskar air cooled silent gensets, kirloskar silent gensets and
kirloskar green silent canopy.
" 
º


%
Manufacturer and supplier of electronic equipments like switch mode power supplies,
SMPS, battery charger, drivers for Power LED, adapters, AC-DC convector, DC to AC
convector and VHF battery chargers.
" 
The Anand Group have been catering to the needs of Power Sector in the filed of Power
Control and Distribution, Telecom, UPS, and Airfield Lighting for a number of years.
"&è

 
Providing industrial services like sale and purchase of old generators, generator rent
services, generator repair services and sale purchase of engines and generator sets.
"

  
Manufacturers and exporters of electronic enclosures, generator enclosures, generator
sets, sound proof enclosures, acoustic enclosures, electric generator sets, diesel generator
sets, silent generator sets, sound proof generator sets.
'( '


' 
BBMB has an installed capacity of 2866.30 MW - the largest base of Hydro Power in
India with a high plant load factor.
'c
 !%
Mr. G. S. Bhatia, our patriarch, is the Founder and Chairman of the BCC Group. He is
also the Managing Director of Bhatia International Limited.

^
c
Enercon Systems India designs and builds in-house, powerful instrumentation, india
energy management networks, electrical instruments, electronic meters & energy
conservation bangalore.
 è 
The Essar Group is one of India's largest corporate houses with interests spanning the
manufacturing and service sectors in both old and new economies: steel, power,
shipping, constructions, oil & gas and telecom
)
º
c 

Manufacturers and exporters of water cooled single cylinder generator, radiator cylinder
generator, close coupled double cylinder generator, air cooled single cylinder generator
and welding set cylinder generator.
èè 
One of the big houses in Karnataka that has started a power project in Mangalore
è   !
%
Guardian Controls Limited - Manufacturers of electromechanical relays like industrial
relays, power relays, telecom relays, automotive relays, hermetic sealed relays, smf
batteries and switchgear products.
è& ^
º
 
 !%
GSPC has grown from operatorship of small fields in Gujarat into an expansive oil and
gas exploration and production company across India in 6 quick years. Its rise in the
Hydrocarbon sector was helped in no small measure by the Central Government's
opening of the sector to private participation in the early 1990s.
* ^

+º
!

JSPL, the challenge is to make and process steel without adversely impacting the
environment. The machines are being procured from the leading manufacturers in the
world with total system integration to ensure world class rails.
*

º 
Manufacturer and supplier of transmission products, flat pulley, rope pulley, timing
pulley, belt pulley, v belt pulley, poly v pulley, jaw coupling, pin bush coupling, taper
bush, taper bush adapter, bolt on hub and weld on hub etc.
, (º

  !
-,º
!.
Karnataka Power Transmission Corporation Limited is mainly vested with the functions
of Transmission and Distribution of power in the entire State of Karnataka.
, (
Konarka builds power plastic that converts light to energy anywhere. The company
develops and manufactures light-activated power plastic that is inexpensive, lightweight,
flexible and versatile.


Manufacturer and exporter of all types of power transformers, distribution, dry type
transformers, furnace transformers, auto transformers, APFC Panel, generator
transformers and hermetically sealed transformer.
*( º
  !%
Satluj Jal Vidyut Nigam (formerly Nathpa Jhakri Power Corporation Ltd) has run up all
six 250MW units of the Nathpa Jhakri Hydroelectric Power project.

 è

º
  
Manufacturer of escorts silent genset,sound proof enclousre, silencer and axial flow fan
etc.
'


Indo National Ltd., the second largest dry cell battery manufacturer in India was
incorporated in 1972 as a joint venture with Matsushita Electric Industrial Co. Ltd.,
Japan, with the goal of bringing the world's best battery technology to the country.
 

 º
  !

The North Eastern Êegion of India possesses a high potential of hydel power together
with other sources of power from natural gas and coal.
º%%" +

[ (º  
!

Manufacturer and supplier of safety valve silencer, round type safety valve silencer,
bypass stack silencer, start up vent valve, acoustic enclosure, weather proof acoustic
enclosure, noise control acoustic enclosures, incinerator etc.
ºc!

The Prime Group with its penchant for excellence, keen commitment, top of the line
capabilities and access to the state-of-the-art technology is touching wider horizons
through a broad spectrum of experience and all-round activities.
º
º
  !

The Pondicherry Power Corporation was incorporated on 30.03.1993 under the
Chairmanship of the Chief Secretary to Government of Pondicherry to expedite the
erection of Combined Cycle Gas Power Plant at Karaikal.
º
c
 
Manufacturers and exporters electrical engineering products, voltage stabilizers, power
vopltage stablizers, power inverters, automatic inverters, bridge rectifiers, DC power
supply, energy saver, power energy saver and UPS mix load.
º
  ^
º %!%
Powermag has been the leader in manufacture and developement of eddy current
variable speed drives. All drives are manufactured in-house in a carefully controlled,
multistep process.
º

c
Powerware Corporation offers a range of innovative, end-to-end power protection,
telecom turnkey solutions and management solutions for information technology and
other electronic devices.
+^º %!%
Êai & Sons is a Family Owned Business. The strength of the organization lies in its
purpose oriented professional manpower.



!%
Êeliance Energy Ltd is India's leading integrated power utility company in the private
sector. It has a significant presence in generation, transmission and distribution of power
in Maharashtra, Goa and Andhra Pradesh.
º 
c
Manufacturing and exporting flexible food packaging material like plain & printed
aluminium blister foils, plain & printed pharma foils, plain & printed polyester pouches
& laminates, glassine paper with foil based laminates, printing rollers.
^%º%
 
$º

Manufacturer and supplier of process calibration, temperature calibration, DC power
supply, AC power supply, power converter, electric converter, temperature transmitter,
digital transmitter and power analyzer.
^

º
^
º  
!

Manufacturers of solar power inverters, industrial servo stabilizers, servo stabilizer,
power inverter, solar power inverter, pfc modules, sine wave inverters, high frequency
inverters.
^ º
  
Exporter of all types of power generators, electric generators, portable generators, air
cooled generators,welding generators, water cooled generator, invertors, ups, water
pumps, power stablizers, transformers and amf panels etc.
 ^ ^(
Shri Shakti Alternative Energy Ltd. offers various Energy Efficient Products and
Services under a common theme called Friendly Energy Solutions. alternative energy
products like heating without electricity, mosquito magnet.
^

 %
Systems Creator - Provide computer peripherals, communication system and power
applications including data switches, suppressor, stabilizer, electronic generator,CVT
and UPS.


  º &
!

Durgapur today assumes a significant position in the industrial map of West Bengal. It
has a whole gamut of manufacturing units - from steel to power and from cement to
mining machinery.


^ &* / !%
The Satluj Jal Vidyut Nigam Ltd. was incorporated on May 24, 1988 as a joint venture
of Govt. of India and Govt. of HP. The 1500 MW Nathpa Jhakri Hydroelectric Power
Project (NJHPP) is the first project commissioned by the company.

º

United Power is an sister concern of Power Engineering Corporation, which is leading
exporter and manufacturer of Diesel Oil Engines beside 'Anand Enterprise', an Êubber
exporting unit.
/
  ^
º %!
Bangalore based dealer for batteries, printer refills etc.
/
º %!%
Exporter of all kinds of pneumatic tools.


 !c" º[




º
!
, a part of the Êeliance Anil Dhirubhai Ambani Group, was established
to develop, construct and operate power projects in the domestic and international markets.
Êeliance Energy Limited, an Indian private sector power utility company along with the Anil
Dhirubhai Ambani Group promotes Êeliance Power.

Along with its subsidiaries, it is presently developing 13 medium and large-sized power projects
with a combined planned installed capacity of 33,480 MW.

"

The company was incorporated in January 1995 as Bawana Power Private Limited and changed
its name to Êeliance Delhi Power Private Limited in February 1995. Later, it changed its name to
Êeliance EGen Private Limited in January 2004, to Êeliance Energy Generation Limited in
March 2004, and to Êeliance Power Limited in July 2007

The company website identifies project sites broadly to be located in western India (12,220
MW), northern India (9,080 MW) and northeastern India (4,220 MW) and southern India (4,000
MW). They include six coal-fired projects (14,620 MW) to be fueled by reserves from captive
mines and supplies from India and abroad, two gas-fired projects (10,280 MW) to be fueled
primarily by reserves from the Krishna Godavari basin (the "KG Basin") off the east coast of
India, and four hydroelectric projects (3,300 MW), three of them in Arunachal Pradesh and one
in Uttarakhand.

c  

 


On January 15, 2008, the company attracted $27.5 billion of bids on the first day of its initial
public offering (IPO), equivalent to 10.5 times the stock on offer, thereby, creating India's IPO
record. The upper cut off price for the bid was Ês. 450. The proposed IPO was to fund the
development of its six power projects across the country whose completion dates are scheduled
from December 2009 to March 2014.

A media report suggested that, if the company¶s stock price were to cross Ês. 650-700, Anil
Ambani would go past L. N. Mittal to become the richest Indian. "It is a reflection of world
community in the future of India... Investors seem to be confident in the future of Indian
economy," Indian Finance Minister, P. Chidambaram told the media about the IPO.
The Securities and Exchange Board of India, which is an organization that regulates the activity
in the Indian stock market, placed some restrictions based on a complaint about the formulation
of the IPO. The complaint also resulted in a public interest litigation being filed against the
company. However, the Supreme Court of India passed a ruling that the IPO would go ahead
even if any order is passed by any Indian court against the venture.

Êeliance Power debuted on the stock markets on February 11, 2008. However, the markets were
still reeling after the January 2008 stock market volatility, and concerns over speculation that the
issue was overpriced sent the stock plummeting soon after its listing. At the end of the day, the
stock traded at a value that was 17 per cent lower than its issue price of Ês. 450.

Investors who were betting on the stock reaching 1.5 or even twice its issue price lost a fortune
in the process. On February 25, in an effort to mitigate investor losses, Êeliance Power decided
to issue 3 bonus shares for every 5 shares held.



"
"º[


 
Started as the Tata Hydroelectric Power Supply Company in 1911, it is an amalgamation of two
entities: Tata Hydroelectric Power Supply Company and Andhra Valley Power Supply Company
(1916).Today Tata Power Company Limited is India¶s largest private sector electricity
generating company with an installed generation capacity of over 2670 MW. The Company is a
pioneer in the Indian power sector. Tata Power has a presence in thermal, hydro, solar and wind
areas of power generation, transmission and retail. The founders of Tata Power pioneered the
generation of electricity in India with the commissioning of India¶s first large hydro-electric
project in 1915 in Bhivpuri and Khopoli, Karjat.



The thermal power stations of the company are located at Trombay in Mumbai, Jojobera in
Jharkhand and Belgaum in Karnataka. The hydro stations are located in the Western Ghats of
Maharashtra and the wind farm in Ahmednagar.

The Company has been a front-runner in introducing state-of-the-art power technologies. Tata
installed India¶s first 500 MW unit at Trombay, the first 150 MW pumped storage unit at Bhira,
and a flue gas desulphurization plant for pollution control at Trombay. At 2.4% the Company's
transmission & distribution losses are among the lowest in the country. Tata Power has served
Mumbai¶s consumers for over nine decades.

Outside Mumbai, the company now has generation capacities in the States of Jharkhand and
Karnataka and a Distribution Company in Delhi.

The Distribution joint venture with the Government of Delhi called the North Delhi Power
Limited´ (NDPL), has met with considerable success. This joint venture serves over 800,000
consumers (in a population of 4.5 million) spread over in an area of 510 km and has a peak load
of 1050 MW. . NDPL has achieved some success in cutting down the losses from 51% to 28% in
span of five years.

c
 

The Company has also executed several overseas projects in the Middle East, Africa and South
East Asia. Of particular interest are the Jebel Ali µG¶ station (4 x 100 MW + desalination plant)
in Dubai, Al-Khobar II (5 x 150 MW + desalination plant) and Jeddah III (4 x 64 MW +
desalination plant) in Saudi Arabia, Shuwaikh (5 x 50 MW) in Kuwait, EHV substations in UAE
and Algeria, and power plant operation and maintenance contracts in Iran and Saudi Arabia.


0
 &

Tata Power has entered into a 51:49 joint venture with PowerGrid Corporation of India for the
1200 km Tala transmission project. The joint venture is India¶s first transmission project to be
executed with public-private partnership.

Tata Power has also won a contract for building 4000 MW power plant at Mundra. A unique
aspect of this project is that for the first time in India a 4000MW power plant is being built
utilizing one large construction project; all other large projects have always involved stage
construction.

?
 Brihanmumbai Electric Supply and Transport
(B.E.S.T.)

The '^
(Brihanmumbai Electricity Supply and Transport) is Mumbai's public transport
service and electricity provider.

Established in 1873, the BEST operates one of India's largest fleets of buses. Originally setup as
a tramway company: Bombay Electric Supply & Tramways Company, the BEST set up a captive
thermal power station at Wadi bunder, Bombay in November 1905 to generate electricity for its
trams. That positioned it to also supply electricity to the city of Bombay.

From 1926 the BEST started operating motor buses.

In 1947, a week prior to India gaining independence, the BEST became an Undertaking of the
Municipal Corporation of Greater Mumbai. It now operates as an autonomous body.

The bus transport service covers the entire city and also extends its operations outside city limits
into neighbouring Navi Mumbai, Thane and Mira-Bhayandar. In addition to buses, it also
operates a ferry service in the northern reaches of the city. The electricity division of the
organization is also one of the few electricity departments in India to garner an annual net profit.

Until 1995, ï
 stood for Bombay Electricity Supply and Transport. After the name of the city
was formally changed from Bombay to Mumbai, this was also reflected with the adjustment to
ï , which means "Greater Mumbai".


 
 

Since 1926, the BEST has been sourcing its power from Tata Power, part of the Tata Group
conglomerate. The power cables are laid underground, which reduces pilferage and other losses
that plague most other parts of India. The nominal rating of power supplied by BEST is 3-phase,
50 Hz, 220/110 kV. Unlike the transport company, the electricity department services only the
Mumbai City area, and not the suburbs. It provides power to over a million residential and
commercial establishments and over 33,000 street lights within the city limits.

The electricity department has 6,000 employees. BEST has a distribution loss of around 10%
(2001), among the lowest in India.
In 2006, the ÊPS (Êenewable purchase specification) framework came into force, which has
made it mandatory for electricity providers to generate or purchase fixed percentage (6% for FY
2009K10) of their power through renewable sources. To comply with this act, BEST plans to
install photovoltaic cells in each of its 25 depots. They also plan to use solar power in gardens
and street lighting where the demand is low. Another option being considered is the possibility of
using the 7,000 tones (6,889 LT; 7,716 ST) of garbage disposed by the city on a daily basis,
which can be potentially used to generate 350 megawatts (469,358 hp) of electricity.
 GVK INDUSTÊIES

c 
The è/,è  (GVK Industries Ltd.) is an Indian diversified enterprise, a group of
companies with a predominant focus on Infrastructure projects (power, roads, airports, ...), and
also some activities in Hospitality, Services and Manufacturing sector.

è/,º
c  
!
-è/,ºc!. has initiated power projects that will
cross over 2000 MW capacity once operational. While *
 

º

º  is operational, several ambitious power projects are under development.

è/, is developing power projects that are based on coal, gas and hydel resources. The projects
are being developed across several States in the country including " 
º 
, º& and  (.

º &

1
*
 

º
º #c

è/, has been the pioneer in power sector setting up India's first c


º
º &

-cºº., the 216 MW*
 


 -ºº. with an investment of Ês
1,025 crore in 1997.

The project is one of its kind and has been lauded as the 2  
 &
 
 

2. è/,2commitment to the environment is evident from the extensive green
belt area created in and around the project that has also won international appreciation.

The plant is designed to enable enhancement of operational efficiencies and minimizing

environmental impact.

c0 Washington has noted the plant as a 2

º
º 2 taking into consideration its
performance in Environment, Health and Safety. The 

 
c

-
c. awarded Eco-Êating 2"2è ^r, its highest ranking followed by a thorough audit.
º &




1
 '


è ^º
º &


è/, is developing a 600 MW  '

 thermal Power Plant at è ^, Punjab.
The project was allocated by theè

º& to è/, subsequent to an international
competitive bidding process.

A Power Purchase Agreement (PPA) between è/, and the Punjab Electricity Board was
executed in the year 2000 and a Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) was signed in early
2006.

The project comprises of two steam turbines of 300 MW each. The coal for the project is sourced
from è/,2 captive mines at Tokisud North sub-block in Jharkhand.


'


^   º

º &


è/, is implementing 330 MW Shrinagar Hydro Power Project located 110 km from (
,
comprising four units of 82.5 MW. The Power Purchase Agreement (PPA) for the project was
signed with the Uttar Pradesh Power Corporation Limited (UPPCL) in 2006.

The project has achieved financial closure in August 2007. The Electro-mechanical works have
been awarded to Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited (BHEL).

è º
º &


The Government of Uttarakhand has granted the Goriganga Power Project to è/, in November
2005. The project involves setting up of a 370 MW Mapang - Sirkari Hydro Electric Power Plant
on the river Goriganga in Pittoragarh District of Uttarakhand. The project comprises four units of
92.5 MW each.

 
1

º


è/, expects the 

 "$3445, to radically transform India's Power Sector over the
medium to long term. When fully implemented, the provisions of the Act will ensure that the
existing monopolies are dismantled, efficiency is improved and the quality and quantity of
supply are enhanced.
This landmark Act will eventually supercede all existing legislations in the sector, allowing
setting up of power generation plants without licences, provide for licences for transmission,
distribution and trading, allow immediate general access to transmission infrastructure and a
phased open access for the distribution systems.

è/,is geared up to tap the  º

  
 this scenario will offer
and to establish pioneering projects in the sector.
 National Thermal Power Corporation (NTPC)

º!
 (Formerly  

 º
  ) is the largest power
generation company in India. Forbes Global 2000 for 2009 ranked it 317th in the world. It is an
Indian public sector company listed on the Bombay Stock Exchange although at present the
Government of India holds 89.5% of its equity. It was founded on November 7, 1975.
NTPC's core business is engineering, construction and operation of power generating plants and
providing consultancy to power utilities in India and abroad.

NTPC¶s share at 31 Mar 2001 of the total installed capacity of the country was 24.51% and it
generated 29.68% of the power of the country in 2008-09. Every fourth home in India is lit by
NTPC. 170.88BU of electricity was produced by its stations in the financial year 2005-2006. The
Net Profit after Tax on March 31, 2006 was INÊ 58,202 million. Net Profit after Tax for the
quarter ended June 30, 2006 was INÊ 15528 million, which is 18.65% more than for the same
quarter in the previous financial year. 2005).

Pursuant to a special resolution passed by the Shareholders at the Company¶s Annual General
Meeting on September 23, 2005 and the approval of the Central Government under section 21 of
the Companies Act, 1956, the name of the Company "National Thermal Power Corporation
Limited" has been changed to "NTPC Limited" with effect from October 28, 2005. The primary
reason for this is the company's foray into hydro and nuclear based power generation along with
backward integration by coal mining.

National Thermal Power (NTPC) the 138 position in 2009


6
 &

In November 2007, NTPC signed a joint venture with Indian Êailways to set up a 1,000
megawatt (MW) power plant in Nabinagar in Bihar. The JV would be called Bharatiya Êail
Bijlee Company.
   

 º
  
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  , also known as NHPC came into existence in
1975. It is an enterprise under the Indian government and started off with Ês. 2,000 million
worth of authorized capital.

The NHPC was set up as a fully integrated unit for hydroelectric power in India that would take
care of all aspects pertaining to planning, organizing, and promoting hydroelectric power in
India. Êecently, the National Hydroelectric Power Corporation has also grown to enfold
dimensions such as geothermal energy, wind energy, and tidal energy within its perimeters to
such as extent that the company now has an authorized capital of Ês. 150,000 million and an
investment base of approximately Ês. 250,000 million. This has led to NHPC becoming one
among the top ten companies in the country from the point of view of investment and in 2006-07
the power stations belonging to NHPC achieved a record power generation of more than 13,000
MU. During the same financial year, the company attained a sales figure of Ês. 19,630 million
and earned a net profit worth Ês. 9,248 million.

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The National Hydroelectric Power Corporation was set up with the objective of attaining world-
class standards in every stage of hydroelectric project management and allied activities. The
National Hydroelectric Power Corporation lays a lot of emphasis on continually upgrading its
technology, enhancing its research and development facilities, and adhering to best practices
within the industry.
As of now, the National Hydroelectric Power Corporation is in the process of
implementing as many as 13 projects with a total capacity of more than 5500 MW. The NHPC
has grown to such a large extent now that it can independently handle each and every stage of
complicated hydroelectric projects in India. The net value of all assets owned by NHPC is Ês.
254,000 million, while it has a paid up capital of Ês. 111,982 million. The company has power
stations located at strategic regions such as Madhya Pradesh, Manipur, Himachal Pradesh,
Sikkim, Jammu & Kashmir, and Uttarakhand.
The company also deals in consultancy services and is certified with ISO 9001 and
ISO 14001. NHPC has earned quite a reputation for itself in the domain of consultancy projects
and it is a registered consultant with the likes of the World Bank, Consultancy Development
Center, Asian Development Bank, and Central Water Commission. In 2003-04 alone, NHPC
received consultancy projects worth Ês. 9740 lakh. In 2006-07, the company received
consultancy payments to the tune of Ês. 2663 lakh. The National Hydroelectric Power
Corporation is headed by Mr. S.K. Garg who is the Chairman and Managing Director.