Hydrogeology Journal (2014) 22: 1763–1776
DOI 10.1007/s10040-014-1166-5
Site selection for drinking-water pumping boreholes using a fuzzy
spatial decision support system in the Korinthia prefecture,
SE Greece
Andreas K. Antonakos & Konstantinos S. Voudouris & Nikolaos I. Lambrakis
Abstract The implementation of a geographic informa-
tion system (GIS)/fuzzy spatial decision support system in
the selection of sites for drinking-water pumping bore-
holes is described. Groundwater is the main source of
domestic supply and irrigation in Korinthia prefecture,
south-eastern Greece. Water demand has increased con-
siderably over the last 30 years and is mainly met by
groundwater abstracted via numerous wells and boreholes.
The definition of the most “suitable” site for the drilling of
new boreholes is a major issue in this area. A method of
allocating suitable locations has been developed based on
multicriteria analysis and fuzzy logic. Twelve parameters
were finally involved in the model, prearranged into three
categories: borehole yield, groundwater quality, and
economic and technical constraints. GIS was used to
create a classification map of the research area, based on
the suitability of each point for the placement of new
borehole fields. The coastal part of the study area is
completely unsuitable, whereas high values of suitability
are recorded in the south-western part. The study
demonstrated that the method of multicriteria analysis in
combination with fuzzy logic is a useful tool for selecting
the best sites for new borehole drilling on a regional scale.
The results could be used by local authorities and
decision-makers for integrated groundwater resources
management.
Keywords Groundwater management . Production
boreholes . Multicriteria analysis . Fuzzy logic . Greece
Received: 5 November 2013 / Accepted: 20 June 2014
Published online: 6 July 2014
* Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2014
A. K. Antonakos : N. I. Lambrakis
Department of Geology,
University of Patras, Patras, Greece
K. S. Voudouris ())
Lab. of Engineering Geology & Hydrogeology,
Department of Geology,
Aristotle University, 54124 Thessaloniki, Greece
e-mail: kvoudour@geo.auth.gr
Introduction
In many countries, groundwater is the primary resource
for irrigation and domestic supply. For this reason,
preserving its availability and quality is crucial for the
future (UNESCO 1998). One of the major issues that
needs to be addressed by hydrogeological research
concerns the definition of the most suitable sites for the
drilling of new boreholes, especially in areas where water
resources are scarce or under environmental pressure.
Thus, the selection of sites for drinking-water pumping
boreholes should be based on the analysis of a large
amount of high-quality data. The most often used methods
for site selection consist of analog approaches, regression
models, location allocation models, and checklist
methods. In addition, artificial intelligence techniques
such as artificial neural networks (Lee et al. 2004) and
fuzzy logic (Ercanoglu and Gokceoglu 2002) have been
used in site selection.
Decision support systems (DSS) are computerized
systems, which include models and databases that are
used in decision-making. They are useful tools that help
scientists and administrators in choosing the best (eco-
nomic, social or environmental) and/or alternative solu-
tions (Leung 1997; Manos et al. 2007).
Geographic information systems (GIS) and decision
support systems (DSS) offer strong facilities for ground-
water resources management (Manos et al. 2007). DSS
featuring mechanisms for the input and use of spatial
information, as well as for the output of thematic maps,
are known as spatial decision support systems (SDSS)
(Vacik and Lexer 2001). The SDSS could be based on
multiple criteria decision-making techniques (Hwang and
Yoon 1981; Zhu et al. 1998).
Models used for the site selection process are usually
prescriptive. These models involve the application of a set
of criteria that are set out as good engineering practice and
may result from a blend of scientific, economic and social
factors. In the case of site selection for the drilling of new
boreholes, there are several criteria and, in most cases,
they are independent. The most important of these criteria
relate to the productivity of the aquifer system (hydraulic
characteristics, recharge, groundwater balance, etc.),
groundwater quality, aquifer pollution potential, and
1764
economic and technical issues (the site accessibility,
expected drilling depth, etc.). Most of these criteria can
be expressed geographically, since they can be counted as
continuous spatial distributions (Zhu et al. 1998).
In order to manage the uncertainty, fuzzy logic
approaches have been adopted (Uricchio et al. 2004).
Use of GIS for site selection involves finding locations or
zones that satisfy a set of criteria. If the criteria are defined
as a set of deterministic rules, the model consists of
applying Boolean operators to a set of input maps, and the
output is a binary map, because each location is either
satisfactory or not. Alternatively, each location may be
evaluated according to weighted criteria, resulting in a
ranking on a suitability scale. The subsequent selection
process then benefits from the ability to assess suitability
rankings, rather than simply presence/absence, and from
the knowledge of spatial patterns of suitability. Site
suitability is calculated by the weighting and combining
of multiple sources of evidence.
The assignment of weights can either be carried out
with statistical criteria, by use of an actual study region to
estimate the spatial relationships between predictor maps
and the response map calibrated by known places suitable
for the placement of new boreholes, the weights can be
estimated on the basis of expert opinion. These two types
are usually called “data-driven” and “knowledge-driven”
models, respectively. In data-driven modeling, the various
input maps are combined by use of models such as logistic
regression, weights of evidence or neural network analy-
sis. Knowledge-driven models include the use of fuzzy
logic or Bayesian probability (Stoms et al. 2002;
Pourghasemi et al. 2012).
A “data-driven” model is difficult to apply in the case
of site selection for the placement of new boreholes
because it is very difficult to define what is “suitable” or
what can be distinguished as “unsuitable”, as can be done,
for example, with mineral potential mapping, where
places of existent ore deposits can be distinguished as
“suitable”, or in the case of aquifer pollution potential
where places with concentration of a pollutant above a
certain limit can be distinguished as “unsuitable”. Among
“knowledge-driven” methods, that of fuzzy logic allows
flexible combinations of weighted maps, and can be
readily implemented with a GIS modelling language.
The method applied in this study is based on a subjective
empirical model, with the fuzzy membership values being
assigned subjectively, using a knowledge of the process
involved to estimate the relative importance of the input
maps.
The aim of the present study is to apply the
multicriteria analysis within a GIS environment, in order
to create a classification map of the research area in
Greece, based on the suitability of each point for the
placement of new borehole fields. Firstly, the paper
describes a hydrogeological survey, the results of which
enabled, amongst others, identification of the aquifer
system that exists within the study area, acquisition of
groundwater quality data, and a vulnerability assessment
of the aquifer system to pollution. Secondly, the criteria
Hydrogeology Journal (2014) 22: 1763–1776
are discussed and the final choices are introduced. Finally,
a fuzzy spatial decision support system approach for site
selection of drinking-water pumping boreholes in a GIS
context is presented.
Although fuzzy DSS have been developed to support
local authorities and decision makers for groundwater
resources management, and for vulnerability and pollution
risk assessments (Süzenm and Doyuran 2003; Voudouris
et al. 2010), such investigations are limited, as deduced
from international literature. The proposed method can be
applied in other areas with different hydrogeological
conditions.
Description of the study area
General characteristics
The study area is in the north-eastern part of the Korinthia
prefecture in NE Peloponnesus, Greece, covering an area
of 902 km2 (Fig. 1). The study area is drained mainly by
four torrents: Asopos, Zapantis, Rachianis and Xerias. The
topographic relief is gentle from north to south and varies
from 0 to 1,600 m above sea level (a.s.l.).
The study area is characterised by Mediterranean
climatic conditions and non-homogeneous distribution of
rainfall and water resources. The mean annual precipita-
tion in the study area for the period 1975–2004 is
594 mm, which corresponds to mean annual rainfall water
volume of 536×106 m3. Precipitation (P) is directly related
to altitude (h) by the relationship: P=0.34h+468. The
water balance parameters have been computed according
to the procedures described by Thornthwaite and Mather
(1957). A major amount of the annual precipitation,
approximately 361×106 m3 (67.5 %), is lost via evapo-
transpiration, while 103×106 m3 (19.1 %) infiltrates and
recharges groundwater. The remaining amount of water,
72×106 m3 (13.4 %), discharges to the sea as surface
runoff (Voudouris et al. 2007).
Socioeconomic stability of the studied area is based on
water-resources availability, which ensures adequate agri-
cultural production and tourism development (Voudouris
et al. 2007). A major part of the study area, 49.9 %, is
covered with intensive cultivations (vineyards, fruit trees,
olive groves), which are widely spread throughout the
study area. The use of inorganic fertilisers in these
cultivations has a great polluting effect on groundwater.
The spread of irrigated land increased greatly in the last
few decades to meet demand, as indicated by the number
of wells and boreholes (~500 in 1990 to ~2,500 in 2006).
The average depth of production boreholes increased from
18 m in the late 1970s to 40 m in the 1990s. In the last
few decades many deep boreholes have been opened and
many shallow irrigation water-supply boreholes have run
dry (Voudouris 2006).
The water needs in the coastal zone of the study area
are predominantly covered by the exploitation of coastal
aquifers, through a large number of boreholes.
Overexploitation causes a deficient groundwater balance
in many coastal aquifers, triggering saline water intrusion,
DOI 10.1007/s10040-014-1166-5

Fig. 1 Geographic orientation map of the study area in Greece
which has negative consequences on the socioeconomic
development of the area. In recent years, seawater
intrusion has been more evident, owing to high rates of
urbanisation and increased agricultural activities
(Panagopoulos et al. 2002).
Geological and hydrogeological setting
The study area is characterised by a complex geological
structure (Fig. 2). The geological bedrock consists of the
carbonate sediments of the Trapezona sequence (a
transition zone between Pindos and Pelagonian geotec-
tonic zones) in the south-eastern part of the study area and
the carbonate sediments and flysch of the Pindos and
Tripolis zones in the south-western part of the study area
(Katsikatsos 1992).
The Trapezona carbonate sequence consists of plated
limestones of Triassic to Upper Jurassic age with nodules
and thin bands of chert. In Middle Jurassic, this sequence
was interrupted by shales and cherts formations made up
of bedded sandstone clay and marl with ophiolithic bodies
in them.
The Tripolis zone consists of a dolomitic limestone to
limestone series of Upper Jurassic to Eocene age which
are unconformably overlaid by the Tripolis zone flysch
formation. The Pindos zone formation in the study area
consists of Upper Cretaceous platy limestones which are
unconformably overlaid by the Pindos zone flysch
formation. The Pindos zone is geotectonically
overthrusted on the Tripolis zone with a general NE–SW
thrust direction.
The main part of the study area is covered by post-
orogenic sediments of Pliocene to Holocene age which
unconformably overlay the bedrock formations. They
Hydrogeology Journal (2014) 22: 1763–1776
1765
consist of Pliocene lacustrine marls interbedded with thin
layers of conglomerates and sandstones, cemented fluvial
(proximal and distal) conglomerates of Calabrian age, sea
terraces of Tyrrhenian age, alluvial deposits consisting of
alternations of red sand, clay, sandy loam and loose
conglomerates of Pleistocene age and finally recent
alluvial deposits and talus cones (Fig. 2).
From a hydrogeological point of view six major
hydrogeological units (aquifers) can be distinguished:
& The carbonate aquifers of the bedrock which are fully
karstic for the Trapezona sequence and Tripolis zone and
partly karstic for the Pindos zone. They are highly
productive aquifers with an average thickness of 100–
400 m and hydraulic conductivity values varying from 1 to
775 m/day (Mastoris et al. 1971; Morfis and Zojer 1986).
& The flysch formations of Tripolis and Pindos zones as
well as the shales-cherts formations of the Trapezona
sequence can be distinguished as impermeable units.
& The Pliocene marl aquifer that develops in the thin
beds of sandstones and conglomerates interbedded
within the marl formation. It is a confined aquifer with
an average thickness of 2–10 m and low hydraulic
conductivity values (below 1 m/day; Mastoris et al.
1971).
& The Calabrian conglomerates aquifer with an average
thickness of 50–100 m and high values of hydraulic
conductivity (129 m/day; Zervogiannis 1991).
& The aquifer that develops within the alluvial and sea
terrace formations, with an average thickness of 30–
50 m and medium to high hydraulic conductivity
values (2 m/day; Mastoris et al. 1971).
& The aquifer that has developed within recent alluvial
and talus cone deposits with an average thickness of
40–60 m and hydraulic conductivity values varying
DOI 10.1007/s10040-014-1166-5
1766
Fig. 2 Geological map and geological cross section of the study area
from 8 to 69 m/day (Koumantakis et al. 1999). This
aquifer is in most cases in hydraulic contact with the
underlay aquifer of alluvial deposits and sea terrace
formations from which it is laterally recharged
(Stamatis and Voudouris 2003).
The impermeable layer underlying all the aquifers of
the post-orogenic sediments is the lacustrine marls of the
Pliocene marl formation, as can be seen in the geological
cross-section of Fig. 2.
Groundwater quality
Based on previous hydrochemical investigations
(Voudouris et al. 2000; Panagopoulos et al. 2002), the
water of the study area is of various hydrochemical types:
Ca–HCO3 is the predominant water type in freshwaters
near the recharge zones of the aquifer system. This type of
water occurs along the southern part of the studied area.
Na–HCO3 type, as well Na–SO4 and Na–Cl types are
apparent downstream of the recharge zones indicating
excessive mixing and ion exchange processes and seawa-
ter intrusion.
The distribution of chloride shows a general increase of
concentration down gradient, to the north towards the
coastline. So far, saline water intrusion is mainly exhibited
at specific zones along the coastline and especially the
Lecheo and Vrachati areas. Nitrate pollution is the second
Hydrogeology Journal (2014) 22: 1763–1776
major source of groundwater degradation in the study
area. High nitrate is noticeable throughout the entire
region, rendering most of the samples unsuitable for
drinking, as concentrations far exceed 50 mg/L (Council
EU 1998). High nitrate concentrations are attributed to
several sources, the most important of which are the
“irrational” application of fertilizers, septic tanks, and the
disposal of untreated domestic effluent into abandoned
wells (Voudouris et al. 2004).
Methodology
Choice of the criteria
The architecture and main components of the SDSS are
shown in Fig. 3. Twelve parameters were finally involved
in the model, prearranged in three categories:
1. Criteria of borehole yield
2. Criteria of groundwater quality
3. Economic-technical criteria
The choice of the criteria included in the model was
based on the particular hydrological, hydrogeological and
hydrochemical conditions of the study area. The first
category of criteria indicates that in order for a site to be
appropriate for the drilling of a new borehole, it must
DOI 10.1007/s10040-014-1166-5

Fig. 3 Architecture and main components of the SDSS
ensure a satisfactory yield compared to adjacent sites and
regarding the intended use (municipal, private).
The yield (productivity) of a borehole depends on the
technical completeness, as well as the hydraulic charac-
teristics and the recharge of the aquifer system.
Transmissivity values were used to approximately esti-
mate the possibility of groundwater abstraction (Krásný
1993). Calculation of the transmissivity was based on
results from pumping test analyses, applying Theis, Jacob
and recovery methods (Todd and Mays 2005).
Furthermore, the calculation of transmissivity can be
based on the specific capacity, which has been considered
the most representative parameter for productivity when
pumping test data are not available (Neves and Morales
2007). Specific capacity (Q/s) is defined as the ratio of
discharge (Q) to drawdown (s) at the pumping borehole
for a given time (Jalludin and Razack 2004). In addition,
an extra criterion of yield was used, and that is the density
of the existing boreholes, which increased in areas where
high yield values were ascertained.
Groundwater recharge in the aquifer occurs via the
following mechanisms:
& Direct infiltration of rainfall
& Seepage from surface-water bodies (rivers and lakes)
through river-lake beds, mainly in the nearby area and
in cases where the aquifer is hydraulically connected to
the surface-water bodies
& Lateral subsurface inflows
Furthermore, return flow of water applied to the land as
irrigation is also essential to the system’s replenishment
(Voudouris 2006). Consequently, as criteria for the
sufficiency of recharge of the aquifer, both the quantity
Hydrogeology Journal (2014) 22: 1763–1776
1767
of the infiltrated water in the area and the distance from
the adjacent surface water bodies must be used.
Based on the previous considerations, four criteria
concerning the yield of the borehole were defined:
1a. The transmissivity of the aquifer, as determined by the
pumping tests or estimated from specific capacity
values
1b. The productivity of the aquifer, as determined by the
density of the operating boreholes
1c. The direct recharge of the aquifer, as determined by
the quantity of infiltration
1d. The induced recharge of the aquifer, as determined by
the distance from the adjacent surface water bodies
(Todd and Mays 2005; Voudouris 2006)
Spatial distribution of these criteria for the study area is
presented in Fig. 4. The choice of the second category of
criteria is based on the assumption that groundwater from
any borehole must attain certain water quality standards,
which will appoint it as appropriate for any particular use
(domestic, irrigation, industrial). Apart from the existing
quality conditions of the aquifer, the expected quality
conditions of the aquifer must also be considered, based
on the assessment of the aquifer’s vulnerability to
pollution. Vulnerability refers to the sensitivity of an
aquifer system to deterioration due to human activities
(Al-Zabet 2002).
The existing quality of the groundwater can be
characterized by a general index of the chemical
composition such as the total dissolved solids (TDS) or
the electrical conductivity (EC), or by the use of
individual indicators such as the concentration of
particular ions. As was mentioned before, high
DOI 10.1007/s10040-014-1166-5
1768
Fig. 4 Maps of the study area showing the distribution of the four parameters concerning borehole yield: a parameter 1a: aquifer
transmissivity, b parameter 1b: borehole density, c parameter 1c: aquifer recharge, d parameter 1d: distance from river network
concentrations of nitrate (NO3–) and chloride (Cl–) ions
are recorded in the study area. In this work, the use of a
general index such as electrical conductivity was decided
upon, because in most parts of the study area, quality
deterioration is the result of high concentrations of more
than one element.
The expected groundwater quality in the study area is
determined mainly from the aquifer specific vulnerability
to pollution, as estimated using the methods described by
Antonakos and Lambrakis (2007), and also from the
seawater intrusion potential, as seawater intrusion is a
phenomenon that occurs extensively in both porous and
karst aquifers in the study area.
Aquifer specific vulnerability was determined by using
the modified DRASTIC method (Aller et al. 1987), first
described by Panagopoulos et al. (2005), and evaluated for
the study area by Antonakos and Lambrakis (2007). The
acronym DRASTIC corresponds to the initial of the
included seven parameters: Depth, Recharge, Aquifer
media, Soil media, Topography, Impact of the vadose
zone media, hydraulic Conductivity of the aquifer.
Determination of the DRASTIC index involves
Hydrogeology Journal (2014) 22: 1763–1776
multiplying each parameter weight by its site rating
and summing the total (Aller et al. 1987). The
modification of the DRASTIC method is based upon
simple statistical procedures, involving revision of the
rating scale and relative weight of each parameter
participating in the vulnerability assessment equation
and addition or subtraction of parameters, based on
descriptive statistics, simple statistical tests and correla-
tion to nitrate concentration. As deduced from the
aforementioned investigations, this particular method
seems to have certain advantages compared with the
original DRASTIC method (Antonakos and Lambrakis
2007). Seawater intrusion potential in the absence of
other data is determined from the distance from the
coastline and from the groundwater electrical conductiv-
ity, which in the coastal zone of the study area is mainly
affected by seawater intrusion.
On the basis of previous considerations, three major
qualitative criteria were deduced:
2a. The existing groundwater quality, as expressed by the
electrical conductivity
DOI 10.1007/s10040-014-1166-5

2b. The vulnerability of the aquifers, as expressed by the
application of the modified DRASTIC method
2c. The seawater intrusion potential, as expressed from
the distance of the coastline
Spatial distribution of these criteria in the study area is
presented in Fig. 5. The influence of the third category of
criteria is based on the fact that the chosen site for the
construction of a new borehole must have economic
advantages (mainly drilling and pumping cost) in com-
parison with alternative favourable sites based on the
quantitative and qualitative criteria, and also must be
compatible with certain restrictions such as the distance
from existing boreholes, both for observance of legal
restrictions and also for conservation of the aquifer
balance. The major factor which affects the cost of a
borehole is the expected drilling depth, which is deter-
mined mainly by the thickness of the vadose (unsaturated)
zone.
Other factors that influence the construction cost of a
borehole include ease of access to the construction site,
which is determined by distance to the existing road
Fig. 5 Maps of the study area showing the distribution of the four parameters concerning groundwater quality and vadose zone thickness:
a parameter 2a: groundwater electrical conductivity (EC), b parameter 2b: aquifer specific vulnerability, c parameter 2c: distance from the
coastline. d parameter 3a: vadose zone thickness
Hydrogeology Journal (2014) 22: 1763–1776
1769
network, and finally the morphology of the site, since
sites with high surface slopes are difficult to access
and need extra configuration works before the drilling
procedure.
Finally, due to legal constrictions that exist in the study
area regarding the minimum distance between new
boreholes and existing ones or new boreholes and springs,
the suitability of a site from a legal point of view is
determined by the distance of the site from existing
boreholes, and also from physical discharges (springs) of
the aquifers (constrained areas). There were no other legal
constrictions for the drilling of new boreholes in the study
area, but if they were, the constrained areas would have
been excluded from the analysis or treated as no-data
areas. From these assumptions, five economical-technical
criteria were produced:
3a. The drilling cost, as expressed by the thickness of the
vadose zone
3b. The ease of access as expressed by the distance from
the road network
3c. The morphology, as expressed by the surface slope
DOI 10.1007/s10040-014-1166-5
1770
3d. The distance from the existing boreholes or wells
3e. The distance from physical discharges of aquifers
(springs)
Spatial distribution of these criteria for the study area is
presented in Fig. 6.
The fuzzy logic approach
Fuzzy logic provides an effective conceptual frame-
work for dealing with uncertainty (Tanaka 1997;
Tsakiris and Spiliotis 2004; Uricchio et al. 2004). The
basic concept of fuzzy logic is the conversion of each
parameter in a relative scale ranging between 0 and 1
and the creation of the pairs defined by one parameter
X and one membership function. Thus, if X is a
parameter and x the values of X, the fuzzy set is the set
of ordered pairs
f½x; μðxފ∀x ∈ X g; ð1Þ
Fig. 6 Maps of the study area showing the distribution of the four remaining economical-technical criteria: a parameter 3b: distance from
road network, b parameter 3c: surface slope, c parameter 3d: distance from existing boreholes, d parameter 3e: distance from springs
Hydrogeology Journal (2014) 22: 1763–1776
where μ(x) is termed the membership function of x and is
expressed by the following formula:
8
< 0; ∀ x ≤a
μðxÞ ¼ μðxÞ; ∀a < x < b ð2Þ
:
1; ∀ x ≥b
where X is the initial parameter, x the values of X, a and b
the min and max values of the parameter X, and μ(x) the
function of x. The range of μ(x) is [0, 1], where 0
expresses non-membership and 1 expresses full
membership.
The selection of the adaptable membership function is
an essential step in order to transform the parameter,
taking into account the relative weight of the parameter.
The choice remains a subjective decision for the
hydrogeologist/researcher and should be based on
prolonged studies of the regional conditions. The mem-
bership functions have different types (triangular, trape-
zoidal, sigmoidal, etc.), depending on the nature of the
problem (Fig. 7).
DOI 10.1007/s10040-014-1166-5
 1771

Fig. 7 Different types of fuzzy membership functions. X is the initial parameter

The sigmoidal membership function is a commonly

used function in fuzzy set theory (Gemitzi et al. 2006;
Tsoukalas and Uhrig 1997). In this study, the aforemen-
tioned transformation was carried out using the ArcSDM3
extension of ArcGIS 9.x software program (Kemp et al.
2001; Sawatzky et al. 2004). This software uses the
following sigmoidal membership function (Luo and
Dimitrakopoulos 2003):

1
μ1 ðxÞ ¼  f 1 ð3Þ
x
1þ f2

1
μ2 ðxÞ ¼  − f 1 ð4Þ
x
1þ f2

where f1 is the dispersion index of values of x, and f2 is the

central point of values of x, i.e. the point where μ(x) = 0.5.
The first of the preceding equations is characterised as
‘large’ and the second one as ‘small’. The fuzzification
algorithms “small” and “large” are used to indicate
whether small or large values of the crisp set produce
larger members of the fuzzy set (Tsoukalas and Uhrig
1997). The spread and mid parameters are subjectively
defined to reflect the expert opinion. Examples of the
small and large functions and hedges are shown in Fig. 8.
Small and large do not work with negative values or
values of zero; so the user must transform the data to
positive values before fuzzification. Fig. 8 Graphs of the six sigmoidal membership functions
Hydrogeology Journal (2014) 22: 1763–1776 DOI 10.1007/s10040-014-1166-5
1772
Furthermore, four derivative functions are used in order
to maximise the flexibility of transformation:
μ3 ðxÞ ¼ ½μ1 ðxފ2
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
μ4 ðxÞ ¼ μ1 ðxÞ
ð5Þ
μ5 ðxÞ ¼ ½μ2 ðxފ2
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
μ6 ðxÞ ¼ μ2 ðxÞ
The aforementioned functions are respectively
characterised as ‘Very large’, ‘Somewhat large’, ‘Very small’
and ‘Somewhat small’ (Tsoukalas and Uhrig 1997). These
functions are the fuzzy membership squared (a decreasive
function) or the square root of the fuzzy membership (an
increasive function). Thus, Very small, which implies
smaller than small, is Small squared; whereas Very large,
which is larger than Large, is the square root of Large. Which
one of the preceding equations (μ1 to μ6) was applied for the
fuzzy transformation of the 12 parameters, depends on the
semantic implication and it is shown in Table 1.
In Fig. 8 the graphs of the six aforementioned
sigmoidal membership functions are illustrated, deduced
from the ArcSDM3 extension of ArcGIS 9.x software
program. Finally, in Fig. 9 the graphs of membership
functions used for all the parameters in the study area are
presented.
There is a variety of aggregation operators in order to
combine the membership values and produce the final
distribution rating.
These operators are briefly reviewed below:
1. Fuzzy AND (Cartesian product). It is defined as
μAND ¼ minðμ1 ; μ2 ; μ3 ; …Þ
2. Fuzzy OR. It is defined as μOR n¼ maxðμ1 ; μ2 ; μ3 ; …Þ
3. Fuzzy algebraic product: μP ¼ ∏ μi
i¼1
n the vadose zone and the distance from the adjacent surface
4. Fuzzy algebraic sum: μS ¼ 1−∏ ð1−μi Þ
i¼1
5. Gamma operator (γ-operator): μγ ¼ ðμS Þγ :ðμP Þ1−γ
where γ∈[0,1].
The γ-operator is a combination of the algebraic sum
and the algebraic product. When γ is 0, this operator is the
Table 1 Dispersion indices and central points of membership functions used by the model
Parameter Membership function
2
Transmissivity (m /day)
Recharge (net infiltration) (mm/year)
Distance from the surface water bodies (m)
Electrical conductivity of groundwater (μS/cm)
Aquifer specific vulnerability
Distance from the coastline (m)
Vadose zone thickness (m)
Distance from the road network (m)
Surface slope (degree)
Distance from the existing boreholes (m)
Distance of springs (m)
Density of boreholes (boreholes/km2)
Hydrogeology Journal (2014) 22: 1763–1776
same as the algebraic product; when γ is 1, this operator is
the algebraic sum. Judicious choice of γ provides a
balance between the strong effects of the algebraic sum
and the weak effects of the algebraic product; in other
words, it produces output values that ensure a flexible
compromise between the ‘increasive’ tendencies of the
fuzzy algebraic sum and the ‘decreasive’ effects of the
fuzzy algebraic product (Luo and Dimitrakopoulos 2003).
Fuzzy logic model structure and implementation
in the study area
The type of membership function of each parameter, as
well as the indices used for defuzzification of the model’s
parameters, is listed in Table 1. The selection of primary
weights of the parameters was based on expert knowledge
and it was decided to enter all parameters in the model
with equal weights. Furthermore, the selection of the
appropriate dispersion indices (f1) and central points (f2)
was based on expert knowledge as well as on the
descriptive statistics (mean, median, mode, standard
deviation) of each parameter in the study area. The initial
distributions of the model parameters were transformed in
fuzzy set, using GIS and the aforementioned membership
functions.
The use of the different fuzzy operators is a matter of
the researcher’s opinion. Nevertheless, each operator is
appropriate for a specific combination of parameters and
produces a different impact on the final result. In the
present model, both the fuzzy AND and fuzzy OR
operators were initially used and the fuzzy gamma
operator was applied to the produced combined factors.
The fuzzy AND operation is appropriate for the
combination of two or more parameters, if they belong
to the same category, and they independently define the
influence of this category, e.g. the parameters thickness of
water bodies, which both independently contribute to
groundwater recharge.
The fuzzy OR operation is appropriate for the
combination of two or more parameters, if they belong
to the same category, and they accumulatively influence
the result of this category, e.g. the distance from the
Dispersion index f1 Central point f2
μ4(x) 1 5
μ1(x) 4 250
μ5(x) 1 500
μ2(x) 5 1,000
μ5(x) 5 80
μ4(x) 4 1,000
μ6(x) 4 30
μ6(x) 3 1,000
μ5(x) 5 10
μ1(x) 5 500
μ1(x) 5 1,000
μ1(x) 3 10
DOI 10.1007/s10040-014-1166-5

Fig. 9 Graphs of membership functions used for all the model parameters in the study area
existing boreholes and the distance from springs, which
both advocate the suitability of one site. Seven factors
were created by means of the aforementioned operators,
which were combined with the gamma operator (γ=0.95).
The evaluation structure of the primary criteria-parameters
is shown in Fig. 10.
Results
Figure 11 shows the suitability map, expressing the
degree of suitability for drilling new production bore-
holes, using fuzzy logic. Suitability ranges from 0 to 1.
As shown in Fig. 11, a large part of the study area has
suitability values of 0, indicating that these areas are
completely unsuitable for drilling new boreholes. This
result can be attributed to the fact that in many areas at
least one of the model factors has a value of 0 (e.g. areas
very close to existing boreholes and springs or areas with
Hydrogeology Journal (2014) 22: 1763–1776
1773
high EC values in the coastal region of the study area or
areas with very low borehole productivity in the semi-
mountainous region of the study area, where aquitard
marl predominates), and because the “gamma” operator is
actually a product, if one of the product components takes
the value of 0 then the result of the product (suitability
score) is also 0 . This fact must not be considered as a
model failure, because it allows one to focus on really
suitable areas for drilling new boreholes.
High values of suitability are recorded in the area
WSW of Nemea, where conglomerates are the predomi-
nant geological formations, in which important aquifers
are developed. Lower suitability values can be observed in
the alluvial aquifers around Xiliomodio and in the aquifer
that develops within the eluvial and sea terraces forma-
tions. The coastal alluvial aquifer between Korinthos and
Kiato seems to be totally unsuitable mainly owing to poor
groundwater quality resulting from intensive agricultural
activities, urban growth and seawater intrusion, as well as
DOI 10.1007/s10040-014-1166-5
1774
Fig. 10 The evaluation structure of the criteria using aggregation operators
due to the high density of existing boreholes.
Nevertheless, along the south and southwest edges of
the coastal alluvial plain there are some narrow zones of
high suitability. This can be attributed to a combination of
favorable parameters like the absence of existing bore-
holes and springs, the proximity to the road network, the
lower EC and aquifer vulnerability values and the small
values of vadose zone thickness. The coastal area between
Korinthos and Kiato is a highly populated area with
increased water demand and has a small percentage of
suitable areas, so it must cover these demands from nearby
areas. According to the model results, the most suitable
nearby areas are the aforementioned narrow areas at the
edges of the coastal alluvial plain and the areas in which
the eluvial aquifer and sea-terrace formation aquifer
develop.
It should be noted that the presented method has great
flexibility and adaptability. Parameters can be added to
the model or excluded from the model according to the
Hydrogeology Journal (2014) 22: 1763–1776
local hydrogeological and socio-economic conditions of
the study area. Furthermore, if the raw data for one
parameter of the model are difficult to obtain for a
certain study area, the parameter can be substituted by
another parameter for which raw data are available. For
example, if data for the parameter of aquifer vulnerabil-
ity are not available, the parameter of land use, which is
a parameter with readily available data and a very good
indicator of pollution potential of an aquifer, can be
used.
Finally, with changes in factor weights, or changes in
the type of membership functions or selection of different
fuzzy operators, the results of the model can be tailored to
the priorities of the research. If, for example, the purpose
of the research is to identify the most suitable locations for
the drilling of new boreholes for drinking water then the
impact (factor weight) of quality factors should be
increased, while the impact of economic factors should
be minimized.
DOI 10.1007/s10040-014-1166-5

Fig. 11 Map of the distribution of suitability for drilling new production boreholes
Conclusions and discussion
In the present study, multicriteria analysis was coupled
with fuzzy logic in a GIS environment in order to define
the most suitable sites for the drilling of new boreholes.
For this reason, 12 parameters were finally involved in the
model, prearranged in three categories: criteria of borehole
yield, criteria of groundwater quality, and economic-
technical criteria.
Based on the aforementioned criteria, a final map
expressing the degree of suitability for drilling new
production boreholes was illustrated by the use of fuzzy
logic. Suitability ranges from 0 to 1. A large part of the
study area (the coastal part) has suitability values of 0,
indicating that these areas are completely unsuitable for
drilling new production boreholes. High values of suit-
ability are recorded in the area WSW of Nemea, where
conglomerates are the predominant geological formations
in which important aquifers are developed.
Finally, the study demonstrated that the method of
multicriteria analysis in combination with fuzzy logic is a
useful tool for selecting the best sites for new borehole
drilling on a regional scale. The method can help the local
water management authorities to focus on really suitable
areas for groundwater abstraction on which they can
conduct more detailed research in order to define the exact
positions for the placement of new production boreholes.
The method requires relatively easy to collect raw data
Hydrogeology Journal (2014) 22: 1763–1776
1775
and can be applied to other areas with similar
hydrogeological and socio-economic conditions. Several
improvements of the proposed method may be considered
in the future concerning the parameters included in the
model and the modification of the fuzzy logic analysis
with the addition of an artificial neural network procedure.
Acknowledgements This research was conducted under the “K.
Karatheodoris” project, funded by the Research Committee of the
University of Patras. The authors greatly appreciate the valuable
comments of the anonymous reviewers.
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