OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS

Optical instruments are the devices which processes light wave to enhance
an image for more clear view. You use an optical instrument usually to
make things bigger and to see fine details of objects with the help of
something very simple like a magnifying glass or any complicated device
like microscope or telescope. To make things look bigger, you should
always use the converging lenses as diverging lenses always gets you
smaller images.

While using a converging lens, it’s important to remember the rules of

thumb. And the first rules is, if any object is very far away, the image will be
tiny and very close to the focal point. While the object moves towards the
lens, the image moves out from the focal point and grows. The image and
object are of the same size when object is placed at 2F which twice the
focal distance from the lens. While moving the object from 2F towards the
focal length (F), the image keeps moving out from the lens and grows till it
goes to infinity. As the object moves closer to the lens, the image steadily
moves towards the lens from minus infinity and gives you smaller the
closer the object is to lens.
VISUAL ANGLE

Definition

Visual angle is a dimension used to indicate the size of visual stimuli

subtended at the eye without having to specify actual stimulus size or
distance and is used to specify intraocular dimensions.

Diagram showing visual angle V.

Power of Accommodation

The process by which the ciliary muscles change the focal length of an eye
lens to focus distant or near objects clearly on the retina is called the
accommodation of the eye.

How Does an Eye Focus Objects at Varying Distances?

To focus on distant objects the ciliary muscles relax making the eye lens
thin.
As a result the focal length of the eye lens increases and we see the distant
objects.
But to focus on nearby objects the ciliary muscles contract making the eye
lens thick. As a result the focal length of the eye lens decreases and we see
the nearby objects.
In short it is the adjustment of the focal length of the eye lens which
enables us to focus on objects situated at different distances.

Near point or Least Distance of Distinct Vision

Near point or least distance of distinct vision is the point nearest to the eye
at which an object is visible distinctly.

For a normal eye the least distance of distinct vision is about 25

centimetres.
However, it varies with age of the person. For example, for infants it is only
5 to 8 cm.

Far Point

Far point of the eye is the maximum distance up to which the normal eye
can see things clearly. It is infinity for a normal eye.

Range of Vision

The distance between the near point and the far point is called the range of
vision.
Magnifying Power

Magnifying power is defined as the ratio between the dimensions of

the image and the object.

The process of magnification can occur in lenses, telescopes, microscopes

and even in slide projectors. Simple magnifying lenses are biconvex - these
lenses are thicker at the center than at the edges. The magnifying glass was
one of the first ever instruments which was used to magnifying an object.
Magnification relates to the scaling up of images in order to see the fine
details by increasing the image resolution.
 SIMPLE MICROSCOPE
A microscope is an optical instrument which is used to see highly
magnified images of tiny objects such as bacteria, cells , viruses and
protozoans etc. because these tiny objects cannot be seen by naked eyes.
There are two types of microscopes:

1. Simple microscope
2. Compound microscope

Simple Microscope

A simple microscope is also called magnifying glass. It is actually a

convex lens of small focal length, which is used for seeing the magnified
images of small objects.

Principle of Simple Microscope

A simple microscope works on the principle that when a tiny object is

placed within its focus, a virtual, erect and magnified image of the object is
formed at the least distance of distinct vision from the eye held close to the
lens.
Working of Simple Microscope

The ray diagram to show the working of simple microscope is shown in

figure. A small object AB which is to be magnified is placed between the
principal focus F’ and optical centre C of the convex lens. Now, a ray of light
AO parallel to principal axis which is coming from the point A of the object
passes through the focus F along the straight line OX after getting refracted
by the convex lens. A second ray of light AC coming from the point A of the
object passes through the optical centre C of the convex lens along the
straight line CY. As is clear from the figure that the two rays i.e. OX and CY
are diverging rays so these rays can intersect each other only at point A’
when produced backward. Now, on drawing A’B’ perpendicular from point
A’ to the principal axis, we get the image A’B’ of the object which is virtual,
erect and magnified.

Uses of Simple Microscope

Following are the important uses of simple microscope:
1. The simple microscope is commonly used by watch makers to see the
magnified view of small parts of a watch.

2. It is also used by the jewelers to see the magnified view of the fine parts
of jewellery.
3. Simple microscope is used to see the enlarged image of letters of a book,
textures of fibers or threads of a cloth.

4. Simple microscope is used to see the magnified view of different

particles of different types of soils.

5. It is used by palmists to see enlarged view of the lines of our hand.

6. Simple microscope is used by skin specialists to find out various

diseases of skin.

7. It is also used to see the details of stamp and engravings.

Magnification of Simple Microscope

The magnifying power of a simple microscope is given by:

m = 1 +
Where, D = least distance of distinct vision
F = focal length of the convex lens
It should be noted that the focal length of the convex lens should be
small because smaller the focal length of the lens, greater will be its
magnifying power. Also the maximum magnification of a simple
microscope is about 10, which means that the object will appear 10 times
larger by using the simple microscope of maximum magnification.
 COMPOUND MICROSCOPE
A compound microscope is an optical instrument consisting of two
convex lenses of short focal lengths which is used for observing the highly
magnified images of tiny objects. The compound microscope can magnify
the image of a tiny object up to 1000.

Principle of compound microscope

A compound microscope works on the principle that when a tiny object

to be magnified is placed just beyond the focus of its objective lens, a
virtual, inverted and highly magnified image of the object is formed at the
least distance of distinct vision from the eye held close to the eye piece.

Construction of compound microscope

A compound microscope consists of two convex lenses: an objective
lens O of small aperture and an eye piece E of large aperture. The lens
which is placed towards the object is called objective lens, while the lens
which is towards our eye is called eye piece. These two convex lenses i.e.
the objective and the eye piece have short focal length and are fitted at the
free ends of two sliding tubes at a suitable distance from each other.
Although the focal length of both the objective lens and eye piece is short,
but the focal length of the objective lens O is a little shorter than that of the
eye piece E.
The reason for using the eye piece of large focal length and large
aperture in a compound microscope is, so that it may receive more light
rays from the object to be magnified and form a bright image.
Working of compound microscope

The ray diagram to show the working of compound microscope is

shown in figure. A tiny object AB to be magnified is placed in front of the
objective lens just beyond its principal focus fo’. In this case, the objective
lens O of the compound microscope forms a real, inverted and enlarged
image A’B’ of the object.
Now A’B’ acts as an object for the eye piece E, whose position is
adjusted so that A’B’ lies between optical centre C2 and the focus fe’ of eye
piece. Now the eye piece forms a final virtual, inverted and highly
magnified image A”B”. this final image A”B” is seen by our eye hold close to
eye piece, after adjusting the final image A”B” at the least distance of
distinct vision of 25 cm from the eye.

Ray diagram of compound microscope

Magnification of compound microscope

The magnification of compound microscope is given by:

m =

where, D = Least distance of distinct vision (25 cm)

L = Length of the microscope tube
fo = Focal length of the objective lens
fe = Focal length of the eye-piece lens
 ASTRONOMICAL TELESCOPE
A telescope is an optical instrument which is used to see the distant
objects. Telescopes are of two types:
1. Astronomical telescope
2. Galilean telescope or Terrestrial telescope
Astronomical Telescope
An astronomical telescope is an optical instrument which is used to see
the magnified image of distant heavenly bodies like stars, planets, satellites
and galaxies etc.

The final image formed by an astronomical telescope is always virtual,

inverted and magnified.

Principle of Astronomical Telescope

An astronomical telescope works on the principle that when an object

to be magnified is placed at a large distance from the objective lens of
telescope, a virtual, inverted and magnified image of the object is formed at
the least distance of distinct vision from the eye held close to the eye piece.
Construction of Astronomical Telescope
An astronomical telescope consists of two convex lenses : an objective
lens O and an eye piece E. the focal length fo of the objective lens of
astronomical telescope is large as compared to the focal length fe of the eye
piece. And the aperture of objective lens O is large as compared to that of
eye piece, so that it can receive more light from the distant object and form
a bright image of the distant object. Both the objective lens and the eye
piece are fitted at the free ends of two sliding tubes, at a suitable distance
from each other.

Working of Astronomical telescope

The ray diagram to show the working of the astronomical telescope is
shown in figure. A parallel beam of light from a heavenly body such as
stars, planets or satellites fall on the objective lens of the telescope. The
objective lens forms a real, inverted and diminished image A’B’ of the
heavenly body. This image (A’B’) now acts as an object for the eye piece E,
whose position is adjusted so that the image lies between the focus fe’ and
the optical centre C2 of the eye piece. Now the eye piece forms a virtual,
inverted and highly magnified image of object at infinity. When the final
image of an object is formed at infinity, the telescope is said to be in
‘normal adjustment’.
It should be noted that, the final image of object (such as stars, planets
or satellites) formed by an astronomical telescope is always inverted with
respect to the object. But it does not matter whether the image formed by
an astronomical telescope is inverted or not, as all the heavenly bodies are
usually spherical is shape.
Magnifying Power of an Astronomical Telescope
The Magnifying Power of a telescope is given by:

m =

Where, fo = Focal length of the objective lens

fe = Focal length of the eye-piece lens
And the length (L) of the tube of telescope is equal to the sum of the
focal lengths of the objective lens and the eye piece. Thus,
L = fo + fe
 REFLECTING TELESCOPES
The principal optical element, or objective, of a reflecting telescope is a
mirror. The mirror forms an image of a celestial object (Fig. 3) which is
then examined with an eyepiece, photographed, or studied in some other
manner.

Viewing a star with a reflecting telescope. In this configuration, the

observer may block the mirror unless it is a very large telescope.

Reflecting telescopes generally do not suffer from the size limitations of

refracting telescopes. The mirrors in these telescopes can be as thick as
necessary and can be supported by mechanisms that prevent sagging and
thus inhibit excessive distortion. In addition, mirror materials having
vanishingly small expansion coefficients, together with ribbing techniques
that allow rapid equalization of thermal gradients in a mirror, have
eliminated the major thermal problems plaguing telescope mirrors. Some
advanced reflecting telescopes use segmented mirrors, composed of many
separate pieces.

By using a second mirror (and even a third one, in some telescopes), the
optical path in a reflector can be folded back on itself, permitting a long
focal length to be attained with an instrument housed in a short tube. A
short tube can be held by a smaller mounting system and can be housed in
a smaller dome than a long-tube refractor.

In refracting telescope, the aperture of objective should be very large to

make the image of a distance object bright. But in lenses of large aperture
and large focal length there arise spherical and chromatic aberrations.
Moreover it is difficult to prepare lenses of large aperture and they are very
costly. That is why in reflecting telescope concave mirror of large aperture
is used in place of convex lens. By the use of concave mirror, the defect of
chromatic aberration is completely removed but the defect of spherical
aberration still exists. To remove the spherical aberration too, the
paraboloidal mirror is used in place of objective lens.

Construction : It consists of a concave mirror of large aperture and large

focal length fitted at one end of a wide tube. This mirror is
called objective. The other end of tube is open and is directed towards the
distant object. The tube carries a plane mirror M2 which is placed just
before the principal focus of concave mirror and is inclined at an angle 45°
to the principal axis of concave mirror M1 There is a narrow tube arranged
in the side of wide tube. This tube carries a convex lens E of small aperture
and small focal length. This lens E is called eye-piece. The eye-piece may be
moved to and far in the tube.

Working : Suppose AB is a distant object. The rays starting from AB fall on

concave mirror M1 The reflected rays move towards principal focus
of M1 but before being focussed they are reflected by plane mirror M2 The
rays reflected from mirror M2 form real, diminished image A'B' This image
acts as an object for eye-piece E and its position is adjusted between eye-
piece and its first principal focus. The eye-piece forms a magnified virtual
image A''B'' Thus the final image A''B'' formed by telescope is magnified.
Fig. (a) represents Newtonian telescope. Cassegrain modified Newtonian
telescope by using a convex secondary mirror to focus the rays coming
from large objective mirror. The rays reflected from convex mirror pass
through a hole in the objective mirror fig. (b). It is known as cassegrain
telescope after its inventor.

Magnifying Power : The magnifying power (M) of a telescope is the ratio

of angle (β) subtended by final image on eye to the angle (α) subtended by
object on eye.

This may be calculated just as for refracting telescope. If f0 is the focal

length of objective concave mirror and fe the focal length of eye-piece and
final image is formed at distance of distinct vision, then magnifying power

But if the final image is formed at infinity, then magnifying power,

Modern reflecting telescope uses a paraboloidal mirror objective to remove

spherical aberration.