06/09/2012

Turbulence

MIE1207
September, 2012

Course organization
• Lectures
• Marks
– Class participation – 10%
– Final Presentation – 30%
– Final Paper – 60%
• All materials on BB – Make sure to get WK George Paper
• Sign up for the ERCOFTAC Classic Database -
http://cfd.mace.manchester.ac.uk/ercoftac/
• Or, for the SIG15 Test Cases -
http://www.ercoftac.org/fileadmin/user_upload/bigfiles/sig1
5/database/index.html

What is turbulence
• Turbulence is:
– chaotic.
– Is it random?
– Must have a restricted range to satisfy the
conservation equations.
• How to define a turbulent flow?
– flow must be time dependent.
– The velocity fluctuations should not correlate in any
way with some imposed time dependence in the
motion

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What is turbulence
• From NASA.gov

What is turbulence
• Visualization

What is turbulence

Hurricane Fran (Picture of the week, Princeton University

www.princeton.edu/~asmits)

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Wow, I will be able to solve these

complex flow situations!!
• Not quite
– This course will examine simpler flows
• Jets
• Boundary Layers
• Mixing Layers

Jet Flow

Album of Flow Visualization

1983 J. KURIMA, N. KASAGI and M. HIRATA

Boundary Layer Flows

Album of Flow Visualization 1980 Y. IRITANI, N. KASAGI

and M. HIRATA

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Flow near walls

Album of Flow Visualization 1980 Y. IRITANI, N. KASAGI

and M. HIRATA

Why is this important

• It is important to understand simplemodels,
they can give insight to complex flow

Small scale of turbulence

Images are of Black Fly

Larvae
From D.A. Craig, University
of Alberta, Biology
Department

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Small scale of turbulence

From D.A. Craig, University

of Alberta, Biology
Department

Background

MATHEMATICS

Start with the basics

• Fluid mechanics deals with transport processes,
especially with the flow- and molecule-dependent
momentum transports in fluids.
• Thermodynamic properties include:
– pressure,
– density,
– temperature and
– internal energy
• The thermodynamic properties of state of a fluid are
scalars and as such can be introduced into the
equations for the mathematical description of fluid
flows.

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Tensors - Basics
• However, in addition to scalars, other kinds of
quantities are also required for the description of
fluid flows.
• Fluid mechanics result in conservation equations
for
– mass,
– momentum,
– energy and
– chemical species
which comprise scalar, vector and other tensor
quantities.

Tensors - Basics
• Often fundamental differentiations are made between such quantities,
without considering that the quantities can all be described as tensors of
different orders.
• Hence one can write:
Scalar quantities - tensors of zero order a  a
Vector quantities - tensors of first order ai   ai
Tensor quantities - tensors of second order aij  aij
• where the number of the chosen indices i, j, k, l, m, n of the tensor
presentation designates the order and ‘a’ can be any quantity under
consideration.
• We can look at more complex quantities, such as tensors of third or even
higher order, if this becomes necessary (and it will)

Tensors – Zero Order

• Scalars require both amount and unit

kN
P  101.3
m2
T  103K Units
Amount kg
  998
m3

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Addition of Scalars
• Physical quantities that have the same
dimension can be added with the common
dimension being maintained:
N

 a  a a  AmountsUnits
1

a  b   a  b a or b where a   b

Properties
• a is a real number
• Defined as:
a   a, if a  0
a  a, if a  0

More definitions
• Further
 a a a a  a ab  a b
a a
 if b  0
b b
a  b  b  a  b

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Properties
• Triangular inequality

From  a  a  a and  b  b  b
ab  a  b
• The commutative and associative laws of addition
and multiplication of scalar quantities are
generally known and need not be dealt with here
any further

Multiplication and Division

• Multiplications or divisions create new
physical quantities are created.
• These are again scalars,

ab   a b a b
a  a   a  

b  b   b 

Multiplication and Division

• Operating on a typical term:
N 
PV  P V  2 m3   P V N m  P V Joules 
m 
 N m3   Nm   J 
P Q  P Q  2   P Q   P Q  sec   P Q Watts 
 m sec   sec   

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Tensors of First Order (Vectors)

• Force, velocity, momentum, angular
momentum, etc., are examples for vectorial
quantities.
• Graphically, vectors are represented by
arrows, whose length indicates the amount
and the position of the arrow origin and the
arrowhead indicates the direction.

Vectors
• The derivable analytical
description of vectorial
quantities makes use of
the indication of a
vector component
projected on to the axis
of a coordinate system,
and the indication of the
direction is shown by
the signs of the resulting
vector components.

Vector representation
• To represent the velocity vector {Ui}in a
Cartesian coordinate system, the
components Ui(i = 1, 2, 3) are:
 U1   cos 1 
    
U  U i   U 2   U cos  2 
U  cos  
 3  3 Unit
Direction
m
Leading to : U i   U  cos  i  
 sec 
Amount

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Velocity Vectors
• Looking at figure more closely  
U1  U1  e1
 
U 2  U 2  e2
 
U 3  U 3  e3

Vector Operations
• Adding vectors

a1 b1 a1  b1
 
a  b  ai  bi   a2  b2  a2  b2
a3 b3 a3  b3

Vector Definitions
• Vectorial quantities with different units cannot
be added or subtracted vectorially.
• For the addition and subtraction of vectorial
constants
a1 01 a1  01
  
a  0  ai  0i   a2  0 2  a2  0 2  a (zero vector or neutral element)
a3 03 a3  03
a1  a1 01
  
a   a   ai   ai   a2   a2  0 2  0 )(a element inverse to - a)
a3  a3 03
   
a  b  b  a (Commutative Law)
     
   
a  b  c  a  b  c (Associative Law)

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Vector Products
• The scalar product a · b of the vectors a
and b is defined as

   
   a  b  cos( a , b ) if a  0 and b  0
a b    
 0 if a  0 or b  0
• where the following mathematical rules hold:
        
a  b  b  a a  b  0  if a  b
  
   
 a   b  a  b   a  b a  a  a
 

   
a b c a c b c


Cartesian -
• When the vectors a and b are represented in
a Cartesian coordinate system, the following
simple rules arise for the scalar product (a·b)
and for cos(a, b):

• The above equations hold for a, b ≠ 0 .

Especially the directional cosines in a
Cartesian coordinate system are calculated as

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Vector Product
• The vector product a × b of the vectors a and
b has the following properties

• a×b = 0, if a = 0 or b = 0 or a is parallel to b.
• For the vector product, the associative law
does not hold in general:
a  b  c   a  b c

Vector Product

Vector Products
• Where the vector product is

• Or

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Scalar triple product

• And – defining the
scalar triple product

• Paralleliped triple
product

• It is easy to show that for the STP

• For the vector triple product a × b × c, the

following relation holds

Tensors – Second Order

• Tensors of second order can be formulated as matrices
with nine elements:

• In the matrix element aij ,

– the index i represents the number of the row and
– j represents the number of the column, and
– the elements designated with i = j are referred to as the
diagonal elements of the matrix.
• A tensor of second order is called symmetrical when aij = aji
holds.
• The unit Kronecker delta:

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• The transposed tensor of {aij} is formed by

exchanging the rows and columns of the
tensor: {aij}T = {aji}.
• When doing so, it is apparent that the
transposed unit tensor of second order is
again the unit tensor, i.e. δijT = δij .

• The sum or difference of two tensors of

second order is defined as a tensor of second
order whose elements are formed from the
sum or difference of the corresponding ij
elements of the initial tensors:

• Product of scalar and tensor

Product of vector and tensor

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Vector and tensor notation

• This can be written as

Fluid Properties
• In fluid mechanics, it is
usual to present
thermodynamic state
quantitiesof fluids,
such as density ρ,
pressure P,
temperature T and
internal energy e, as a
function of space and
time,
• To each point P(x1, x2,
x3) = P(xi) a value
– ρ(xi, t), P(xi, t), T (xi,
t), e(xi, t), etc., is
assigned

Fluid Properties
• It is assumed that in each point in space the
thermodynamic connections between the
state quantities hold, as for example the state
equations:

𝝆 = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 State equation for

thermodynamically ideal
liquids
𝑃 State equation for
= 𝑅𝑇
𝜌 thermodynamically ideal gases

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• Properties of the flows can be

described by introducing the
velocity vector, i.e. its
components, as functions of
space and time
• Furthermore, the local
rotation of the flow field can
be included as a field
quantity, as well as the mass
forces and mass acceleration
acting locally on the fluid.

• Thus the velocity Uj = Uj(xi, t), the rotation ωj =

ωj(xi, t), the force Kj = Kj(xi, t) and the
acceleration gj(xi, t) can be stated as field
quantities.
• In an analogous manner, tensors of second and
higher order can also be introduced as field
variables, for example, τij(xi, t), which is the
molecule dependent momentum transport
existing at a point in space, i.e. at the point P(xi)
at time t

• The properties introduced as field variables

into the above considerations represented
tensors of zero order (scalars), tensors of first
order (vectors) and tensors of second order.
• They are employed in fluid mechanics to
describe fluid flows and the corresponding
fluid description is usually attributed to Euler
(1707–1783).

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• In this description, all quantities considered in

the representations of fluid mechanics are
dealt with as functions of space and time.
• Mathematical operations such as addition,
subtraction, division, multiplication,
differentiation and integration, that are
applied to these quantities, are subject to the
known laws of mathematics.

Einstein notation
• The differentiation of a scalar field, for
example the density ρ(xi, t), gives

• In the last term, the summation symbol was

omitted and Einstein’s summation convention
was used

Einstein Notation
• Differentiation is indicated as:

• As the considered velocity vector depends on

the space location xi and the time t, the
following differentiation law holds:

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Notation - Nabla ∇
• the Nabla or Del operator:

• Applying this to a scalar – a vector results

• The Nabla or Del operator ∇ results in a vector

field deduced from the gradient field.

Nabla
• The scalar product of the ∇ operator with a
vector yields a scalar quantity, i.e. when (∇·)
applied to a vector quantity results in

• Here, in ∂ai/∂xi the subscript i again indicates

summation over all three terms, i.e.

Nabla – Vector Product

• Vector Product

• Or...

The Levi–Civita symbol eijk

is also called the alternating
unit tensor

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Nabla
• If one applies the ∇ operator to the gradient
field of a scalar function, the Laplace operator
∇ 2 (alternative notation Δ) results.

• For a vector

Substantial Quantities and Substantial

Derivative
• Let’s derive the basic equations in terms of substantial
quantities.
• Named after Lagrange (1736–1813) and is based on
considerations of properties of fluid elements.
• The state quantities of a fluid element such as the
density ρ, the pressure P, the temperature T and the
energy e are employed for the derivation of the laws of
fluid motion.
• To measure or describe these properties of a fluid
element in a field, one has to move with the element,
i.e. one has to follow the path of the element

• As the path of a fluid element is only a function of

time t and an initial space coordinate xi, the
substantial quantities, i.e. the thermodynamic state
quantities of a fluid element can also only be
functions of time.
• The total differentials of all substantial quantities can
be formulated as

the change of position of a

fluid element R with time the substantial velocity of a fluid element

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• If a fluid element is positioned at time t at

location xi, then (Ui)R = Ui results and from this
arises the final equation of the substantial
derivative of a field variable Da/Dt

• From this

Substantial Derivative

Gradient, Divergence, Rotation and

Laplace Operators
• a(xi, t) represents a scalar field, i.e. it is
defined or given as a function of space and
time.
• The gradient field of the scalar ‘a’ can be
assigned the following components at each
point in a space:

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• The grad(a) vectors exhibit directions which

are perpendicular to the lines of a = constant
of the considered scalar field, i.e.
perpendicular to a(xi, t) = constant.
• Furthermore, the Laplace operator can be
assigned to each scalar field a(xi, t) ⇒ Δa(xi, t)
(J.S. Laplace (1749–1827)).
• Here, Δa(xi, t) is a scalar field, e.g. to each
space point the quantity Δ(a) is assigned

• Also we can write:

• Defining Div and Rot

• Here, div U is a scalar field and rot or curl U

are vector fields.
• When U is a velocity field, the value of div U
describes the temporal change of the volume
δV of a fluid element with constant mass δm

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• If the density ρ = constant is included, div(ρU)

implies a mass density source at the point xi
at time t.
• Correspondingly, rot (U) or curl (U) represent
the vortex density of the velocity field at the
point xi at time t.
• If curl (U) = 0, a fluid element at the point xi,
and at time t, experiences no contribution to
its rotation by the velocity field.
Skip Ahead

• For rot (U) ≠0 at time t and at point xi, a fluid element consequently experiences,
at the corresponding point, a contribution to its rotational motion.
• In summary
𝜕𝑎
𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑎 = = 𝛻𝑎
𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑈𝑖
𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝑈 = 𝛻 ∙ 𝑈𝑖 =
𝜕𝑥𝑖
2
𝜕 𝜕𝑎 𝜕2𝑎
∆𝑎 = 𝛻 𝑎 = 𝛻 ∙ 𝛻𝑎 = =
𝜕𝑥𝑖 𝜕𝑧𝑖 𝜕𝑥𝑖 𝜕𝑧𝑖
𝜕𝑈𝑗
𝑟𝑜𝑡 𝑈 = 𝛻 × 𝑈 = 𝜀𝑖𝑗𝑘
𝜕𝑥𝑖

ed for the derivation of the basic equations of fluid mechanics and also when

Line, Surface and Volume Integrals

• The line integral of a scalar function a(xi, t) along
a line S is defined as:

• Line integrals of this kind are required in fluid

mechanics to define the position of the “center of
gravity” of a line.
• Their computation is carried out in three steps for
t = constant

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• The viewed curve is parameterized

• The arched element ds is defined by

differentiation

• The computation of the defined integral from

γ = α to γ = β:

• The application of the above steps for the

computation of the defined integral leads for
a = 1 to the length of the considered curve s(γ)
between γ = α and γ = β
• The integration of a vector field along a curve
can be carried out in the following way

• Analogous to the integrals along lines or along

line segments, space integrals for scalar and
vectors can also be defined and computed

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• If F is the surface area of a considered fluid

element and a(xi, t) a scalar field, that is
continuous on the surface, the above integral
as the surface integral is named from a to F.
• The surface-averaged value of a is computed
as follows

• For the surface integral of a vector field holds

that

• For the case ai = Ui, i.e. the execution of a surface

integration over the velocity field, an integral value is
obtained that corresponds to the instantaneous
volume flow through the surface F:

• Analogously, the mass flow through F is

computed by

• The mean mass flow density is given by

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• If V designates the volume of a regular field

and a(xi, t) a steady scalar field (occupation
function) given in this space, the total
occupancy of the space is computed as follows

• The mass of a regular space with the density

distribution ρ(xi, t) results in the following
triple integral of the density distribution ρ(xi,
t):

variables with ~ ^
and symbols indicate
surface- and volume-averaged quantities

• The mass of a regular space with the density

distribution ρ(xi, t) results in the following
triple integral of the density distribution ρ(xi,
t):

variables with ~ ^
and symbols indicate
surface- and volume-averaged quantities

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• For the practical implementation of surface and volume integrations,

• Law of Guldin (1577–1643): The surface area of a body with rotational
• symmetry is

with ds denoting an arc element of the plane curve s generating the body
and r(s) denoting the distance of s from the axis of rotation.
• Law of Guldin (1577–1643): The volume of a body with rotational
symmetry is:

with dF denoting an area element of the area enclosed by the plane curve
s generating the body and rs(F) denoting the distance of dF from the axis
of rotation.

Integral Laws of Stokes and Gauss

• The integral law named after Stokes (1819–1903)

• the line integral of a vector a over the entire edge line of a surface is equal
to the surface integral of the corresponding rotation of the vector quantity
over the surface.
• Thus the integral law of Stokes represents a generalization of Green’s law
(1793–1841), which was formulated for plane surfaces, i.e. for “spatial
areas”.

• If one stretches two different surfaces over a boundary of surface S,

Stokes’ law gives

• where S is equal to the stretching quantities of OS1 and OS2 .

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• If one introduces

• the term of circulation of a vector field U

along a boundary S employing the mean-
value law of the integral calculus from the rot
integral of velocity field Ui over a surface OS
with normal n, surface area F and boundary
curve S, the surface integral of the vector field
U when F → 0

• The integral law named after Gauss

• Thus the flow of the vector field a(xi, t) through

the surface of a regular space, i.e. the flow “from
the inside to the outside”, is equal to the volume
integral of the divergence over the space.
• The mean-value theorem of the integral calculus
for V → 0 and consideration of a velocity field Ui
give

Averaging and moments

STATISTICS

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Things to think about

• The real motion depends upon time t, a
parameter not appearing in the problem as
posed, should be cause for careful
deliberation.
• Also, determined experimentally when the
Reynolds number is greater than some critical
value, flow will become turbulent.

Ensemble Average
• If you have a group of independent statistical
events – you can take the arithmetic average
1
𝑋𝑁 = 𝑥𝑛
𝑁
𝑁

• If you have a lot of time – you might be able to

determine the ensemble average
𝑁
1
𝑋 =< 𝑥 >= lim 𝑥𝑛
Expected 𝑁 𝑁→∞
𝑛=1
value or Okay – no one has this
Mean amount of time – Still
helpful

Ensemble
averaging will
work in many
different flows –
periodic or non-
stationary –
where time
averaging fails

𝑈 𝑥𝑖 , 𝑡 =< 𝑢 𝑥𝑖 , 𝑡 >
𝑁
1
= lim 𝑢𝑛 𝑥𝑖 , 𝑡
𝑁 𝑁→∞
𝑛=1

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Time Series
0.6
𝑣𝑎𝑟 𝑢 =< 𝑢2 > =< 𝑈 − 𝑈)2 > <𝑢 >= 0
𝑁 < 𝑢2 > ≠ 0
1
0.4 = lim (𝑈𝑛 − 𝑈)2
𝑁 𝑁→∞

0.2
𝑛=1
u U
Velocity

-0.2

-0.4

-0.6
Time

U U u Reynolds decomposition

Ensemble Averaging
𝑣𝑎𝑟 𝑢 =< 𝑢2 > =< 𝑈 − 𝑈)2 >
𝑁
1
= lim (𝑈𝑛 − 𝑈)2
𝑁 𝑁→∞
𝑛=1
𝑁
1
= lim (𝑈 2 − 2𝑈𝑈 + 𝑈𝑈)
𝑁 𝑁→∞
𝑛=1

Variance is the second moment minus the square of the first moment

Comparison of Signals
Same mean, Different variance
6

-2

-4

-6

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Higher order moments

This is the
mth 𝑁
1
moment < 𝑥 𝑚 > = lim (𝑥𝑛 )𝑚
𝑁→∞ 𝑁
𝑛=1
𝑁
1
< 𝑢𝑚 > =< 𝑈 − 𝑈 > = lim (𝑈 − 𝑈)𝑚
𝑁→∞ 𝑁
𝑛=1

This is the
mth central
moment

Should see that variance is the

second central moment

Skewness is the 3rd central moment

Kurtosis is the 4th central moment

Same Mean Same Variance

Different Skewness and Kurtosis
0.6

0.4
Same mean and variance – but higher
moments are not the same
0.2

-0.2

-0.4

-0.6

Histograms Changed the

frequency of
sine to fill in
histogram –
problem of
Random Noise Sine sampling rate

Frequency 450
140
400

120 350

300
100

250
80
200

60 150

100
40

50
20
0
-0.5 -0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
0
-50

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continuous probabilities

0.22
.2
total area under curve = 1
p but
the probability of any single
value = 0
.1

 interested in the probability

assoc. w/ intervals

0
0.00
-5 5

4-2 Probability Distributions and

Probability Density Functions

Figure 4-1 Density function of a loading on a long, thin beam.

4-2 Probability Distributions and

Probability Density Functions

Figure 4-2 Probability determined from the area under f(x).

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4-2 Probability Distributions and

Probability Density Functions

Definition

4-2 Probability Distributions and

Probability Density Functions

Figure 4-3 Histogram approximates a probability density function.

4-2 Probability Distributions and

Probability Density Functions

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4-2 Probability Distributions and

Probability Density Functions

Example 4-2

4-2 Probability Distributions and

Probability Density Functions

Figure 4-5 Probability density function for Example 4-2.

4-2 Probability Distributions and

Probability Density Functions

Example 4-2 (continued)

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𝐵𝑥 𝑐 = lim
𝐻(𝑐, ∆𝑐, 𝑁) Histogram
𝑁→∞ ∆𝑐
∆𝑐→0
𝐵𝑥 𝑐 > 0 f(x,x)/x
𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑏{𝑐 < 𝑥 < 𝑐 + 𝑑𝑐} = 𝐵𝑥 𝑐
𝑥
𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑏 𝑐 < 𝑥 = 𝐵𝑥 𝑐 𝑑𝑐
−∞
∞ B(x)
𝐵𝑥 𝑐 𝑑𝑐 = 1
−∞

x

Useful rules
U V  U V

a is a constant
aU  aU
a a
U 
 U 
xi xi

Basic rules of averaging (continued):

1. U  U ;
2. u '  0;
4. U v '  0;
5. U V  U  V ;
6. UV  U  V  u 'v ' ;
7. UVW  U V W  U  v ' w'  V  u ' w'
 W  u 'v ' u 'v ' w' ;

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U U u '
7.  ; 0;
x j x j x j
U U
8.  ;
t t
9.  Uds   U ds

Turbulence

ui  ui' 2

ui' 2
or e 
ui

Averaging
• For a temporal mean, denoted by the overbar
• For this to work, must meet certain
characteristics.
• What are they??

T
1
U i   U i dt
2T T

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1. Temporal averaging:
T
 1 t 
A ( x, t ) 
T 
t
T
2
2
A( x , t )dt '

T : Time Period , T1  T  T2

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2. Spatial averaging:
X
 1 x0  
A ( x , t )  lim
x  X x0 
X
2
2
A( x , t )dxi

More strictly,
 1 
A ( x, t ) 
V  
A( x , t )dv

3. Ensemble averaging:
 1 N 
A ( x, t )   Aj ( x, t )
N j 1
Define the probability density
function
f ( Aj )

A   A j f (A j )dA


Reynolds averaging

EQUATIONS OF MOTION

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Equations of Motion
Start with conservation of mass:
Steady  
Flow  ui  0
t xi
 ui u1 u2 u3
 ui  0   
xi xi x1 x2 x3
ui
0 Remember for repeating indices –

xi
summation on all components

D   Don’t forget
  uEquations of Motion
Dt t x j
j

• Momentum equation ui

0
DUi  ij xi
  Fi 
Dt x j  ij   P ij  2  eij  1  ij U k 
 
xk 
 3
1  U U j 
eij   i  
2  x j xi 

DUi P  2U i
  Fi  
Dt xi x j x j

More on Reynolds’ decomposition

• Consider

U i  U i  ui 
• But average of an average is the average

U i  U i  ui
U i  U i  ui
 ui  0

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Conservation of Mass
U i
0
xi
U i

xi xi


U i  ui 
U i

xi xi


U i  ui 

xi
 
U i  ui  
U i
xi
U i U i u
  0 i
xi xi xi

Momentum equation
 U i U i  P  2U i
  U j  
 t x j  xi x j x j

Equation 1-1

ui  U i  ui'
Let
p  P  p'

ui Instantaneous value

Ui Mean flow value

ui' Fluctuation value

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Decomposition of individual terms

U i 
t
 U i  ui
t
 
U i ui
 
t t
U i

t

Convection term

Uj
U i
x j

 U j uj

x j
 
U i  ui 
U j

x j
 
U i  ui  u j

x j

U i  ui 
   
U j Ui  U j ui  u j Ui  u j ui
x j x j x j x j

zero

  
Uj Ui  UiU j Ui Uj
x j x j x j
 
Uj Ui  UiU j
x j x j

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Convection term
   
Uj Ui U j ui  u j Ui  u j ui
x j x j x j x j
   
U j Ui  ui U j  U iu j  ui u j
x j x j x j x j
   
U j Ui  ui U j  U iu j  ui u j
x j x j x j x j
 
U j Ui  ui u j
x j x j

Pressure term

P 
 P  p 
xi xi
P p P
  
xi xi xi

Viscosity term

 2U i

2
x j x j x j x j

U i  ui 
 2U i

x j x j

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Averaged Momentum (N-S) equation

 U i    P  2U i
  U j Ui  ui u j   


 t x j x j  xi x j x j

Equation 1-2

6. Reynolds Stress
Comparing Navier-Stokes equation and
Reynolds equation , there is an extra
term in the Reynolds equation



x j
uu , '
i
'
j

And this term comes from the

nonlinearity of the convective
acceleration.

Reynolds stress

 ij   ui' u 'j

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Reynolds Stress
• Result from the reaction of the flow to the mean rate of transfer of
momentum across fluid surfaces due to velocity fluctuations
• Reynolds stresses are affected by viscosity, but stress terms represent
convective transport of fluctuating momentum
• From stress tensor, it contains both normal (i=j) along diagonal and
tangential components (i not equal j)

• Consider a surface element

– size ds, perpendicular to x-direction
– moves with mean flow velocity
– resulting realized velocity u = u'
– flow moving from left to right, u'>0
• Thus, <u'2> =<(u')u'> is average momentum transported
across ds
• From Newton's law, reacting force is negative, thus
– 'xx = -<u'2>
• Fluid element is compressed

Total Stress:
Tij   p ij  2  eij   ui' u 'j

1  U U j 
eij   i 
2  x j xi 
Turbulence
Pressure: 1
pt   ui' ui'
3

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Can we do more to this equation?

 U i U i  P  2U i
  U j  
 t x j  xi x j x j

 U i    P  2U i
  U j Ui  ui u j   


 t x j x j  xi x j x j

Equation 1-1 subtracted from Equation 1-2

Equation for fluctuating terms of the

NS equation

 ui u U j 
   p    ui
2
  U j i  ui
 t x j x j  xi x j x j




uiu j    ij
x j x j

Could we use this for transport of

kinetic energy?
• Sure, no problem
– Just multiply by ui

  u  
   i  U ui  u U j    p    ui
2

  t j
x
i
x   x  x x 
ui    
j j i j j

   ij 
   u u   
x j x j 
i j


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Kinetic Energy equation

Production of turbulence/unit mass
due to Reynolds stress working with Viscous dissipation
1 mean shear per unit mass
q  ui ui
2
2
 q   u 
  U j q   ui u j U i    ui  j 
 t x j  x j 2  x j xi 

   u u j    
1     2
  pu i    u j  x  x    2 ui u j 
i
 xi   j 
i 
 

Transport of kinetic energy per

unit area through pressure, Why do I have a higher order term to
viscous stresses and turbulent deal with?
diffusion

• Closure Problem
• Semi-empirical theory

(Boussinesq , Prandtl , G.I.Taylor,

Von Karman)

Background
Boussinesq suggested that there should be
an analog to the viscosity in the laminar
shear stress for turbulence

where L and T are shear stress in laminar

and turbulent cases
Note that the turbulent viscosity is a
property of flow not fluid

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Mixing Length
Prandtl assumed that this eddy viscosity
was a product of a mixing length and a
suitable velocity
Borrowed from kinetic gas theory in which
the Kinetic viscosity is the product of the
mean free path and the rms of the
fluctuating velocity
Prandtl assumed that lumps of fluids moved
in longitudinal and transverse directions,
retaining their momenta parallel to the x-
axis

Plane flow

Consider plane, incompressible and

steady mean flow over a wall
Define a mixing length as l

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一. Eddy Viscosity Coefficient

2-D parallel shear flow
U  U ( y)

U
Txy     u 'v '
y
U
 t    u 'v '   T
y

Boussinesq, 1877
U
 t    u 'v '   T
y

T  Eddy Viscosity
Turbulent Viscosity

 U i U j 
 t   T   
 x
 j xi 

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T is not the physical

parameter of fluids , it
is depending the flow
field.

There are some inconsistence for eddy

viscosity.  U U j 
 ui' u 'j   T  i  
 x j xi 

2 U1
i  j  1  u1'  2 T ,
x1
2 U 2
i  j  2  u2'  2 T ,
x2
2 U 3
i  j  3  u3'  2 T ,
x3

Problems
• Big problem - near the wall the fluctuations
are zero, according to Prandtl, therefore
shearing stress is zero
• Experiments (and thought) show that the
shearing stress is non-zero
• One property that might be interesting to look
at is vorticity

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2 2 U i
2
u1'  u2'  u3'  2 T 0
xi
This is not reasonable!

1  U i U j 
 ui' u 'j  q 2   T   
3  x j xi 
 
2 2 2
q 2  u1'  u2'  u3'

二. Prandtl Mixing Length Theory

• Kinetic Theory of Gas
• Momentum Transport
• Molecular motion and collisions

• Turbulence
  0.499c 
  Mean free path

Random motion  Momentum Transport

Consider the parallel shear flow

q ( y)
y
v'
y l
q ( y  l)

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dq
q '  q ( y  l )  q ( y )  l
dy
Flux of momentum:
dq
J    v 'l
dy
Reynolds stress:
dq
J    v 'l l  Mixing length
dy

Prandtl (1925)
Momentum transportation of x
component
dU
u '  U ( y  l )  U ( y )  l
dy
2 dU
u'  l2
dy
2 dU
 u ' ~ v' v' ~ l2
dy

Define the correlation function

v 'l
R( y ) 
2
v'  l 2
dU
 t    u 'v '   v 'l
dy
dU dU
 R ( y ) l 2 l2
dy dy
dU dU
 lm2
dy dy
lm  Mixing length

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dU
  t  T
dy
dU
  T  lm2
dy
lm2 can only be determined by
experiments!

Boundary Layer:
Inner region:lm  ky , k  0.4 ~ 0.41
Outer region:lm   ,   0.075 ~ 0.09
  (Boundary Layer
thickness)
Free Turbulence :
Wake of circular cylinder
lm  0.4b

Modification ( Prandtl ,1942 )

1
 2 2 2
2  dU  ' d U  
2
 T  lm    lm  2 
 dy   dy  

lm'  auxiliary mixing length

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• Vorticity Transportation Theory

(G.I.Taylor, 1915)
• Von Karman Similarity Theory
( V.Karman, 1930)

Why worry about

equations of motion?

a. Reynolds Averaging Equations

U i
0 ①
xi
U i U 1 p 1   U i 
U j i       ui' u 'j  ②
t x j  xi  x j  x j 


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b. Equation of fluctuation
variables
ui'
0 ③
xi
ui'
t
u '
 U k i  uk'
xk
U i

xk xk
 ' '
ui uk  ui' uk'   ④

1 p '  2ui'
 
 xi xk xk

1, Equation of Reynolds Stress

Corresponding to eqn ④ , we have

u 'j
t
Uk
u 'j
xk
 uk'
U j
xk

xk

 ' '
u j uk  u 'j uk' 
1 p '  2u 'j
  ⑤
 x j xk xk

'
Multiplying ④ by u j , we obtain

u 'j
ui' ' ui' ' ' U i '  ' ' ' '
t
 u jU k
xk
 u j uk
xk
uj
xk
ui u k  ui u k  
1 p '  2ui'
  u 'j   u 'j ⑥
 x j xk xk

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'
Multiplying ⑤ by u j , we obtain

ui'
u 'j
t
 ui'U k
u 'j
xk
 ui' uk'
U j
xk
 ui'
xk

 ' '
u j uk  u 'j uk' 
'  uj
2 '
1 ' p '
  ui  ui ⑦
 x j xk xk

Add Eqn ⑥ and Eqn ⑦ , then averaging ,

t
 
 ' '
ui u j  U k
 ' '  ' ' U i
xk
 
ui u j   u j uk
xk
 ui'uk'
U j 

xk 


 ui'
 ' '
xk

u j uk  u 'j  ' '
xk
ui uk  ui'

 
xk
 u 'j uk'  
 u 'j

xk

 ui'uk' 
1  ' p ' ' p '   '  2ui'  2u 'j 
 uj  ui   j
u  u '
 ⑧
  xi x j   xk xk xk xk 
i

Pay attention to the following formula:

 
ui'
xk

u 'j uk'  u 'j
xk

ui' uk'  
u 'j ui' 
uu ' '
i k
xk
 u 'j uk'
xk
 uk'
xk
ui' u 'j  

 uk'

xk
  u '
ui' u 'j  ui' u 'j k 
 ' ' '
xk xk
ui u j u k  

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and

ui'

xk
 
 u 'j uk'  0 , u 'j

xk

 ui' uk'  0 

Then eqn ⑧ is

t
 
 ' '
ui u j  U k
 ' '
xk
 
ui u j


  ui' uk'

U j
xk
 u 'j uk' 
xk  xk

U i   ' ' '
ui u j u k 
1  ' p ' p '   '  2ui'  2u 'j 
 uj  ui'   u j  ui' 
  xi x j   xk xk xk xk 

Pressure term :

1  ' p ' p '  

uj
  xi
 ui' 
x j  xk
 p'
 ' ' 
  ik u j   jk ui  
 

p '  u j ui' 
'
 
  xi x j 

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Viscous term:
  2ui'  2u 'j 
 u 'j  ui' 
 xk xk xk xk 
   u '  u ' u '   ' u j  ui' u j 
' '

   u 'j i   j i  ui  
 
 xk  xk  xk xk xk  xk  xk xk 
    u 'j    ' u 'j  ui' u 'j 
    
ui'u 'j  ui'   ui 2
xk  xk  xk  xk xk 

 xk  xk 
  2
 
' 
u u j 
'
  ui'u 'j  2 i 
 
 k k
x x xk xk 


Governing equation of the Reynolds Stress:

t
 
 ' '
ui u j  U k

xk
ui' u 'j  Pij
Dij
 ij
 U j U i  e ij
  ui' u k'  u 'j u k' 
 x k xk 


u u u  p   
 
'
 ' ' '
u 'j   jk ui'   ui' u 'j
xk xk
i j k ik

p  u j ui' 
  2 ui
u 'j
' ' '
  
  xi x j 
 xk xk

 Pij  Dij   ij  e ij

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Pij  production term :

 U j U i 
Pij   ui' u k'  u 'j u k' 
 x k x k 

Dij  Diffusion term :

 
Dij  
xk
 ' ' ' p'
ui u j uk 


 ik u 'j   jk ui' 




 ' ' 
xk
 
ui u j 


 ij  pressure  strain  rate term :

p '  ui' u j 
'

 ij   
  x j xi 

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e ij  Dissipation term :
ui' u j
'

e ij  2
xk xk

2, Kinetic energy of the mean flow

Incompressible viscous fluid,
steady flow.
Reynolds Equation:

U i  1 
Uj   Tij  ①
x j x j  
where Tij   p ij  2 Sij   ui' u 'j

1  U i U j 
Sij  
2  x j xi 

Multiply ① by U i ,

U i
U iU j  Ui

Tij    U iTij   Tij U i ②
x j x j x j x j

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Noticing that
U i 1 U 1 U i 1 U i
Tij  Tij  Tij  i  Tij  Tij
x j 2 x j 2 x j 2 x j
1 U i 1 U j 1  U i U j 
 Tij  T ji  T ji 
2 x j 2 xi 2  x j xi 
 Tij Sij

We have
 1 
U j  U iU i 
x j  2 



x j
  
 P ij  2 S ij   ui' u 'j U i


  P ij S ij  2 S ij S ij  u u S 
'
i
'
j ij ③

At last , Dij
 1   ij
Uj  U iU i 
x j  2  Pij
  P 
   U j  2U i S ij  ui' u 'jU i 
x j   
 2S ij S ij  ui' u 'j S ij ④

 U i 
 Here P ij S ij  P ii S ii  P  0 
 xi 

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Dij :
Change of Kinetic energy by work
I Pressure work
II Work done by viscous stress
III Work done by Reynolds stress

 ij :  2Sij Sij

Energy dissipation by viscosity

Pij : Production term

Pij  ui' u 'j Sij

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Estimate the order of every terms :

u  Velocity scale ;
Length scale ;

l
U i u
~ , ui' u 'j ~ u 2 , Sij ~ u
x j l l

 Production term:

ui' u 'j S ij ~ u l S ij S ij
Energy Transport:

ui' u 'jU i ~ u l S ijU i

Ui
Diffusion : u  l Sij
l

 production  u l Sij Sij 1

O    Re
 vis cos ity  2 Sij Sij 2
Ui
 Diffusion  u l Sij l ul u
O    l  ul  1 Re
 vis cos ity  2 S S
ij ij 2 u  2
l

For high Reynolds flow , the effect of

viscosity is indirect!

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3. Kinetic Energy Equation

of the fluctuation
motion.
Reynolds Equation:
D ' '
Dt
 
ui u j  

xk

 ' ' '
ui u j u k 

p'


 ik u 'j   jk uk' 




xk
   
ui' u 'j    ui' u k'
 
U j
xk
 u 'j u k'
U i 
xk 


p '  U i U j 
  2 ui
' u '
 
j
  x j xi 
 x k x k

1 ' ' Kinetic Energy

Let i  j , k  ui ui
2
of Turbulence

D  
 ' p' ' k 
k    kuk  uk  
Dt xk 
  xk 

U i u ' u '
 ui'uk'  i i
xk xk xk

 k 
D
k      ' p' '
ku j  u j  


Dt x j 
  x j 

U i u ' ui'
 ui' u 'j  i
x j x j x j

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Analyze this equation term by term

Condition: Homogenous Turbulence


k
x j

k
x j


xi
 
ui' u 'j


 1 ' '
 ui ui   
x j  2  

x
 
ui' u 'j
i

 u ' u 'j  1  u ' u j

'

  ui' i
 ui'   2 ui'  i  
 x j xi  2  x j xi 


 2 ui' sij'

U i
ui' u 'j
x j
1 ' ' U i 1 ' ' U i
 ui u j  ui u j
2 x j 2 x j
1 ' ' U i 1 ' ' U j
 ui u j  u j ui
2 x j 2 xi

1 ' '  U i U j 
  ui' u 'j Sij
 ui u j 
2  x j xi 
 

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1 ui' ui'
2 x j x j


1 ui' ui' 1  2

2 x j x j 2 xi x j
ui' u 'j  
1 ui' ui' 1   ' ui' 
  uj
2 x j x j 2 xi  x j 

1 ui' ui' 1 
 u j ui  2ui' 
'

'
    u 'j 
2 x j x j 2  xi x j xi x j 
 

1 ui' ui' 1 u j ui'

'

 
2 x j x j 2 xi x j

1  ui' ui' u j ui' 

'

 
2  x j x j xi x j 
 
1  u ' ui' u j ui' ui' u j u j u j 
' ' ' '

  i   
4  x j x j xi x j x j xi xi xi 
 
1  ui' u j  ui' u 'j 
'

      sij' sij'
4  x j xi  x
 j xi



D  1 ' ' 1 ' ' ' ' ' 

(k )    p u j  ui ui u j  2 ui sij 
Dt x j  2 

 ui' u 'j Sij  2 sij' sij' Dij

Pij
e ij

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1
Dij : (1) p 'u 'j  Work done by the
 pressure gradient

(2)ui' u 'j u 'j  Kinetic energy transportation

by fluctuation.

(3)2 ui sij'  Energy transportation by

viscous stress

Pij  Production term:  ui' u 'j Sij

Viscous dissipation
e ij  2 sij' sij' deformation work

Steady , homogenous
turbulence

0
x j

0  P e

P e

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Estimate the order of the above equation.

S ij ~ u , ui' u 'j ~ u 2
l
P  e , c1u l sij sij  ~ 2sij' sij'
 sij' sij'  ul
O   Re  1
 S ij S ij  
 

sij' sij'  S ij S ij

Vorticity Dynamics of Turbulence

1. Vorticity and Rotation Tensor


Vorticity

u k
 i  e ijk
x j

Deformation Rate Tensor

ui 1  ui u j  1  ui u j 

   
x j 2  x j xi  2  x j xi 
 Sij  rij

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Sij  Strain Rate Tensor

rij  Rotation Tensor

 i  e ijk rkj
1
rij   e ijk  k
2

The Navier-Stokes equation is

ui 1 p 
uiu j    ui
2
 
t  xi x j x j x j

 

uiu j   u j ui  u j  ui  u j   u j u j
x j x j  x j xi  xi
 1 
 2u j rij   u ju j 
xi  2 
 1 
 e ijk u j k   u ju j  ,
xi  2 

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 2 ui   ui u j   u 
        j 
x j x j x j  x
 j xi 
 x j  xi 
  k
 2 rij  e ijk
x j x j

At last , we derive

ui  p 1  
    u j u j   e ijk u j k e ijk k
t xi   2  x j

Or rewrite it as


v p 1    
   v 2   v     
t   2 

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e ijk u j k plays important role in Turbulence.

 Vorticity Force

Choose i  1 , e ijk u j k  u2 3  u3 2

2
f 2  u3 2  u3

x2

 f1  u2 3 x1
3 x3
u2

2. Reynolds Stress and Vorticity

Consider the turbulence ,

Let  i  i   i'
and assume the flow is statistical stationary ,


0
t

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 p 1 1 
0   U jU j  u 'j u 'j 
xi  2 2 

   Ui
2
 e ijk U j  k  u 'j k'  
x j x j

For the 2-D , parallel shear flow,

U1  U 2 , U 3  0
 

x1 x2 U ( y)

U 2 U1 U
3     1
Vorticity

x1 x2 x2

Take i=1

 1  U U U
  U jU j   U1 1  U 2 2  U1 1
xi  2  x1 x1 x1
U1
e ijkU j  k  U 23  U 2
x2
U1 U p ' ' ' '
U1 U2 2    u2 3  u3 2 ①
x1 x1 x1

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Now from the Reynolds equation , we have

U1
U1
x1
U
U2 1  
x2
1 p  ' '

 x1 x1
u1u1 
 ' '
x2
   
u1u2


1 p 

 x x
u u  ② ' '
1 2
1 2

 ij  u u ' '
1 2
Reynolds Stress

Comparing the right-hand side of Eqn(1) and Eqn(2), we obtain


x2
 
 u1' u2'  u2'  3'  u3'  2'

Look at

U1
 u1u 2 ~ u l
x2

x2

 u1u 2 ~ u l 
 2U1
x22
u
l U1
x2 x2
 3 l
~ u l  u 3
x2 x2
① ②

① Vorticity Transportation
② Vortex Stretching

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3. Vorticity Dynamics Equation


Take a curl to Navier-Stokes equation.
e pqi
xq
 p 2  p 1 
 e pqi   u j u j 
t xi xq   2 
   k
 e pqie ijk u j k e pqie ijk
xq xq x j
 e pqie ijk   pj qk   pk  qj

 p 2 p 1 
  e pqi   u j u j 
t xi xq  2 
   2 k 
  pj qk   pk  qj  u j k   
 x xq x j 
 q 
u p  p  p
2

 k  uk 
xk xk xk xk

 i  i u  2 i
uj   j i 
t x j x j x j x j


     
 v        v   2
t

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Now check the term

ui
j   j S ij   j rij
x j
1
  j rij   e ijk  j k
2
1
  e ikj j k
2
1
 e ijk  j k (e ijk  e ikj )
2
  j rij  0

 i  i  2 i
uj   j S ij  
t x j x j x j

 j Sij  The change of vorticity produced by strain rate , among which

the most important contribution comes from vortex stretching .

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4. Vorticity in Turbulent Flow

Vorticity is decomposed as

i  i  i' ,
Then the Vorticity Dynamic Equation is

i ' i

   2 i
'
Uj  u j   j sij   j Sij 
' '

x j x j x j x j

Because of

 i  i' ui
0; 0; 0
xi xi xi
We have

uj
 i


x j x j

u j i 

 j Sij   j
ui


x j x j

 j ui 

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The Vorticity Dynamics Equation is

 i
Uj
x j


 ' '
x j
 
u j i 

x j
 
 'j ui'   j Sij  
 2i
x j x j

5. Enstrophy - i i
The governing equation is

Uj
 1 
 i i   
x j  2 

x j
 
 i i'u 'j  u 'ji'
 i
x j
2  1 
  i  j Sij   i  'j sij'   i i 
x j x j  2 
 i  i

x j x j

Term1: Transportation of mean vorticity by

the interaction of vorticity and fluctuation
velocity;
Term2: Production term;

Term3: Stretching or contraction of vorticity

by mean strain rate;

Term4: Stretching or contraction of vorticity

by fluctuation strain rate;

Term5: Viscous transportation;

Term6: Viscous dissipation;

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Equation of  i' i'

 1 ' ' ' '  1  ' ' '
Uj   i i   u j i i  u j i i
x j  2  x j 2 x j
  i' 'j sij'   i' 'j Sij   j  i' sij'
 2  1 ' '   i'  i'
   i i  
x j x j  2  x j x j

Statistical Theory of Turbulence

1. Introduction
A probabilistic description of turbulence

Kolmogorov theory (K41, K42)

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2. Correlation Function

ui

P' u 'j
P

u2 u2'
P u1 P ' u1'

r  (r , 0 , 0)

Correlation of pressure and

velocity:
pi  pui'
First-order Tensor

Correlation of two velocity components:

Rij  ui u 'j
Second-order Tensor:

S ijk  ui u j u k' Third-order Tensor

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ui u 'j
1
2 '2
u i u j

Isotropic Turbulence

Algebraic Invariancy Theory

(Robertson ,1940)

  
Scalar function Q ( r , a, b )
is invariant under the transformation of
rotation and coordinate reflection ,
then this function may be expressed as
the sum of the scalar products of these
vectors , as

ri ri  r 2 , ri ai , ri bi , ai bi ......

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Two-dimensional velocity
correlation 
ua
 b
a
 ub'
r

ua ub'

 
R a , b , r  uaub'

  ui ai   u 'j b'j   uiu 'j aib j

 Rij aib j

Rij is an isotropic tensor.

From the Robertson theory ,

  
 
R a , b , r  A1 (r 2 ) (ri ai ) (rj b j )  B1 (r 2 ) (ai bi )

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Comparing the above two

equations,
we obtain ,


Rij (r )  A1 (r 2 )ri rj  B1 (r 2 ) ij

Consider the Correlation function of the two longitudinal velocity

components and the two transverse velocity components.

Correlation function of the two longitudinal velocity components.


R11 (r )  u1u1'  u 2 f (r )  A1r 2  B1

Correlation function of the two transverse velocity components.


R22 (r )  u2u2'  u 2 g (r )  B1

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f (r )  g (r )
A1  u 2
r2

B1  u 2 g (r )

  ri rj 
Rij (r )  u 2 ( f  g ) 2  g ij 
 r 

From the continuity equation ,

u 'j
ui 0
rj'

and the homogenous

turbulence ,

Rij  0
r j

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    f  g  rj  f g
Rij  u 2   2  ri rj   2 rj ij  3ri 
rj  r  r  r  r 
g rj 
  ij 
r r 
2 r f 
 u2 2  f  g  ri  0
r  2 r 

r f
g f 
2 r

 1 f  r f  
Rij (r )  u 2   ri rj   f    ij 
 2 r r  2 r  

The second-order correlation

function is determined only
by a scalar function.
It is the same case for the
third-order correlation
function.

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Properties of Correlation Function

1. f (0)  g (0)  1
2. f (r )  1, g (r )  1
3. f ()  g ()  0
4. f (r )  f (r ) , even function

3. Microscale of Turbulence

f (r )

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g (r )

Taylor series expansion for

at
f (r ) , g (r )
r 0

f 1 2 f 2
f (r )  f (0)  r  r  ......
r 2 r 2

g 1 2g 2
g (r )  g (0)  r  r  ......
r 2 r 2

Because of

f (0)  g (0)  1
f ' (0)  g ' (0)  0

We have

1 '' 2
f (r )  1  f r  ...
2
1
g (r )  1  g '' r 2  ...
2

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Because of

r '
g f  f
2
1 r
 g '  f '  f '  f ''
2 2
1 1 r
g ''  f ''  f ''  f ''  f '''

2 2 2
and
f (0)  0
'''

 g ''  2 f ''

1 ''
f (r )  1  f (0)r 2  ...
2
1
g (r )  1  g '' (0)r 2  ...
2
 1  f '' (0)r 2  ...

Noticing that

f '' (0) has a dimension of r 2

then we define a new length .

   f 0'' 
1
 1
2 
 f 
1
'' 2
0

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2
1 r 
f  1     ...
2
2
r
g  1     ...


1.0

f (r )


2 g (r )


Taylor Microscale
of Turbulence
The length scale of a typical
eddy!
It is the statistical length of
the small eddies supposing
turbulence is isotropic.

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
Taylor Microscale
of Turbulence
The length scale of a typical
eddy!
It is the statistical length of
the small eddies supposing
turbulence is isotropic.

Viscous dissipation of the kinematic energy of turbulence

ui' ui'
e 
x j x j
It can be proved

u2
e  15
2

 is also called as the dissipation scale.

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For Enstrophy

1 1  u u  u u 
 k k   i  j  i  j 
2 2  x j xi  x j xi 

ui ui ui u j u2

   15 2
x j x j x j xi 

4.Integral scale of Turbulence

( Macroscale of Turbulence )


L   f ( r ) dr
0

It is the scale of the largest eddy.

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5. Spectrum Analysis

Analyze the correlation

function in the three-
dimensional Fourier
space

Three-dimensional Fourier analysis.

1 

 2  
Ai (k1 , k2 , k3 )  u ( x1 , x2 , x3 ) e ikm xm dx1dx 2 dx 3
3  i


ui ( x1 , x2 , x3 )   Ai (k1 , k2 , k3 ) eikm xm dk 1dk 2 dk 3


• The Fourier transform of a

velocity field is a decomposition
into waves of different
wavelengths; each wave is
associated with a single Fourier
coefficient.

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From the continuity

equation ,
ui
0
xi

ki Ai  0
We have

Spectrum of two-dimensional
velocity correlation Rij (r )
1 

 2  
 ij (k1 , k2 , k3 )  3
Rij (r1 , r2 , r3 ) e ikmrm dr1dr2 dr3


Wave Number

k1 , k2 , k3

Spectrum of two-dimensional
velocity correlation Rij (r )

Rij (r1 , r2 , r3 )     ij (k1 , k2 , k3 )eikm xm dk1dk2 dk3


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If

r 0,

Rij (0)  ui u j    ij (k1 , k 2 , k3 )dk1dk 2 dk3


Turbulence energy
 ij 
spectrum density

For the isotropic turbulence ,  ij is a

second-order isotropic tensor.
According to Robertson,
 ij  A( k ) ki k j  B ( k ) ij
and the orthogonal condition
k j  ij  0
we have
B (k )   k 2 A(k )

Let
E (k )
 A( k ) 
4k 4
Then

 ij 
E (k )
4 k 4
k  ij  ki k j
2

E (k ) is called as spectral
distribution function of the
turbulent kinetic energy.

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For isotropic turbulence , we have

E (k ) 2
 ij  (k  ij  ki k j )
4 k 4

E (k )  the spectral distribution

function of the turbulent kinematic
energy.

Turbulent kinematic energy

in physical space

1 ' '
 ui ui
2

In Fourier space, its spectrum is 1  ii

2
From eqn.(1),

1 E (k )
 ii 
2 4 k 2
1 E (k )
S ( k ) 2  ii dS S ( k ) 4 k 2 dS E (k )

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Turbulent kinetic energy

1 ' ' 1  1
ui ui  Rii (0)     ii dk1dk 2 dk3
2 2  2


  E ( k ) dk
0

It can be shown that


e  2 
0
k 2 E ( k , t ) dk

k 2 E ( k )  Spectrum
Distribution of energy dissipation

Dependen Independen
t of t of
formation formation
condition condition

Largest
Universal equilibrium
eddies of Energy-
range
permanentcontaining Inertial
character eddies subrang
e in the various wave number range
Form of the three-dimensional spectrum
E (k , t )

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• Principle of Energy Cascade

• Most of the energy that is

exchanged across a given
wave number apparently
comes from the next
larger eddies and goes to
the next smaller eddies.

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• This concept proves to be

exceptionally useful, because
the largest eddies and the
smallest eddies clearly have
no direct effect on the energy
transfer at intermediate wave
number.

• Richardson(1922)
Big whirls have little whorls,
which feed on their velocity.
And little whorls have lesser whorls,
And so on to viscosity.

6. Kolmogorov Theory (1941)

• Locally isotropic hypothesis

When
Re  1, k d  ke

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• Local isotropic does

not exist if Reynolds
number is not large
enough.

• The range of wave numbers

exhibiting local isotropy is
called the equilibrium range.

• In the equilibrium range, time

scales are so short that the
details of the energy transfer
between the mean flow and
the turbulence can not be
important.

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• Because all energy is finally

dissipated by viscosity, the total
amount of energy transfer must be
equal to the dissipation rate ε.
• So there are two parameters: one
is the dissipation rate ε, another
one is should be the viscosity itself.

• Similarity Theory
1
Length scale:  3  4
   
e 
Velocity scale:

1
v  (e ) 4

 Kolmogorov
Microscale
(Innerscale)
 

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• Most of the viscous dissipation

of energy occurs near the
Kolmogorov microscale.
• Kolmogorov scale represents
statistically the smallest
possible eddy structures before
dissipated by viscosity.

1
v  (e ) 4

The Kolmogorov velocity.

Kolmogorov Local Similarity

•

Hypothesis
length scale

velocity scale v

E (k , t )  v 2 Ee ( k )
Non-dimensional universal
energy spectrum function

Ee ( k ) 

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• The second Kolmogorov similarity hypothesis

• Inertial sub-range

Re  1 , ke  k  k d ,
or
rL
The viscosity dissipation is neglected.

In inertial subrange

2 5
E (k , t )  Ae 3 k 3

A  Kolmogorov constant A  1.70

This is the famous

Kolmogorov Spectrum
Law.

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Coherent structure in turbulent

flow:
detectable (measurable) orderly
motion

Homogenous isotropic turbulence

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Mixing layer

• The small vortical structures are

random motions while the large
vortical structure in turbulence are
fairly well organized. These
relatively organized vortical
structures in turbulence are known
as Coherent Structures.

• The coherent structures usually

contain significant portion of the
turbulence energy and dominate
turbulence transportation.

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• The coherent structures in a

turbulent flow are crucial for
understanding and modelling of
turbulence, as well as for
controlling turbulence phenomena
like mixing, heat transfer,
combustion, drag and
aerodynamic, noise generation.

• The exact occurrence of coherent

structures is not predictable
although they are quite well
organized and quasi-deterministic.
• They always co-exist with its
random partners in the turbulence
background, that is, there is an
order underlying the disorder of
fluid turbulence.

• No one can predict these

structures with exact shape or size,
at exact location and exact instant.
Instead, the prediction can be
made for certain coherent
structure to occur under given
condition, and the probability of
its occurence is certainly greater
than others.

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• The coherent structure is a sort

of organized structures
appearing in turbulence with
high probability.

• We suggest the following definition for

coherent structure of turbulence:
• Coherent structures are groups of
evolving structures, mainly vortical
structures in turbulence, which are
spatially well-organized and contain
essential portion of turbulence energy.
They can be identified from the
turbulent flow field as quasi-
deterministic structures.

2. Patterns of the coherent structure in the

turbulence of the free shear flow

Free shear flow:

Mixing layer , jet , wake….

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Mixing Layer: N2, He+Ar

Section O-A: Kelvin-Helmholtz nonlinear instability

Section A-B: Transition region
Section B: Fully-developed turbulence

Vortex Pairing,

Vortex Merging

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Entrainment

Coherent structure in a turbulent

boundary layer

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a , Near –wall region

(viscous sub-layer)
b, Overlap region;
c, Outer region

a, Near –wall region (viscous sub-layer)

High-speed strip
Low-speed strip

Ejection and sweeping

Horse-shoe vortex ( Hairpin vortex )

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b, Overlap region;

c, Outer region

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4, Formation of the coherent

structures

Synergetics – Self-organization

Fluid Dynamics –
Results of evolution of nonlinear
instabilities;
The local instability of instantaneous
velocity

5, Investigation methods of the

coherent structures

Statistics ( conditional sampling;

phase averaging )

Flow visualization

Topology analysis

The coherent structures and the

flow control

Aerodynamic noise
Entrainment and mixing
Lift and drag

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Fully-developed Turbulence
in a Pipe

一. Governing Equations
Assume
1.Mean velocity is steady
2.All variables, except p , is only
the functionrof

That is ,

U r  0, U  0, U x  U (r )
 
Rij  Rij  0, p  p ( x, r )
x 

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RANS:

0
1 p 1 d

 x r dr
 
 d 2U 1 dU 
r ur' u x'    2   ①
r dr 
 dr

0
1 p 1 d

 r r dr
 
u' u'
r ur' ur'   
r
②

Boundary conditions:

r  R : U ( R)  0, ur'  0, ur' u x'  u' u'  0

Apply Eddy Viscosity Model to close the RANS equations.

Integrate eqn.(2) from r to R ,

R dp
r dr
dr  PW  P
' '
1 dR Ru u
   (r ur' ur' )dr      dr
r r dr r r
1 R ' '
R ru u  R u' u'
    r ur' ur'   r r
2
dr       dr
 r r r r  r r

 ' '
Ru u  R u' u'
    ur' ur'   r r dr       dr
 r r  r r
R (ur' ur'  u' u' )
  ur' ur'    dr
r r

R ur' ur'  u' u'

p ( x, r )   ur' ur'    dr  PW ( x) ③
r r

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Because of

And substitute this relation into eqn.(1) ,

dp dpw
 , ④
dx dx

1 dpw
 dx

1 d

 d 2U 1 dU 
r ur' u x'    2   ⑤
r dr 

r dr  dr

Integrate eqn.(5) from 0 to r and note that

ur' u x' 0
r 0

dU
0
dr r 0

r dpw
 dx

d
dr

d  dU 
r ur' u x'    r 
dr  dr 

   r dU
r
r r dpw r 2 dpw r

 0  dx
dr 
2  dx
  r ur' u x'
0 dr 0

We obtain

r dpw dU
    ur' u x'   ⑥
2 dx dr

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At the wall of the tube ,

dU
r  R, ur' u x'  0, 
w
dr
dpw 2  dU 4 w
   , D  2R
dx R dr D
Therefore , we have

2 r w dU
   ur' u x'   ⑦
D dr

Define the friction velocity

2 w
u*  ⑧

and non-dimensional coordinate:
yu *
y  ⑨


Move the coordinate to the tube’s wall,

y  Rr
and

u r'  u 'y

Eqn.(7) is changed as

dU 1 y  y 2
u x' u 'y    1   w  1  u *
dy   R  R

u x' u 'y dU *
  y 1 ⑩
u*
2
dy 
Where

U y
U*  , y
U* R

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For high Reynolds number flow , the effect of turbulent fluctuation is greater than
the viscosity, and near the tube’s wall,

y
y  1
R
Eqn.(10) may be approximated as

2
u x' u 'y  u * ⑾

Apply the Eddy Viscosity Model and mixing length theory,

dU
 u x' u 'y   t (12)
dy
dU
and
t  k 2 y2 (13)
dy
2
 dU 
k 2 y 2    u *
2
Then
(14)
 dy 

Non-dimensionalization of Eqn.(14),

2
 dU * 
k y     1
2 2
(15)
 dy 
dU * 1

  (15)
dy ky

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We derived the logarithmic law

of the mean velocity profile in the
tube
1
U *  ln y   B
k
u
or U  * ln y   B '
k

Experimental measurements give

k  0.4
(von Karman constant)

B  5.5
This logarithmic law of the mean velocity profile is in
good agreement with experiments
for or

y   30 , y  0.4

Mean Velocity Profile in a tube

1. Viscous Sublayer
Very near the wall ,

y  0, u x' u 'y  0
Eqn.(10) is

dU *
1
dy 
U *  y
y  5
It is good for

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2. The overlap layer

30  y   5
U *  5 ln y   3.05
3. The logarithmic layer

1
U*  ln y   B
k
It is valid for
y   30

4. The central region

y  0.4
U max  U ( y )
  A* ln y  B *
u*
A*  2.44 , B *  0.8

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Turbulent Boundary
Layer

Investigate the 2-D turbulent

boundary layer ,

w w w u v p
w, , , , , , 0
x y z z z z
but
w'  0

1. Governing equations

u v
1.  0 (1)
x y

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 u u u 
2.   u v 
 t x y 
p 
    xx   u '  
x x 
2 

   u 'v '
 y xy



  xz   u ' w'
z
 (2)

u  u v 
 xx  2 ,  xy     
x  y x 
 u w 
 xz     
 z x 

 v v v 
3.    u  v 
 t x y 

 
p 
y x
 

 xy   u 'v '   yy   v ' 
y 
2




  yz   v ' w'
z
 (3)

where

 v w 
 yz     
 z y 

Non-dimensionalization:

x y u v
x*  , y *  , u *  , v *  ,
L L U U
p * u 'u '
p*  , u ' '
u  , ... ...
U 2 U 2

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The equation are

u * v *
1.  0 (4)
x* y *
u * * u * p *   2 u * '*2 
2. u * v  *  *  u 
x *
y *
x x  Re x* 
  1  v * u *  '* '* 
    u v 
y *  Re  x* y *  
  '* '* 
 u w (5)
z *  

v * * v * p *
3. u *  v  
x* y * y *
  1  v * u *  '* '* 
    u v 
x*  Re  x* y *  
  2 v * '*2    '* '* 
  v  * v w (6)
y *  Re y *  z  

For boundary layer flow , we have

  1
v* ~ , ~ ,
L y *
L
* *  * * 
u ' v ' ~ , v ' w' ~
L L

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From eqn.(6) ,

p *  pe* ( x)  v '
2

dp dpe d  '2 
  v 
dx dx dx  
 ve e   v ' 
dp dv d 2
(7 )
dx dx dx  

At last , we develop the governing equation for the turbulent boundary layer

u v
 0 (8)
x y
u u dv 1   u 
u v  ve e      u 'v ' 
x y dx  y  y 
  '2
  v  u '  (9)
2

x  

In general ,

  '2
 v  u 
'2

x  
may be neglected , then

u v
 0
x y
u u dv 1   u 
u v  ve e      u 'v ' 
x y dx  y  y 

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Boundary conditions:

y  0 : u  v  0, u 'v '  0
y   : u  U  , u 'v '  0

2. Velocity profile

0  y  0.15 ~ 0.21
Inner region:

Outer region: 
0.15 ~ 0.21  y  1


Outer Region

Full-turbulent Layer
Inner Region
Overlap Layer

Viscous Sublayer

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1. Sublayer :

y  5
u  y
2. Overlap Layer :

5  y   30
u   5.0 ln y   3.05
3. Fully turbulent Layer :

y   30
u   2.5 ln y   5.5

Outer region:

U  u y
 2.5  2.44 ln
u *


0.8
Mach=2.25
x=8.8
0.6
u

DNS
0.4 Wilcox K-Omega
SST
Abid
EASM GS
0.2 EASM GS Nonlinear K-E
EASM GS Nonlinear K-Omega
Experiment

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
y/delta

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Laminar Boundary Layer and

Turbulent Boundary layer

Boundary layer along a flat plate

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Velocity profile: Laminar boundary layer

Velocity profile: Turbulent boundary layer

Friction drag :

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Boundary layer on a blunt body

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 06/09/2012

Bibliography
• Kline, S. J., et al, editors, Proceedings - Computation of Turbulent Boundary
Layers,1968, AFOSR-IFP-Stanford Conference, Vols. 1 and 2, 1968.
• Launder, B. E. and Spalding, D. B., Lectures in Mathematical Models of
Turbulence, Academic Press, 1972.
• Lumley, J. L. and Penofsky, H. A., The Structure of Atmospheric
Turbulence,Interscience, 1964.
• Lumley, J. L., Stochastic Tools in Turbulence, Academic Press, 1970.
• Monin, A. S. and Yaglom, A. M., Statistical Fluid Mechanics of Turbulence,
• Vol. 1, MIT Press, 1965.
• S.B. Pope, Turbulent Flows
• Schlichting, H., Boundary Layer Theory, 7th edition, Ch. 18, 19, 24,
• McGraw-Hill, 1979;
• Tennekes, H., and J.L. Lumley, A First Course in Turbulence, 1981, MIT
• Press.
• Townsend, A. A., The Structure of Turbulent Shear Flow, CUP, 1956.

Bibliography
• Batchelor, G. K., The Theory of Homogeneous Turbulence,
CUP, 1953.
• Bradshaw, P., editor, Turbulence: Vol. 12, Topics in Applied
Physics, Springer-Verlag,1976.
• Cebeci, T. and Bradshaw, P., Momentum Transfer in
Boundary Layers, Hemisphere-McGraw-Hill, 1977.
• Cebeci, T. and Smith, A. M. O., Analysis of Turbulent
Boundary Layers, Academic Press,1974.
• Chen, C. J. and Rodi, W., Vertical Turbulent Buoyant Jets - A
Review of Experimental Data, Pergamon Press, 1980.
• Gleick, J., Chaos Making a New Science, Penguin, 1987; fun
reading.
• Hinze, J. O., Turbulence, McGraw-Hill, 1975.

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