Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
When insulin molecules, carried passively along in the blood, leave the blood and
bind tightly to protein receptors of nearby cells, the response is dramatic:
Bloodborne glucose molecules begin to disappear into the cells, and cellular activity
accelerates. Such is the power of the second great controlling system of the body,
the endocrine system. Along with the nervous system, it coordinates and directs
the activity of the body's cells. However, the speed of control in these two great
regulating systems is very different. The nervous system is "built for speed." It uses
nerve impulses to prod the muscles and glands into immediate action so that rapid
adjustments can be made in response to changes occurring both inside and outside the body. On the
other hand, the more slowly acting endocrine system uses chemical messengers called hormones, which
are released into the blood to be transported leisurely throughout the body.
Although hormones have widespread and varied effects, the major processes controlled by hormones are
reproduction; growth and development; mobilizing body defenses against stressors; maintaining
electrolyte, water, and nutrient balance of the blood; and regulating cellular metabolism and energy
balance. As you can see, the endocrine system regulates processes that go on for relatively long periods
and, in some cases, continuously.
Indicate the endocrine role of the kidneys, the stomach and intestine, the heart, and the placenta.
o See table 9.2 on page 301
o Kidneys – produces renin when blood pressure drops and causes the release of
aldosterone causing the kidneys to reabsorb sodium and potassium ions – produces
erythropoietin that promotes the production of red blood cells in the bone marrow – also
activates vitamin D made by epidermal cells of skin that causes intestine cells to actively
transport dietary calcium across the intestinal cell membranes
o Stomach – produces gastrin – stimulates glands to release hydrochloric acid (HCL)
o Duodenum (small intestine) – produces intestinal gastrin that inhibits HCL secretion
by the stomach and gastrointestinal tract mobility – produces secretin that stimulates the
release of bicarbonate-rich juice by the pancreas and increases release of bile from the liver
and inhibits secretory activity of the stomach – produces cholecystokinin (CCK) that
stimulates the pancreas to release a enzyme-rich juice, stimulates the gallbladder to release
stored bile, causes the duodenal papilla sphincter to relax, allowing bile and pancreatic juice
to enter the duodenum
o Heart – atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) – prevents aldosterone release by the adrenal
cortex to reduce blood volume and blood pressure – inhibits the kidneys from reabsorbing
sodium and from releasing renin
o Placenta – produces human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) – initially produced by the
conceptus and then by the fetal part of the placenta – stimulates the corpus luteum of the
ovary to continue producing estrogen and progesterone so that the lining of the uterus is
not sloughed off in menses until the third month of pregnancy and then the placenta takes
over the role of producing the hormones and the ovaries become inactive for the rest of the
pregnancy – also helps prepare the breasts for producing milk – human placental
lactogen (hPL) – works with estrogen and progesterone in preparing the breasts for
lactation – produces relaxin – causes the mother’s pelvic ligaments and pubic symphysis to
relax and become more flexible, which eases birth passage
Describe the effect of aging on the endocrine system and body homeostasis.
o Most endocrine organs seem to operate smoothly until old age
In late middle age, the efficiency of the ovaries begins to decline causing the onset of
menopause – during this time, a woman’s reproductive organs begin to atrophy, and
the ability to bear children ends
Problems associated with estrogen deficiency begin to occur – arteriosclerosis,
osteoporosis, decreased skin elasticity, fatigue, nervousness, mood changes,
and changes in the operation of the sympathetic nervous system that result in
hot flashes
The efficiency of the endocrine system as a whole gradually declines in old age
The growth hormone output by the anterior pituitary declines, partially
explaining muscle atrophy in old age
Since the anterior pituitary affects so many other endocrine glands, it is
assumed that its target organs also become less productive – older people are
often mildly hypothyroid, have some decline in insulin production leading to
adult-onset diabetes, and are less able to resist stress and infection partly
due to waning melatonin that plays a role in promoting the immune response