and Destgn

Wer SystemAnalysts of Transmtssim Lines 85

LINES
FOR TRANSMISSION
POWERFORMULAE line. The ends 'AllV.f
_ IbiLl
diagram of a three-phase transmission t/ f
(A-a)
(3.78)
single line or gnd IBI
Figure 3.20 shows the stations, grid switching stations IBI
at generating followmg important observations abo.Jt F-qs (3.77) and ( 3.78) are applicable to symrrrtncaJ
transnussionline can terminate
transmissionlines are 3.phase systerns:
points.The ends of
concept of a bus 1. These equations Yield power per phase if the phase voltage (t.e.. line to neutral voltage)
designated as busses. The
is essentially the same at the recejvmg and sending end are used for Veand Vr
in a one line diagram
diagram, The
as that of a node in a circuit 2. The total 3-phasepowertsthreeurnesthe powerper phase. Each term in these equations
bus system Transmissjon Ene
system in rig. 3.20 ts a two contajns product of two voltages or the square of a voltage- Since line to line voltage IS
is fed by
having the sending end bus which tinrs the phase voltage. these equations yteld 3-phase power directly if Vrand V,
end bus which
the gerrrator ami the receiving represent line to line voltage at the recejving end and sending ende
power at
feeds the load. S, is the complex 3. If the voltage is expressed in volts. the power ts expressed •n watts or vars. If the volt-
complex power
tir recernng er•d aruj S, is the ages are considered kilovolts, the power ts expressed jn rnega watts or megavars.
(3.43) and
at the sending end. Using Eqs. fig. 3.20 A twobus power system
(3.46) the currents l, and l, can be expressed From Eq, (3.77) the real and reactive power at recerong end are:
in terms of V, and V, as:
IVIIV,I cos (A— j) —IAl IV, 12
1 p, = —i-m— cos (D —a)
IBI (3.79 a)

Sin (D —j) —
IBI IBI (379b)
The real and reactive power at sending end are
/ = IYJL(5-Å)- p _ \AID', 12
IBI cos (ß + 6) (3.80a)

IAIlvs12
IBI Sin (A —a) — san(J+ j)
IBI (3.80b)
The conJugatesof I, and I, are
For fixed values of V,and V,the receivtng end real power ma.xjmurnwhen Thus
Z(ß-a) (335
= IBI cos (A —a)
IBI IBI (3—81)

The corresponding value of Qr at thts power limjt is

IBI IBI
The complex powerFr phase at the receiving end and
sending end are IAIIv„f
sin (A —a) (3-82)
IBI
The load must draw the leading vars gjven by Eq. (3.82) to achieve the condition of
maximum
real power at the receiving end. Very Importantconclusions can be drawn by
IBI IBI considenng the
powertransfer over a short line which has A = D = I Z 0. B = Z = IZIZ a Substituting
these
values in Eqs. (3.79) and (3.80) we have
IBI IBI (37
cos (0 —6) —IYL cos 0 (3.83a)
IZI

IZI sin (0—5)— l' sin (3.83b)

 i
III II II II I I ii I
 Performanceof TransmjssjonLines 89
Analysts
88 • laggtng vars generated
by the line dun synchronous compensator delivers lagging (or absorbs
are to absorb the core type The large and delivers leading (or absorbs lagg•ng) vars when its
leading) vars when its excitation is
a gagged
Shunt a coreless type or excjtatjon
The Inductormay be (VIZ. 100 Mvar at 400 kVy flexible source of reative m»wer trcause its reauve gx»wercan
js srnall. 'Ihus 't js a very
raungs and cmunucnasly vaned in nugmtu&
is t.rezand used for the large and dtrecoon (from laggjng to leading) Withutmost
ease Simplyby varyjng Its excitation.
lancarupto a line requjres
gagged is desagrrd to aoo A transrnjssjon lagging vars at the receivjng em]
dunng peak Iou,] conditions to
also possible
ofAW1 L3 utut It js a voltage drop. Duong off-peak conditions It requares
lead)ng vars at the recerv.ng end to
restcg *tvch 11kv vent a voltage nse Thus synchronous compensator
a loq of excellently suited for voltage regulauon
voltages mttun a range of ± Itcan supply lagging as well as leadingvars. The
Wtrn saturated. advantagesand disadvantages
of
tir systemncynanalsoltage change rapidly synchronous cormrnsator as compared to stanc corncrnsanon equjprrrnt
are as under:
reactor
varsabs.cvtedby the 1. A synchronous comrrnsator can supply lagging vars. equal
in voltage to its rating. to the system
f« snull changes and can usually absorb laggjng vars up to
equfpnrnt is often of Its rating. Thus a synchronous
Ttr ganc comrrnsauon corncrnsator of a certajn rating ISequal to a stanc
to tir teroary Eta wandangof the capacitor of that rating and a shunt
In fig. 3.21. reactor of half Its raung.
sub-sunon transformer as shown
2. necontrol of synchronous compensator as fast and
connected. conunuuxs.
capacitorsare vermanently 3. A synchronous compensator can be overloaded for shon penods but a stauc capacitor
and inductor are
rema•ntngcapacitors cannot be overloaded.
mth on load tap changang gear for
you&d 321 Static 4. A drop jn voltage causes the synchronous compensator to supply greater vars (because
switciuns as and when requrred. difference generated e.m.f and terrmnal voltage Increases) winch helps jn
If cacutitors are connected In star. arresting the voltage dip. In the case of static capacitora drop jn voltage causes a reducuon
IVI in vars Eivered to the system.
5. The Inertia of synchronous compensator Improves system stability and reduces the effect
of sudden changes tn load.
= l!1L2 Mvar (388, 6. Stanc capacitor Installationscan be distributedjn the system However small sjze
synchronous compensators are very uneconomcal. Thus stauc capacitorscan be Icxated
reactance per phase and Q, is near the loads and are more effecuve.
wtrre V is tertiary line voltage in kV.Xcis the capacitive
lagpng 3-phasc vars generated by capacitors. 7. Synchronous compensators add to short Circuitcurrents tn the system and Increase the
For star connected inductors: Circuit raungs.
8. A failure of one unit of a stanc capacitor bank affects that urut only and the remaarung
(389) umts continue to operate. However. the failure of a synchronous compensator rneans loss
x, of complete unit.
wirre QLis the leading (I.e„ negative) 3-phase vars generated by the inductors and XLis the 9. For small reacuve power requirements stanc capacitors are econonucal and preferable.
jnducu ve reactance Fr phase. For requirements. above 10 M var or so. a synchronous compensator ISmore econormcal
The use of senes capacitors winch are connected jn senes With the line (usually at the nud and preferable.
potnt) js more recent than the use of shunt capacitors. They generate vars proportional to
square of current in them. Their pnmary use to reduce the senes inductance of the line in order 3.16.3 Control by Transformers
to ruse the power hrmt and to improve system stability. The ability of the series capacitor to
supply the reacuve power of the loads ISnegligible whereas the contnbution of the shunt capacitiy. Transformers are provided With taps on windings to adJust the transformation rauo. Taps are
in this resFct is very major. ms difference results from the fact that the shunt capacitor actually usually on the high voltage winding stnce tappjngs on low voltage wjndangdo not give sufficiently
supplies the reacuve power requjrerrrnt of the loads while the senes capacitor merely provides clcuecontrol of voltage. Tap changtng, by altenng the in-phase comporrnt of the system voltage.
1
corncrnsauon for a part of the react*ve power requirement of the Ijrr. affects the dastnbuuon Of vars in a system and may be used to control the flow of reacuve power.
Soar transformers are provided Withon load tap changmg gear to regulate the voltage and keep
3.16.2 Synchronous Compensators it Withinltnuts despite changes tn the amount and distnbuuon of load. Such transformersare
A synchronous compensator (or synchronous phase modifier) is essentially a synchronous known as Tap changtng under load (TCUL) transformers.
transformers at both
With no rn«hamcai output. It takes Just enough real power to supply its losses. They are usually figure 322 shows a line, WJthunpedance R + having tap changing
erds. Let and t e tr the fractions of the nonunal transformation, i e.. tap rauo/nomjnal rauo. e.g..
or salient pole design (6 or 8 poles) Withraungs upto MVA. Il kV and connected to high
voltage systems through transfornrrs. The excitation of the machine is varied to provid e a transformer with normnal ratio 11/33 k V when tapped to convert I I kV to 36 k V has tJ = 36/33
end respectively.
necessary arrount of compensaoon. 1-09. V) and V: are the nonunaJ voltages at the sending end and recejvjng
90 Analysis •nd Design
PerformanceOf
would be t, Vi and TransmissionLines
When taps are used, actual sendtng end and receiving end voltages 91
the overall voltage level remains in the san..e sin
The product t, is generally made unity so that
are used. The tap rauos t, and t, can be determined as under
order and minimum number of taps (3.93)
R pc x,

Ps
V' V2

vat
mg. 3.22 vett* controlof a line using tap changing transformer
(a)
cos0+ e (3.90) (b)

ng. 3.23 Combined use of tap changrg trmstorrner

since I cos and Isin we get rextrve powerjryectJon(a) circuit

For given values of VI. Xt and Q the value of

V. can be found. Generally
(391) determjned for more than one condition of system the value of V. is
operationand transiormauon ratio
settings are chosen to give satisfactory voltage and tap
level at full load as well as at no
Substituting t, in Eq. (391) load.
3.17 REGULATING TRANSFORMER
A special type of transforrner designed for small adjustments of
voltage ts known as regulating
transformer.The MVA raung of regulating transforrnerISquite small and It
can be used to change
the voltage at a point by a small amount It can be brought into the by the closure of a relay
VI
whoseoperation can be controlled by system voltage or system current. A regulating
transformer
RP+XQ = E (392) can be used for voltage magnitude control or phase angle control.

3.17.1 Regulating Transformer for Voltage MagnitudeControl

Forcompletecomvrnsation V, = V: and t, can be found from Eq. (3.92). tr = lhs. In Eq. (392)
all quantities are per phase values. figure 3.24 shows a typical arrangement to use a regulating transformer for voltage magnitude
control in a 3-phase circuic A 3-phase transformer proudes an adjustable voltage to the pnmary
6.4 Combined Use of Tap Changing Transformer and Reactive windings of the regulanng transformer whose secondarywindings are jn senes Withthe lines.
Power Injection Thus a voltage magnitude I AVI is added to the voltage of each phase. ms voltage ts jn
using static capacitors phase with the voltage of that phase. As discussed above. the changes jn voltage magmtudes
Tap changing transfomrrs can also be used in conjunction with var injection matnly affect the reactive power now. Therefore. this method can be used to control the now of
3.23 (a) shows the usual configuration where the stanc var
or synchronous cornpensators. Fig. reactivepower in the system.
to the tertiary of the transformer. fig. 3.23 (b) shows the equivalent circuit
system is connected
The transfomrr can be represented by three reactances connected in star (neglecting 3.17.2 Regulating Transformer for VoltagePhaseAngle Control
and tertiary. The reactance
the resistances). XI. X: and X, are reactances of primary. secondary
or V: and transformer can be combined with reactances X' figure 3.25 (a) shows the use of a regulating transformer for phase angle control. The voltage
of the line txtween VI and transformer tins
If the transforrner is at the recejving end of the line. the reactance X: would added to each phase voltage is displaced by ± 900 from it. As seen from Fig. 3.25(b)
and X: respectively. voltages. However. the phase
power now from primary to secondary Jarrangernent does not cause any change In the magnitude of phase
be small as compared to XI and can be neglected. The proportional to the magmtude
is assumed to be zero and its reactive power IS angles are changed and the change in phase angle is approx •mately
P + j Q. Ihe active power of static var equipment angles control the now of real power in the system. tins
the star point. Ofadded voltage I AVI. Since the phase
Q Fr phase. vo is the-line to neutral voltage of nethodcan be used to control real power flow in the system.
 Performance of Transmjssjon Lines
and Design 93
System analysis
92

132 kV' overhead line delivers 50 MVA

3•phase at 132 k V and power factor 0 8 laggjng at its
end. 'Ilve constants of the line are A = 98 Z V and B =
110 Z 750 ohms per phase. Find
sending end voltage and power angle (b) sendjng end acti ve and reactive
by the line (d) capacjty of power (c) line losses
andthe vars absorbed static compensation equjprnent at the receivjng
endto reduce the sending end voltage to 140 k V for the same load conditions (e) the unity power
loadwhjch can be supplied at the recejv•ng end •mth 132 k V as the line voltage at both the ends.
b solution

= 76210 z

so
+ -vj—— -2183Z- (cos
= 2187 - 36 870) A

= (098 Z 30) (76210) + (110 750) (2187 Z - 3687 0)

= 746858 z 30 24057
= 745834 +9 390886 18923' 148539
= 935069 1876236 = 9537062 Z 11350 V
x 95370 62
Sendingend line voltage = 1652 kV

Powerangle = 1135 0
magnitude control
R' 3.24 R<ulaong transformerfor voltage (b) As observed in section (3.15), Eqs. (377) and (338) directly gjve 3-phase power in MVV.if
lineto line voltage in k V are used for V, and Vr Therefore
1652kV.
IAI 98. a: 3 0. 750. 1105 0
Substitutingthese values in Eq (3.78)

0750-30)- z (75 z 11350)

IIO 110
= 24304 Z 720 - 19824 8635 0
VB Sending end active power
p, = 243.14 cos 72o - 19824 cos 8635 0
= 75.13- 12.62= 6251 MW
b Sendingend reactive power
72 - 19824 8635 0
Q, = 24344
= 231.24 —19784 = 3340 Mvar laggmg
(b)
, (c)lanes losses = p, -P, = 6261 MW
3.25 Regutatingtransfomwr tor volt. phase angle control (a) circuit (b) pnasa
= 3.4 Mvar
Mvar absorbed by line = Q, —Qr = 33.40 —50 06
(d)PE 50 x 0.8 | 140. v,lz 132
 P«torm.ame
0t • 95
ytd Destgn
Systemanalysts
= 12702x 10'v
3

(3.92)
40 Us.ng FA.
110

or
co,4-0=0324
or IAIlv,f t, = l.OJS5 and =

5840 — Sin 720

— 110 EXjnple323
110 transfornrrts rated at 132/33/11 k V Ihe MVA ratings of 100. U)
-1476=-43 Mvar A ywtndlng
= SIVArespectively- The
reactance of pnrnary 0 15 pu on 100 MVA. 132 k V base. A var
apaprrent
cornpensanng conrr.ted to thetemar-vwanång Neglecunglasses frrd tap
requires 30 Mvar laggtng. the
40 MV Since the load satisfactory osrranon un&r the toilow mg two condjuocw
alongWithttr real powerof te. 343 Mvar laggtng (or
absorb 34
deliver30 +
Mvar (a) Load of 75 MW. SOMvarw•th pnmary and secondary voltage limns of 12Sand33 kV
34 S
The capacnyof stanc capanors
therefore, The static var system •s disconnected.
(b) No load condition. SVS absorbing 20 war and pnmary and secondary voltage littuts
kv and 33 kV
Sin(P —j) -
Solution
Since X, IS given tn p.u—It js
rnore conventcnt to do caleuiauons jn p.u.
132* 132 Sin 0 98132): sin (75 0 -3 0 )
— — 132. Base MVA = IOO
110 Base kv
IIO V, = 125/132-0 pu.
(a)
68.75'
IV'.IIV,I IAIlv,12
IBI UsingEq (393)
098 x 132: 0.947 =
- E-Lcos6875'- cos 720
110 110
= 5741-4797 = 944 MW v: -0.947 -o
Exutwe 3.22 = 11352 kV
A 220 k V line has tap changing transforrrrrs at both ends Ihe transforrner at the sending end has a
nonunaJrauo IIt220 kV' and that at the recejvjngend 220/11 kV The Ime impedance IS
15 SOohms and the load at the reccmng end ts 90 MW at 09 pT laggjng. Assumjng that the
01off-nonunal tap settings is I, find the tap settings to give I I k V at load bus
nerefore 1.06 =

90x or
V. = 103 p.u.= 13596k V
90 x 100
= 30 x 106 W Transtormauon ratio under load condition = 113.52/33 = 3 44

= 14' x 106 vars Transformationratio under no io•ujcondition = 135.90/33= 4.12

 ard
SystemArvaiy•sis Performarxeof Tranvmssi«t
96 • Lines • 97
by ± 034 3.78
above tuo values. ie. 3.78 varyjng
raoocan te taken as nran of
ts ± 8.9'*. The centre of the recejvjng end Circle ISIcxated at the up
S 9+. Ttrretcre- tap scttjng of the phasor
2
3.18 NATURAL LOAD x-coordmatc of the centre is
Thusthe cos a). MW and the y-coordjnateis
on
be transmitted over a line is deFndent
The nu.urrum amcxjntof ik)wer which can Single formuli Many a
expressed by a —a) Mvar The radius of the
and econonuc vanables and cannot be power. recejvtng end ctrcje ts
transmitted as fraction of natural MVA
ts cc•vcruent to express the power a resistance equal to its
A In-e ts said to tr operating at its natural load when it ISterminated by
The power transmitted under tins condition js called natural power
charxtensoc imvrdance Z.
Impedance. However. the term surge
(Charxtenstjc Impedanceis sonrunrs called surge
charactensnc Impedance of a loss-less line as discussed
trncrd.anceusually refers to the value of
jn chamer 12b
a recemng end Jine voltage of V, k V. the natural power PNis
(3 94) o,

TIE charactensuc rrnfniance of all Single carcutttugh voltage lines is always about 400 ohms

Fot this value of Z the natural power ts MW or 2.5 kW. IAI

IBI
It ts known that the carryng capability of a line decreases Withincrease in line length. It
tus been established by extenswe studies and expenence that very long lines (more than 400 km
or so) can tk Ioa&d ( wathtnreasonable techmcal and econonuc hnutatjons of voltage drop and
of rexuve power cornxnsauon equjpnrnt) only upto about natural load A maJor problem Reference
for ar,gie b
Withvery long lirrs die system stability However. the short lines can be loaded to several unes
natural load. The most obvjous way of Increasangnatural power js to increase the Ijne voltage,
sjnce natural ISprorxyrtjonalto the square of voltage. This explajns the histoncal Increase c,
Jn transrrussjon voltage as longer and longer transrmssjon line projects are taken up.
Fig. 3.26 Recemng end Circle
43.19 POWERCIRCLE DIAGRAMS
The receivmg end Circle is drawn •n Fig. 326 The centre C, ts located by drawing ()C, equal
The complex Biwer at the recemng and sending ends of a line are gjven by Eqs. (3.77 and 3.78) IAIlv,12
which can be re-wntten as inclined at Z (P— a) •n the posjuve (anticlockwise) direction from the negauve

Iv.llv,l
r•aus. From centre C, the recetvjng end Circle ts drawn Withradius The operating pojnt
Ivllv,l (3.95) Pm Circle located by the amount of real power deljvcredto the load. Pr corresponding
2
valueof Q, can be read from the diagram The power angle 's the angle txtwecn the reference line
'Al IV, 1 shown phasor C, P Many other useful information. e g . capacity of compensauon equipment.
Z(ß+6) (396) maxjmum recejvjng end power. etc.. can also be obtajncd trom the power Circle diagram. •nus IS
Each of the powers is the sum of two phasors. Since the real parts of these illustratedjn examples (3.24) and (3.25).
phasors represent
real power P and the Imagrnary part represents reactive power Q
it is possible to plot S, and S, receivjng end powercjrcles for constant V, but varyjng V,are concentnc cjrcles With C, as
in the x —yplane whose honzontal and vertical coordinates
represent the real and react] ve powers
respectively The transrmssjon Ijncs are usually operated Withconstant sendjng centreand IE!JyJ as radii.
and end
voltages. Then corrWxmentofeach mywerts a constant phasor (i e.. phasor
ofconstant magnitude It Is seen from Eq. (3.96) that the centre of the sending end Circle is located at the up of the
and phase) while the second component a phasor ofconstant
magmtude but vanable angle
loci of Sr and S, are. therefore. ctrcles drawn from the up of . The sending end Circle js
constant phasors as centres *iasor Z a) and the radius 01 this cjrcie •s
IBI