Constant Envelope Modulation

In the mobile radio, since the multipath fading distorts the amplitude of the carrier, the signal is sent by modulating the phase
or frequency of the carrier, which has no impact on the amplitude. We call those modulations constant envelope
modulations; that is, no signal is modulated on the amplitude. The distortion of carrier amplitude by other factors such as
fading or nonlinear amplification will not affect the signal. Therefore, it is possible to use a nonlinear amplifier. Although, the
non-linear amplifier can distort the amplitude but not the phase, as we have mentioned in the inverse-sine modulation
method in Sec. 12.5. But the intermodulation introduced by the AM-PM conversion in a nonlinear amplifier can be taken care
of by a few particular modulations.

Constant envelope modulation can be a linear or a nonlinear modulation in digital mobile systems. In general, constant
envelope modulation is used for the nonlinear modulation (FM) in analog mobile systems.

QPSK (quadrature phase shift keying)

QPSK is used for increasing the modulation efficiency from the BPSK. In BPSK (binary PSK) as mentioned previously, one symbol
phase 0 or 180 at the modulation stage represents one bit. The modulation is one bit per second per Hz. In QPSK, one symbol (one of
four phases) at the modulation stage represents two bits. The modulation efficiency is double. The possible combination of two bits is
mapped according to the gray code the adjacent symbols (phase states) offer by one bit 00, 01, 11,...

Nonconstant Envelope Modulation

From Mobile Communications Engineering: Theory and Applications, Second Edition
8.5 Nonconstant Envelope Modulation
In the nonconstant envelope modulation, the information can be modulated on the amplitude of carrier frequency such as AM (amplitude
mod- ulation) and SSB (single sideband), the common modulation schemes belonging to this family. The power spectrum efficiency of
this kind of modulation is always higher than other kinds such as constant envelope modulation. However, in the mobile radio
environment, the multipath fading distorts the signal envelope. Therefore, the information can be very hard to receive undistorted
without any special treatment. For this reason, the nonconstant envelope modulation is not very popular in mobile radio or mobile
wireless systems. The following section describes one of the nonconstant envelope modulations called QAM [17, 24, 25, 26].

QAM (quadrature amplitude modulation)

QAM signaling can be viewed as a combination of amplitude shift keying (ASK) and phase shift keying (PSK). It can also be viewed as
an amplitude shift keying in two dimensions. In an M-ary QAM signal, the signal in each state I is

where A is a constant, representing the amplitude of the lowest state, and ( a i, b i) is a pair of identifying states in the
constellation of the ith state. The 16-QAM constellation diagram is shown in Fig. 8.22.

The Constant Envelope Modulation Power Advantage

Constant envelope modulations such as FSK, GFSK, MSK, GMSK and Feher's IJF -
nonlinearly filtered ISI-free modulations offer not only enhanced spectral efficiency in
DS systems, they also provide an inherent transmitted power advantage. All constant
envelope modulations allow a DS transmiter's power amplifiers to operate at or near
saturation levels. On the other hand, standard BPSK, QPSK, QAM and even π/4-
DCQPSK modulations contain AM components in the modulated envelope, which
require from 3 to 6 dB of back off (from saturation) in the output power amplifier to
reduce or eliminate spectrum splatter of sideband components that might cause
Adjacent Channel Interference (ACI).

Most non-constant envelope modulations actually require fully linear power

amplification and thus for similar power outputs (to saturated RF PA stages) require
RF power amplifiers that are up to 4 times more capable (to handle the PEP required
by the waveform). These larger power amplifiers are less efficient, consume more
primary power, generate more heat and are more expensive than their Class C
amplifier counterparts.

Next time you design a new DS system, consider a Constant Envelope Modulation!

This page covers comparison between QPSK and MSK modulation techniques with respect
to various system parameters. Following table covers difference between QPSK and
MSK.
Specifications QPSK modulation MSK modulation

Full form Quadrature Phase Shift Keying Minimum Shift Keying

Maximum phase phase change of +/-90 degree smoothly over

change +/-90 , +/-180 degrees course of a bit period

requires linear amplifier. nonlinear

RF Amplifier amplifier if used will result into spectral phase change is linear and hence allows use
requirement regrowth due to +/-180 phase transition of nonlinear amplifier

Null Bandwidth equal to 1.0 times data rate equal to 1.5 times data rate

Power 99% power is concentrated in 1.0(data rate) 99% power is concentrated in 1.2(data rate)

PSD(Power PSD falls off proportional to inverse PSD falls off proportional to inverse fourth
Spectral Density) second power of frequency power of frequency

Amplitude variation on the order of 30dB very less

mainlobe to is very high. Side lobes are much smaller

sidelobe compare to main lobe and hence filtering of
suppression poor MSK modulated signal is easier.
 main lobe is wider than QPSK i.e. 1.5 times
width of main lobe 1.0 times data rate data rate

two BPSK signals are orthogonal to one

definition two BPSK in phase quadrature another in frequency quadrature

 Amplitude modulation (AM): here the amplitude of the carrier signal is varied in accordance to the
instantaneous amplitude of the modulating signal.
 Double-sideband modulation (DSB)
 Double-sideband modulation with carrier (DSB-WC) (used on the AM radio broadcasting band)
 Double-sideband suppressed-carrier transmission (DSB-SC)
 Double-sideband reduced carrier transmission (DSB-RC)
 Single-sideband modulation (SSB, or SSB-AM)
 SSB with carrier (SSB-WC)
 SSB suppressed carrier modulation (SSB-SC)
 Vestigial sideband modulation (VSB, or VSB-AM)
 Quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM)

 Double Sideband Suppressed Carrier Modulation
 Double-sideband suppressed-carrier transmission (DSB-SC) [4] is a transmission in which-
 (a) frequencies produced by amplitude modulation are symmetrically spaced above and
below the carrier frequency and
 (b) the carrier level is reduced to the lowest practical level, ideally completely suppressed.
 In the double-sideband suppressed-carrier transmission (DSB-SC) modulation, unlike AM,
the wave carrier is not transmitted; thus, a great percentage of power that is dedicated to it is
distributed between the sidebands, which implies an increase of the cover in DSB-SC,
compared to AM, for the same power used.

 For double-sideband suppressed carrier (DSB-SC) modulation the amplitude is related to the
message as follows:

 A(t)=Ac(t) m(t)

 Where A(t) is the instantaneous amplitude of the modulated carrier, and is a

linear function of the message signal m(t). A(t) is also known as the envelope of
the modulated signal.


Single-sideband modulation (SSB) [3]:
 Single sideband, SSB modulation is basically a derivative of amplitude modulation, AM. By
removing some of the components of the ordinary AM signal it is possible to significantly
improve its efficiency.

 It is possible to see how an AM signal can be improved by looking at the spectrum of the
signal. When a steady state carrier is modulated with an audio signal, for example a tone of
 1 kHz, then two smaller signals are seen at frequencies 1 kHz above and below the main
carrier.

 If the steady state tones are replaced with audio like that efficiency with speech of music,
these comprise many different frequencies and an audio spectrum with frequencies over a
band of frequencies is seen. When modulated onto the carrier, these spectra are seen above
and below the carrier.

 It can be seen that if the top frequency that is modulated onto the carrier is 6 kHz, then the
top spectra will extend to 6 kHz above and below the signal. In other words the bandwidth
occupied by the AM signal is twice the maximum frequency of the signal that is used to
modulated the carrier, i.e. it is twice the bandwidth of the audio signal to be carried.

VSB-vestigial sideband[3]?

VSB is a form of amplitude modulation intended to save bandwidth over regular AM. Let’s say we
have a baseband signal that extends up to 1 MHz that we want to transmit using some form of
amplitude modulation. Let’s say it also has to be compatible with a simple receiver using a diode AM
detector. Our choices for amplitude modulation format would be single sideband suppressed carrier,
double sideband suppressed carrier, plain old AM (double sideband with carrier) or vestigial
sideband. Let’s consider the choices…

SSB/suppressed carrier – transmit bandwidth is the same as baseband bandwidth (= 1 MHz). This is
clearly a good choice for minimizing bandwidth, but the problem is that we can’t detect it with a
simple diode detector found in most consumer AM radios (and analog TV receivers) because it is
transmitted with no carrier signal.

DSB/suppressed carrier – transmit bandwidth is twice the baseband bandwidth (= 2 x 1 MHz). Not
best choice for saving bandwidth, plus it has the same detection problem that SSB has.

Plain old AM – transmit bandwidth is twice the baseband bandwidth (= 2 x 1 MHz), but it can be
detected with the simple diode detector. Good choice for the receiver, not so good for bandwidth.

M ary techniques: The word binary represents two-bits. M simply

represents a digit that corresponds to the number of conditions, levels, or
combinations possible for a given number of binary variables.
This is the type of digital modulation technique used for data transmission
in which instead of one-bit, two or more bits are transmitted at a time.
As a single signal is used for multiple bit transmission, the channel
bandwidth is reduced.

M-ary Equation
If a digital signal is given under four conditions, such as voltage levels,
frequencies, phases and amplitude, then M = 4.
The number of bits necessary to produce a given number of conditions is
expressed mathematically as
[Math Processing Error]N=log2⁡M
Where,
N is the number of bits necessary.
M is the number of conditions, levels, or combinations possible with N bits.
The above equation can be re-arranged as −
[Math Processing Error]2N=M
For example, with two bits, 22 = 4 conditions are possible.

Types of M-ary Techniques

In general, (M-ary) multi-level modulation techniques are used in digital
communications as the digital inputs with more than two modulation levels
allowed on the transmitter’s input. Hence, these techniques are bandwidth
efficient.
There are many different M-ary modulation techniques. Some of these
techniques, modulate one parameter of the carrier signal, such as
amplitude, phase, and frequency.

M-ary ASK
This is called M-ary Amplitude Shift Keying (M-ASK) or M-ary Pulse
Amplitude Modulation (PAM).
The amplitude of the carrier signal, takes on M different levels.

Representation of M-ary ASK

[Math Processing
Error]Sm(t)=Amcos(2πfct)Amϵ(2m−1−M)Δ,m=1,2....Mand0≤t≤Ts
This method is also used in PAM. Its implementation is simple. However, M-
ary ASK is susceptible to noise and distortion.

M-ary FSK
This is called as M-ary Frequency Shift Keying.
The frequency of the carrier signal, takes on M different levels.
Representation of M-ary FSK
[Math Processing
Error]Si(t)=2EsTScos⁡⟮ ΠTs(nc+i)t⟯0≤t≤Tsandi=1,2.....M
where [Math Processing Error]fc=nc2Ts for some fixed integer n.
This is not susceptible to noise as much as ASK. The transmitted M number
of signals are equal in energy and duration. The signals are separated
by [Math Processing Error]12Ts Hz making the signals orthogonal to each
other.
Since M signals are orthogonal, there is no crowding in the signal space.
The bandwidth efficiency of an M-ary FSK decreases and the power
efficiency increases with the increase in M.

M-ary PSK
This is called as M-ary Phase Shift Keying.
The phase of the carrier signal, takes on M different levels.

Representation of M-ary PSK

[Math Processing Error]Si(t)=2ETcos⁡(w0t+∅it)0≤t≤Tsandi=1,2.....M
[Math Processing Error]∅it=2ΠiMwherei=1,2,3......M
Here, the envelope is constant with more phase possibilities. This method
was used during the early days of space communication. It has better
performance than ASK and FSK. Minimal phase estimation error at the
receiver.
The bandwidth efficiency of M-ary PSK decreases and the power efficiency
increases with the increase in M. So far, we have discussed different
modulation techniques. The output of all these techniques is a binary
sequence, represented as 1s and 0s. This binary or digital information has
many types and forms, which are discussed further.

What is PSK?
Introduction:
It is a digital modulation technique which uses phase of the analog carrier to
represent digital binary data. Phase of the carrier wave is changed according to
the binary inputs (1 or 0). In two level PSK, difference of 180 phase shift is used
between binary 1 and binary 0.
There are many different types of modulation techniques which utilizes this
concept to transmit digital binary data. It include two level PSK (i.e. BPSK), Four
level PSK (i.e. QPSK) etc. Some techniques employ both amplitude and phase
variation to represent binary data such as 16-QAM, 64-QAM, 256-QAM etc. Two
level PSK represents single bit by each signaling elements while four level PSK
represents two bits by each signaling elements and so on. 8-PSK represents
three bits by each signaling elements.

Following are the equations used to represent BPSK.

➨s(t) = A*cos(2*π*fc*t) for Binary 1 than
➨s(t) = A*cos(2*π*fc*t + π) for Binary 0

Forms of phase shift keying

Although phase modulation is used for some analogue transmissions, it is far more widely used as a digital form of
modulation where it switches between different phases. This is known as phase shift keying, PSK, and there are
many flavours of this. It is even possible to combine phase shift keying and amplitude keying in a form of modulation
known as quadrature amplitude modulation, QAM.
The list below gives some of the more commonly used forms of phase shift keying, PSK, and related forms of
modulation that are used:

 PSK - Phase Shift Keying

 BPSK - Binary Phase Shift Keying

  QPSK - Quadrature Phase Shift Keying

 O-QPSK - Offset Quadrature Phase Shift Keying

 8 PSK - 8 Point Phase Shift Keying

 16 PSK - 16 Point Phase Shift Keying

 QAM - Quadrature Amplitude Modulation

 16 QAM - 16 Point Quadrature Amplitude Modulation

 64 QAM - 64 Point Quadrature Amplitude Modulation

 MSK - Minimum Shift Keying

 GMSK - Gaussian filtered Minimum Shift Keying

These are just some of the major forms of phase shift keying, PSK, that are widely used in radio communications
applications today. Each form of phase shift keying has its own advantages and disadvantages. In general the higher
order forms of modulation allow higher data rates to be carried within a given bandwidth. However the downside is
that the higher data rates require a better signal to noise ratio before the error rates start to rise and this counteracts
any improvements in data rate performance. In view of this balance many radio communications systems are able to
dynamically choose the form of modulation depending upon the prevailing conditions and requirements.

Spread spectrum modulation: A collective class of signaling techniques are

employed before transmitting a signal to provide a secure communication,
known as the Spread Spectrum Modulation. The main advantage of
spread spectrum communication technique is to prevent “interference”
whether it is intentional or unintentional.
The signals modulated with these techniques are hard to interfere and
cannot be jammed. An intruder with no official access is never allowed to
crack them. Hence, these techniques are used for military purposes. These
spread spectrum signals transmit at low power density and has a wide
spread of signals.

Pseudo-Noise Sequence
A coded sequence of 1s and 0s with certain auto-correlation properties,
called as Pseudo-Noise coding sequence is used in spread spectrum
techniques. It is a maximum-length sequence, which is a type of cyclic
code.

Narrow-band and Spread-spectrum Signals

Both the Narrow band and Spread spectrum signals can be understood
easily by observing their frequency spectrum as shown in the following
figures.

Narrow-band Signals
The Narrow-band signals have the signal strength concentrated as shown in
the following frequency spectrum figure.

Following are some of its features −

 Band of signals occupy a narrow range of frequencies.

 Power density is high.

 Spread of energy is low and concentrated.

Though the features are good, these signals are prone to interference.

Spread Spectrum Signals

The spread spectrum signals have the signal strength distributed as shown
in the following frequency spectrum figure.
Following are some of its features −

 Band of signals occupy a wide range of frequencies.

 Power density is very low.

 Energy is wide spread.

With these features, the spread spectrum signals are highly resistant to
interference or jamming. Since multiple users can share the same spread
spectrum bandwidth without interfering with one another, these can be
called as multiple access techniques.

FHSS and DSSS / CDMA

Spread spectrum multiple access techniques uses signals which have a
transmission bandwidth of a magnitude greater than the minimum required
RF bandwidth.
These are of two types.

 Frequency Hopped Spread Spectrum (FHSS)

 Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS)

Frequency Hopped Spread Spectrum (FHSS)

This is frequency hopping technique, where the users are made to change
the frequencies of usage, from one to another in a specified time interval,
hence called as frequency hopping. For example, a frequency was allotted
to sender 1 for a particular period of time. Now, after a while, sender 1
hops to the other frequency and sender 2 uses the first frequency, which
was previously used by sender 1. This is called as frequency reuse.
The frequencies of the data are hopped from one to another in order to
provide a secure transmission. The amount of time spent on each frequency
hop is called as Dwell time.

Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS)

Whenever a user wants to send data using this DSSS technique, each and
every bit of the user data is multiplied by a secret code, called as chipping
code. This chipping code is nothing but the spreading code which is
multiplied with the original message and transmitted. The receiver uses the
same code to retrieve the original message.

Comparison between FHSS and DSSS/CDMA

Both the spread spectrum techniques are popular for their characteristics.
To have a clear understanding, let us take a look at their comparisons.

FHSS DSSS / CDMA

Multiple frequencies are used Single frequency is used

Hard to find the user’s frequency at any instant of time User frequency, once
allotted is always the
same

Frequency reuse is allowed Frequency reuse is not

allowed

Sender has to wait if the

Sender need not wait
spectrum is busy

Power strength of the signal is high Power strength of the

signal is low

Stronger and penetrates through the obstacles It is weaker compared to

FHSS
It is never affected by interference It can be affected by
interference

It is cheaper It is expensive

This is the commonly used technique This technique is not

frequently used

Advantages of Spread Spectrum

Following are the advantages of spread spectrum −

 Cross-talk elimination

 Better output with data integrity

 Reduced effect of multipath fading

 Better security

 Reduction in noise

 Co-existence with other systems

 Longer operative distances

 Hard to detect

 Not easy to demodulate/decode

 Difficult to jam the signals

Process Gain:
 In a spread-spectrum system, the process gain (or "processing gain") is the ratio of the spread (or RF)
bandwidth to the unspread (or baseband) bandwidth. It is usually expressed in decibels (dB).
 For example, if a 1 kHz signal is spread to 100 kHz, the process gain expressed as a numerical ratio would
be 100000/1000 = 100. Or in decibels, 10 log10(100) = 20 dB.
 Note that process gain does not reduce the effects of wideband thermal noise. It can be shown that a direct-
sequence spread-spectrum (DSSS) system has exactly the same bit error behavior as a non-spread-
spectrum system with the same modulation format. Thus, on an additive white Gaussian noise (AWGN)
channel without interference, a spread system requires the same transmitter power as an unspread system,
all other things being equal.
 Unlike a conventional communication system, however, a DSSS system does have a certain resistance
against narrowband interference, as the interference is not subject to the process gain of the DSSS signal,
and hence the signal-to-interference ratio is improved.
 In frequency modulation (FM), the processing gain can be expressed as


 where:
 Gp is the processing gain,
 Bn is the noise bandwidth,
 Δf is the peak frequency deviation,
 W is the sinusoidal modulating frequency.
frequency-shift keying (FSK)
Frequency-shift keying (FSK) is a method of transmitting digital signals. The
two binarystates, logic 0 (low) and 1 (high), are each represented by an analog waveform.
Logic 0 is represented by a wave at a specific frequency, and logic 1 is represented by a
wave at a different frequency. A modem converts the binary data from a computer to FSK
for transmission over telephone lines, cables, optical fiber, or wireless media. The modem
also converts incoming FSK signals to digital low and high states, which the computer can
"understand."

The FSK mode was introduced for use with mechanical teleprinters in the mid-1900s. The standard
speed of those machines was 45 baud, equivalent to about 45 bits per second. When personal
computers became common and networks came into being, this signaling speed was tedious.
Transmission of large text documents and programs took hours; image transfer was unknown. During
the 1970s, engineers began to develop modems that ran at faster speeds, and the quest for ever-
greater bandwidth has continued ever since. Today, a standard telephone modem operates at
thousands of bits per second. Cable and wireless modems work at more than 1,000,000 bps (one
megabit per second or 1 Mbps), and optical fiber modems function at many Mbps. But the basic
principle of FSK has not changed in more than half a century.

Parameters ASK FSK PSK

Variable Amplitude Frequency Phase

characteristics
Parameters ASK FSK PSK

Bandwidth Is proportional to signal rate (B B=(1+d)×S+2Δf B=(1+d)×S

=(1+d)S),d is due to modulation &
filtering ,lies between 0 & 1.

Noise immunity Low High High

Complexity Simple Moderately complex Very complex

Error probability High Low Low

Performance in Poor Better than ASK Better than FSK

presence of noise

Bit rate Suitable upto 100 bits/sec Suitable upto about Suitable for
1200 bits/sec high bit rates

M-ary-FSK (MFSK), M-ary-PSK (MPSK)

Modes on the HF bands utilize frequency or phase modulation of a sub-carrier, which then in turn
modulates a carrier using suppressed carrier SSB keying, or by directly modulating a carrier.
Decoding can be done from the receiver AF or IF output (USB, LSB, CW or FAX demodulator).
Examples of this type of modulation are ordinary two-frequency FSK, four-frequency FSK (Twinplex)
and the STANAG PSK modes. M-ary designates the number of modulation levels. FSK designates
common two-frequency FSK.
MFSK systems deviate from the classical binary transmission of '0' (Mark) and '1' (Space), as a single
tone carries more information. This is the reason for a higher element period in MFSK, compared with
binary transmissions having the same bit rate. This produces a substantial increase in the
insensitivity to multi-path propagation and noise. Examples of MFSK systems are PICCOLO,
COQUELET and CIS-36.
Due to intensive research and the availability of highly efficient hardware and software, the
waveforms originally developed within the STANAG specifications of NATO have gained considerable
influence in radio data communications. This has resulted in very efficient modems utilizing multi-
phase modulated single-tones, combined with the use of adaptive equalization and sophisticated
coding and demodulation and decoding.
Satellite TV broadcasting utilizes QPSK or even 8PSK.
A special instance of m-ary modulation is QAM (Quadrature Amplitude Modulation) in which phase
and amplitude modulation are combined. An example of QAM is digital broadcasting in the MF and HF
bands (DRM).
Quadrature Amplitude Modulation or QAM is a form of modulation which is widely used for modulating data signals
onto a carrier used for radio communications. It is widely used because it offers advantages over other forms of data
modulation such as PSK, although many forms of data modulation operate alongside each other.
Quadrature Amplitude Modulation, QAM is a signal in which two carriers shifted in phase by 90 degrees are
modulated and the resultant output consists of both amplitude and phase variations. In view of the fact that both
amplitude and phase variations are present it may also be considered as a mixture of amplitude and phase
modulation.
A motivation for the use of quadrature amplitude modulation comes from the fact that a straight amplitude modulated
signal, i.e. double sideband even with a suppressed carrier occupies twice the bandwidth of the modulating signal.
This is very wasteful of the available frequency spectrum. QAM restores the balance by placing two independent
double sideband suppressed carrier signals in the same spectrum as one ordinary double sideband supressed carrier
signal.

Analogue and digital QAM

Quadrature amplitude modulation, QAM may exist in what may be termed either analogue or digital formats. The
analogue versions of QAM are typically used to allow multiple analogue signals to be carried on a single carrier. For
example it is used in PAL and NTSC television systems, where the different channels provided by QAM enable it to
carry the components of chroma or colour information. In radio applications a system known as C-QUAM is used for
AM stereo radio. Here the different channels enable the two channels required for stereo to be carried on the single
carrier.
Digital formats of QAM are often referred to as "Quantised QAM" and they are being increasingly used for data
communications often within radio communications systems. Radio communications systems ranging from cellular
technology as in the case of LTE through wireless systems including WiMAX, and Wi-Fi 802.11 use a variety of forms
of QAM, and the use of QAM will only increase within the field of radio communications.

Digital / Quantised QAM basics

Quadrature amplitude modulation, QAM, when used for digital transmission for radio communications applications is
able to carry higher data rates than ordinary amplitude modulated schemes and phase modulated schemes. As with
phase shift keying, etc, the number of points at which the signal can rest, i.e. the number of points on the
constellation is indicated in the modulation format description, e.g. 16QAM uses a 16 point constellation.
When using QAM, the constellation points are normally arranged in a square grid with equal vertical and horizontal
spacing and as a result the most common forms of QAM use a constellation with the number of points equal to a
power of 2 i.e. 4, 16, 64 . . . .
By using higher order modulation formats, i.e. more points on the constellation, it is possible to transmit more bits per
symbol. However the points are closer together and they are therefore more susceptible to noise and data errors.
Normally a QAM constellation is square and therefore the most common forms of QAM 16QAM, 64QAM and
256QAM.
The advantage of moving to the higher order formats is that there are more points within the constellation and
therefore it is possible to transmit more bits per symbol. The downside is that the constellation points are closer
together and therefore the link is more susceptible to noise. As a result, higher order versions of QAM are only used
when there is a sufficiently high signal to noise ratio.
To provide an example of how QAM operates, the constellation diagram below shows the values associated with the
different states for a 16QAM signal. From this it can be seen that a continuous bit stream may be grouped into fours
and represented as a sequence.
 Bit sequence mapping for a 16QAM signal
Normally the lowest order QAM encountered is 16QAM. The reason for this being the lowest order normally
encountered is that 2QAM is the same as binary phase-shift keying, BPSK, and 4QAM is the same as quadrature
phase-shift keying, QPSK.
Additionally 8QAM is not widely used. This is because error-rate performance of 8QAM is almost the same as that of
16QAM - it is only about 0.5 dB better and the data rate is only three-quarters that of 16QAM. This arises from the
rectangular, rather than square shape of the constellation.

QAM advantages and disadvantages

Although QAM appears to increase the efficiency of transmission for radio communications systems by utilising both
amplitude and phase variations, it has a number of drawbacks. The first is that it is more susceptible to noise
because the states are closer together so that a lower level of noise is needed to move the signal to a different
decision point. Receivers for use with phase or frequency modulation are both able to use limiting amplifiers that are
able to remove any amplitude noise and thereby improve the noise reliance. This is not the case with QAM.
The second limitation is also associated with the amplitude component of the signal. When a phase or frequency
modulated signal is amplified in a radio transmitter, there is no need to use linear amplifiers, whereas when using
QAM that contains an amplitude component, linearity must be maintained. Unfortunately linear amplifiers are less
efficient and consume more power, and this makes them less attractive for mobile applications.

QAM vs other modulation formats

As there are advantages and disadvantages of using QAM it is necessary to compare QAM with other modes before
making a decision about the optimum mode. Some radio communications systems dynamically change the
modulation scheme dependent upon the link conditions and requirements - signal level, noise, data rate required, etc.
The table below compares various forms of modulation:

SUMMARY OF TYPES OF MODULATION WITH DATA CAPACITIES

MODULATION BITS PER ERROR MARGIN COMPLEXITY
SYMBOL
OOK 1 1/2 0.5 Low
BPSK 1 1 1 Medium
QPSK 2 1 / √2 0.71 Medium
16 QAM 4 √2 / 6 0.23 High
64QAM 6 √2 / 14 0.1 High
Typically it is found that if data rates above those that can be achieved using 8-PSK are required, it is more usual to
use quadrature amplitude modulation. This is because it has a greater distance between adjacent points in the I - Q
plane and this improves its noise immunity. As a result it can achieve the same data rate at a lower signal level.
However the points no longer the same amplitude. This means that the demodulator must detect both phase and
amplitude. Also the fact that the amplitude varies means that a linear amplifier si required to amplify the signal.

Analog Vs Digital Modulation:

Any modulation block consists of input signal, carrier signal and output signal. Input signal is
information either in analog form or digital form which need to be transmitted. Input signal is
designated as modulating waveform or modulating signal. Carrier signal is usually high
frequency signal. The output signal is designated as modulated waveform or modulated
signal.

Analog Modulation

Fig.1 Analog Modulation (AM example)

Analog modulation is the term refers to modulation of the analog signals. The figure-1
depicts this type of modulation with AM as example. As shown here input signal and carrier
signal both are analog in nature. The parameters of carrier i.e. amplitude or frequency or
phase is varied according to the input frequency signal.

Examples:
• AM (Amplitude Modulation): Ampitude of the carrier varies according to amplitude of
analog input signal.
• FM (Frequency Modulation): Frequency of the carrier varies according to frequency of
analog input signal.
• PM (Phase Modulation): Phase of the carrier varies according to phase of analog input
signal.
Refer

Digital Modulation

Fig.2 Digital Modulation (ASK example)

Digital modulation is the term refers to modulation of the digital signals. The figure-2 depicts
this type of modulation with ASK as example. As shown here input signal is digital while
carrier signal is in analog form. Here, based on digital signal input i.e. logic 1 or logic 0,
carrier frequency is manipulated before transmission.

Examples:
ASK (Amplitude Shift Keying): The carrier signal with constant amplitude and frequency is
present when binary 1 digital signal is being transmitted. No carrier during binary 0
transmission period.
FSK (Frequency Shift Keying): The carrier signal with different frequencies are transmitted
during binary 1 and binary 0 periods.
PSK (Phase Shift Keying): The carrier signal with different phases are transmitted during
binary 1 and binary 0 period.
Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (QPSK) is a variation of BPSK, and it is
also a Double Side Band Suppressed Carrier (DSBSC) modulation scheme,
which sends two bits of digital information at a time, called as bigits.
Instead of the conversion of digital bits into a series of digital stream, it
converts them into bit pairs. This decreases the data bit rate to half, which
allows space for the other users.

QPSK Modulator
The QPSK Modulator uses a bit-splitter, two multipliers with local oscillator,
a 2-bit serial to parallel converter, and a summer circuit. Following is the
block diagram for the same.

At the modulator’s input, the message signal’s even bits (i.e., 2 nd bit,
4th bit, 6th bit, etc.) and odd bits (i.e., 1st bit, 3rd bit, 5th bit, etc.) are
separated by the bits splitter and are multiplied with the same carrier to
generate odd BPSK (called as PSKI) and even BPSK (called as PSKQ).
The PSKQ signal is anyhow phase shifted by 90° before being modulated.
The QPSK waveform for two-bits input is as follows, which shows the
modulated result for different instances of binary inputs.
QPSK Demodulator
The QPSK Demodulator uses two product demodulator circuits with local
oscillator, two band pass filters, two integrator circuits, and a 2-bit parallel
to serial converter. Following is the diagram for the same.

The two product detectors at the input of demodulator simultaneously

demodulate the two BPSK signals. The pair of bits are recovered here from
the original data. These signals after processing, are passed to the parallel
to serial converter.
Difference between QPSK vs OQPSK vs
pi/4QPSK
All these are modulation schemes used in wireless digital communication systems. OQPSK
and pi/4 QPSK are variants of the basic QPSK modulation schemes. They are widely used
based on their unique individual phase transition functionalities compare to one another.
This page explain these modulation types and explain difference between QPSK vs
OQPSK vs pi/4QPSK.

QPSK

Fig1.
QPSK-OQPSK block diagram
As mentioned Quadrature Phase Shift Keying is referred as QPSK. Here maximum phase
shift is limited to about 90 degree.
In QPSK, first input bit stream is split into two bit streams referred as odd and even. These
streams are applied simultaneously to the mixers.

Refer BPSK vs QPSK page for power spectrum density of QPSK modulated spectrum.

OQPSK
Offset Quadrature Phase Shift Keying is referred as OQPSK. Here maximum phase shift is
about +/- 90 degree.
In OQPSK, after splitting the bit stream into odd and even, one bit stream is made offset by
1 bit period with respect to the other. After this, the direct and shifted bit streams are fed to
the mixers.

Power spectral density(PSD) of OQPSK modulated spectrum is same as QPSK. Pls. note
offset in bit stream will not have any effect on the PSD.

Fig.2
QPSK-OQPSK time domain signal waveforms
As shown in the fig.2, as transitions are offset for both the odd and even bit streams at any
given time; only one of the bit stream can change the values.

As shown above in the constellation diagram, phase transition goes through the origin and
this results into suddon phase reversal in the time domain signal envelope. When such
signal goes through the nonlinear amplification will result into spectrum widening. To
overcome regeneration of sidelobes and spectrum widening, linear amplifier is employed.
But linear amplifiers are less efficient. Hence OQPSK has been developed. OQPSK
prevents phase transition from the origin by shifting one stream by a bit period and allowing
only one bit to change between the transitions.

pi/4 QPSK
pi/4 QPSK modulation scheme is obtained by adding additional π/4 phase shift in the phase
of the carriers of the symbols.

Input Bits QPSK Phase (φk) OQPSK Phase (φk)

00 O degree -π/4

01 π/2 3π/4

10 Π -3π/4

11 3π/2 or -π/2 π/4

Table mentions phase output values for different input bit combinations for both the QPSK
and pi/4QPSK modulations.

Fig.3 pi/4 QPSK constellation diagram

π/4 shifted version of QPSK is referred as pi/4 QPSK. With this modulation compromise
between QPSK and OQPSK is done and maximum phase transition of about 135 degree is
achieved.
In the presence of the multipath spread and fading conditions, pi/4 QPSK perform better
than OQPSK. This signal is demodulated in coherent and non-coherent fashion and hence
the design of the receiver will be simple. Figure depicts all the possible states of the
&pi/4QPSK constellation.

The table below summarizes QPSK, OQPSK and pi/4 QPSK modulation types.

QPSK OQPSK pi/4 QPSK

phase changes of +/- 90 and +/-180 Maximum phase change of

degrees phase changes of +/- 90 exist +/-45 and +/-135

less demands of linear amplifiers, efficient Phase transitions avoid

Requirements of linear amplifier as
non linear amplifier cause spectral
regrowth because of abrupt +/-180
degree transitions of the both bits
change the phase at the same time.
non linear amplifier can be employed and zero crossing. This will
they do not cause much spectral regrowth, remove design constaints
as one of the bits changes the phase at a on the amplifier, non
time and occurs twice during the symbol linear amplifier can be
period with half the intensity of QPSK employed

Null Bandwidth is 1.0 X Data rate Same as QPSK Same as QPSK

Bandwidth containing 90% of

power is in 0.8 X Data rate Same as QPSK Same as QPSK

Power spectral density falls of as

inverse second power of frequency Same as QPSK Same as QPSK

99% of power is contained in 1.0 X

data rate Same as QPSK Same as QPSK

Amplitude variations are of the

order of 30dB Amplitude variation are of the order of 3 dB -

Main lobe to side lobe suppression

is poor Same as QPSK Same as QPSK

Main lobe width is 1.0 X data rate Same as QPSK Same as QPSK

Diversity:
Diversity- is a powerful communication technique that
provides wireless link improvements at relatively low
cost.
 Diversity exploits the random nature of radio
propagation by finding independent signal path for
communication.

These independent paths are highly uncorrelated.

If one radio path undergoes a deep fade another
independent
path may have a strong signal

Time Diversity:

Time diversity repeatedly transmits information at

the time spacing that exceeds the coherence time of

the channel.

Multiple repetitions of the signals will be received

with independent fading conditions, thereby

providing diversity.
Our modern implementation of time diversity

involves the use of RAKE receiver for spread

spectrum CDMA.

The rake receiver is so named because it reminds the function of a

garden rake, each finger collecting symbol energy similarly to how tines

on a rake collect leaves.

A rake receiver is a radio receiver designed to counter the

effects of multipath fading, It does this by using several "sub-receivers"

called fingers.

The rake receiver was patented in the US in 1956 by “Price

and Green”.
Each correlator detects a time-shifted version of the original

transmission, and each finger correlates to a portion of the

signal, which is delayed by at least one chip in time(1/Rc)

from the other fingers.

This will result in higher SNR (Eb/N0) in a multipath

environment than in a "clean" environment.

Multipath component appears like uncorrelated noise at a

CDMA receiver and equalization is not required.

The outputs of each correlator are weighted to provide better

estimate of the transmitted signal than is provided by a single

component.

The weighting coefficients are based on the power or the

SNR from each correlator output.

If the power or SNR is small out of a particular correlator, it

will be assigned a small weighting factor or vice versa.

Multicarrier Modulation, MCM Tutorial

- multicarrier modulation, MCM is being used increasing as a modulation format for high
data rate transmissions. OFDM is the most popular format, but there are other technologies
and techniques that are now becoming viable.
Multicarrier modulation, MCM is a technique for transmitting data by sending the data over multiple carriers.
Multicarrier modulation techniques are particularly beneficial because when the data rates increase, so wider
bandwidths are needed. When this happens, different frequencies within the bandwidth are subject to different path
lengths and different fading conditions. This can distort the transmission making it difficult to copy. MCM provides a
way of increasing the bandwidth whilst still being able to tolerate the varying fading conditions present.
A further advantage of multicarrier systems is that they are less susceptible to interference than single carrier system
as interference may only affect a small number of the carriers.

Multicarrier modulation basics

Multicarrier modulation operates by dividing the data stream to be transmitted into a number of lower data rate data
streams. Each of the lower data rate streams is then used to modulate an individual carrier.
When the overall transmission is received, the receiver has to then re-assembles the overall data stream from those
received on the individual carriers.
It is possible to use a variety of different techniques for multicarrier transmissions. Each form of MCM has its own
advantages and can be sued in different applications.

Multicarrier modulation systems

There are many forms of multicarrier modulation techniques that are in use of being investigated for future use. Some
of the more widely known schemes are summarised below.

 Orthogonal frequency division multiplexing, OFDM: OFDM is possibly the most widely used form of
multicarrier modulation. It uses multiple closely spaced carriers and as a result of their orthogonality, mutual
interference between them is avoided. Read more about OFDM

 Generalised Frequency Division Multiplexing, GFDM: GFDM is a multicarrier modulation scheme that
uses closed spaced non-orthogonal carriers and provides flexible pulse shaping. It is therefore attractive for
various applications such as machine to machine communications.

 Filter Bank Multi Carrier, FBMC: FBMC is a form of multicarrier modulation scheme that uses a
specialised pulse shaping filter known as an isotropic orthogonal transform algorithm, IOTA within the digital
signal processing for the system. This scheme provides good time and frequency localisation properties and
this ensures that inter-symbol interference and inter-carrier interference are avoided without the use of cyclic
prefix required for OFDM based systems. Read more about FBMC

FDM VS OFDM: FDM stands for Frequency Division Multiplexing and OFDM stands for
Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing.
Coherence bandwidth is a statistical measurement of the range of frequencies over which the channel can be
considered "flat", or in other words the approximate maximum bandwidth or frequency interval over which two
frequencies of a signal are likely to experience comparable or correlated amplitude fading. If the multipath time delay

spread equals Dseconds, then the coherence bandwidth in rad/s is given approximately by the equation:

Also coherence bandwidth in Hz is given approximately by the equation:

It can be reasonably assumed that the channel is flat if the coherence bandwidth is greater than the data
signal bandwidth. The coherence bandwidth varies over cellular or PCScommunications paths because the
multipath spread D varies from path to path.

Selective fading[edit]
Selective fading or frequency selective fading is a radio propagation anomaly caused by partial cancellation of a
radio signal by itself — the signal arrives at the receiver by two different paths, and at least one of the paths is
changing (lengthening or shortening). This typically happens in the early evening or early morning as the various
layers in the ionosphere move, separate, and combine. The two paths can both be skywave or one be groundwave.
Selective fading manifests as a slow, cyclic disturbance; the cancellation effect, or "null", is deepest at one particular
frequency, which changes constantly, sweeping through the received audio.
As the carrier frequency of a signal is varied, the magnitude of the change in amplitude will vary. The coherence
bandwidth measures the separation in frequency after which two signals will experience uncorrelated fading.

 In flat fading, the coherence bandwidth of the channel is larger than the bandwidth of the signal. Therefore, all
frequency components of the signal will experience the same magnitude of fading.
 In frequency-selective fading, the coherence bandwidth of the channel is smaller than the bandwidth of the
signal. Different frequency components of the signal therefore experience uncorrelated fading.
Since different frequency components of the signal are affected independently, it is highly unlikely that all parts of the
signal will be simultaneously affected by a deep fade. Certain modulation schemes such as orthogonal frequency-
division multiplexing (OFDM) and code division multiple access (CDMA) are well-suited to employing frequency
diversity to provide robustness to fading. OFDM divides the wideband signal into many slowly modulated
narrowband subcarriers, each exposed to flat fading rather than frequency selective fading. This can be combated by
means of error coding, simple equalization or adaptive bit loading. Inter-symbol interference is avoided by introducing
a guard interval between the symbols. CDMA uses the rake receiver to deal with each echo separately.
Frequency-selective fading channels are also dispersive, in that the signal energy associated with each symbol is
spread out in time. This causes transmitted symbols that are adjacent in time to interfere with each
other. Equalizers are often deployed in such channels to compensate for the effects of the intersymbol interference.
The echoes may also be exposed to Doppler shift, resulting in a time varying channel model.
The effect can be counteracted by applying some diversity scheme, for example OFDM (with
subcarrier interleaving and forward error correction), or by using two receivers with separate antennas spaced a
quarter-wavelength apart, or a specially designed diversity receiver with two antennas. Such a receiver continuously
compares the signals arriving at the two antennas and presents the better signal.

GMSK:
Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying, or to give it its full title Gaussian filtered Minimum Shift Keying, GMSK, is a form of
modulation used in a variety of digital radio communications systems. It has advantages of being able to carry digital
modulation while still using the spectrum efficiently. One of the problems with other forms of phase shift keying is that
the sidebands extend outwards from the main carrier and these can cause interference to other radio
communications systems using nearby channels.
In view of the efficient use of the spectrum in this way, GMSK modulation has been used in a number of radio
communications applications. Possibly the most widely used is the GSM cellular technology which is used worldwide
and has well over 3 billion subscribers.

GMSK basics
GMSK modulation is based on MSK, which is itself a form of continuous-phase frequency-shift keying. One of the
problems with standard forms of PSK is that sidebands extend out from the carrier. To overcome this, MSK and its
derivative GMSK can be used.
MSK and also GMSK modulation are what is known as a continuous phase scheme. Here there are no phase
discontinuities because the frequency changes occur at the carrier zero crossing points. This arises as a result of the
unique factor of MSK that the frequency difference between the logical one and logical zero states is always equal to
half the data rate. This can be expressed in terms of the modulation index, and it is always equal to 0.5.

Signal using MSK modulation

A plot of the spectrum of an MSK signal shows sidebands extending well beyond a bandwidth equal to the data rate.
This can be reduced by passing the modulating signal through a low pass filter prior to applying it to the carrier. The
requirements for the filter are that it should have a sharp cut-off, narrow bandwidth and its impulse response should
show no overshoot. The ideal filter is known as a Gaussian filter which has a Gaussian shaped response to an
impulse and no ringing. In this way the basic MSK signal is converted to GMSK modulation.
 Spectral density of MSK and GMSK signals

Generating GMSK modulation

There are two main ways in which GMSK modulation can be generated. The most obvious way is to filter the
modulating signal using a Gaussian filter and then apply this to a frequency modulator where the modulation index is
set to 0.5. This method is very simple and straightforward but it has the drawback that the modulation index must
exactly equal 0.5. In practice this analogue method is not suitable because component tolerances drift and cannot be
set exactly.

Generating GMSK using a Gaussian filter and VCO

A second method is more widely used. Here what is known as a quadrature modulator is used. The term quadrature
means that the phase of a signal is in quadrature or 90 degrees to another one. The quadrature modulator uses one
signal that is said to be in-phase and another that is in quadrature to this. In view of the in-phase and quadrature
elements this type of modulator is often said to be an I-Q modulator. Using this type of modulator the modulation
index can be maintained at exactly 0.5 without the need for any settings or adjustments. This makes it much easier to
use, and capable of providing the required level of performance without the need for adjustments. For demodulation
the technique can be used in reverse.

Block diagram of I-Q modulator used to create GMSK

Advantages of GMSK modulation
there are several advantages to the use of GMSK modulation for a radio communications system. One is obviously
the improved spectral efficiency when compared to other phase shift keyed modes.
A further advantage of GMSK is that it can be amplified by a non-linear amplifier and remain undistorted This is
because there are no elements of the signal that are carried as amplitude variations. This advantage is of particular
importance when using small portable transmitters, such as those required by cellular technology. Non-linear
amplifiers are more efficient in terms of the DC power input from the power rails that they convert into a radio
frequency signal. This means that the power consumption for a given output is much less, and this results in lower
levels of battery consumption; a very important factor for cell phones.
A further advantage of GMSK modulation again arises from the fact that none of the information is carried as
amplitude variations. This means that is immune to amplitude variations and therefore more resilient to noise, than
some other forms of modulation, because most noise is mainly amplitude based.

Small Scale Fading:

1. mall scale fading or simply fading is used to describe the rapid fluctuations of the amplitudes,
phases, or multi path delays of radio signal over a short period of time or travel distance, so
that large scale path loss effects may be ignored.
2. Fading is caused by interference between two or more versions of the transmitted signal
which arrive at receiver at slightly different times.
3. These waves are called as multipath waves combine at receiver antenna to give a resultant
signal which can very widely in amplitude and phase, depending on distribution of the
intensity and relative propagation time of waves and bandwidth of transmitted signal
o Three most important small scale fading effects are: Rapid changes in signal
strength over a small travel distance or time interval
o Random frequency modulation due to varying Doppler’s shifts on multi path signals
o Time dispersion (echoes) caused by multi path propagation delay.
4. For narrow band signal small scale Fading typically results in a Rayleigh fading distribution of
signal strength over small distances. The signal fluctuates in a range of about 40dB (10 dB
above and 40 dB below the average signal)
5. Microscopic diversity techniques can be used to prevent deep fades from occurring. For e.g.-
If two antennas are separated by fraction of a meter, one may receive a null while the other
receives a strong signal. By selecting the best signal at all times, a receiver can reduce small
scale fading effects.
6. Factors influencing small scale fading :
A. Fast fading:

o A channel is classified as fast fading or slow fading depending upon how the
transmitted signal changes as compared to the rate of change of the channel. In
multipath component fast fading occurs due to speed of mobile terminal and
bandwidth of the signal.
o In fast fading the channel impulse response changes rapidly within the symbol
duration i.e. the coherence time of the channel is smaller than the symbol period of
the transmitted signal.
o This causes frequency dispersion due to Doppler spreading which leads to signal
distortion.
 o In the frequency domain, signal distortion due to fading increases with increasing
Doppler spread relative to the bandwidth of the transmitted signal. Therefore a signal
undergoes fast fading if
Ts> Tc and Bs <bd <="" p="">
Ts= symbol period of transmitted signal,
Tc= coherence time of channel,
Bs=signal bandwidth,
BD= Doppler spread
Thus due to Doppler spreading the frequency dispersion or time selective fading occurs. - Fast
fading only deals with the rate of change of channel due to motion. Fast fading channel is the
channel in which the amplitude of the delta function varies faster than the rate of change of the
transmitted baseband signal. - In case of frequency selective fast fading channel the amplitudes,
phase and time delays of any of one of the multipath components vary faster than the rate of change
of the transmitted signal. - Fast fading occurs for very low data rates.
B. Slow fading:

 In slow fading the channel impulse response changes at a rate much slower than the
transmitted baseband signal. In this channel is assumed to be static over one or several
bandwidth interval.
 In frequency domain in slow fading Doppler spread is much less than the bandwidth of the
baseband signal. Thus the signal undergoes slow fading if
Ts<< Tc and Bs >>BD
Ts= symbol period of transmitted signal,
Tc= coherence time of channel,
Bs=baseband signal bandwidth,
BD= Doppler spread.
 It occurs when the channel variations are slower than base station signal variation. If channel
variations are less Doppler spread is less and thus slow fading takes place.
Macro diversity: provides a method to mitigate

the effects of shadowing , as in case of Large

scale fading.

Large scale fading is caused by shadowing due to the

presence of fixed obstacles in the radio path.

Long term fading can be mitigated by macroscopic diversity

(apply on separated antenna sites) like the diversity using

two base stations

Micro diversity: provides a method to mitigate

the effects of multi-path fading as in case of small

scale fading.

Small scale fades are characterized by deep and rapid amplitude

fluctuations which occur as the mobiles moves over distances of just a
few

wavelengths.

These fades are caused by multiple reflections from surroundings in the

vicinity of the mobile.

Short term fading can be mitigated by the diversity using multiple

antennas

on the base station or mobile unit.