Ma.

Victoria Ty Cruz Bio 12 THR/THVW

2015-89009 January 18, 2018
Exercise 1: Plant Life Cycle - From Seed to Seed

1. Give the advantages and disadvantages of epigeal and hypogeal germination

With epigeal germination, the cotyledon is brought above the soil due to the elongating
hypocotyl. Because of this, an advantage is how cotyledons become photosynthetic, thus being able
to develop into leaves. However, since the cotyledon is above the ground, the food reserves will be
exposed and environmental conditions can damage plant.
Contrastingly, hypogeal germination is when the cotyledons remain in the soil or is below the
surface due to elongating epicotyl. There are a few advantages, such as food reserves being less
expose and being protected from insects above the ground, and not being affected as much by
weather conditions since it is below surface. However, there is also the disadvantage of the cotyledon
being unable to photosynthesise and thus being unable to act as the leaves of the plant.

2. What other factors should you consider to successfully germinate a seed and grow a
seedling to maturity?
Aside from having an optimal amount of moisture, temperature, and light, there are other
factors one should consider to successfully germinate a seed. Firstly, there should be a favourable
oxygen supply to the seed, as oxygen is needed for aerobic respiration, which will be the main source
of the seed’s energy. Weather conditions should also be taken into account, as this will affect other
factors such as the moisture, temperature, and oxygen levels. The internal conditions, such as the
seed vigor (i.e. the seed’s strength) can affect the rate of germination. Lastly, there is also mechanical
damage, which can happen due to harvest and other handling processes.
To grow a seedling to maturity, there should be a continuous increase in the number of stem
nodes and leaves. Factors such as the amount of water and nutrients in the soil, abiotic conditions
(such as the weather), and biotic (such as competing plants) should be considered.

3. Where does the flower originate from? What plant tissue give rise to flowers and leaves?
The shoot apical meristem (SAM) is one of the two types of apical meristem tissues, which
gives rise to flowers and leaves. More specifically, flowers are the reproductive shoots of angiosperm
sporophytes. Sporophytes (2N) are diploid plants that under go meiosis and produce haploid spores.
These spores then divide by mitosis, which produce gametes from the male and female gametophytes
(N), which are haploid plants. The gametes then fuse, which produces diploid (2N) zygotes. This then
divides again by undergoing mitosis, thus forming new sporophytes. In angiosperms, the sporophyte
(2N) is the most dominant generation, as it is larger and longer-lived than the gametophyte.

References
Berg, L. R. 2008. Introductory botany: plants, people and environment. 2nd ed. Thomson Brooks/Cole.
California, USA. 622p.
Factors affecting wheat seed germination. (2012, June). Retrieved January 17, 2018, from
http://www.grainsa.co.za/factors-affecting-wheat-seed-germination
Ferguson, J. M., Keys, R. D., McLaughlin, F. W., & Warren, J. M. (n.d.). Seed and Seed Quality.
Retrieved January 17, 2018, from https://content.ces.ncsu.edu/seed-and-seed-quality
Plant Development. (n.d.). Retrieved January 17, 2018, from
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-biology/chapter/plant-development/
Reece, J.B., Urry, L.A., Cain., M.L., Wasserman, S.A., Minorsky, P.V., and R.B. Jackson. 2011,
Campbell Biology, 9th ed. Pearson Benjamin Cummings. California, USA. 1,263 pp.
Seed & Germination. (n.d.). Retrieved January 17, 2018, from
http://facweb.bhc.edu/eastcampus/faculty/Larsonan/courses/Ag_283/283lec/Section_3/
Section__3_seed_and_Germination.pdf
Ma. Victoria Ty Cruz Bio 12 THVW
2015-89009 January 18, 2018

Exercise 9: Flowers

1. What are the similarities and differences between a pine cone and a flower in terms of
structure and function?
Both flowers and pine cones have modified leaves which produce spores, known as
sporophylls. Within flowers are pollen grains, which are produced by anthers of stamens and ovules,
which can be found inside the ovaries of carpels. Whereas flowers produce both pollen and ovules,
pine have separate pollen cones (with pollen grains) and ovulate cones (with ovules inside cone
scales).
2. Contrast the terms self-pollination and cross-pollination. What are the advantages and
disadvantages of self-pollination? Cross-pollination?
Pollination refers to the transfer of pollen grains from anther to stigma. Self-pollination is when
pollination occurs within the same flower or within different flower (but on the same individual plant),
whereas cross-pollination occurs when pollen grains are transferred to a flower on another individual
of the same species. More specifically, cross-pollination is when pollen is transferred from an anther of
a flower on one plant to the stigma of a flower on another plant (which belongs to the same species).
There are a few advantages to self-pollination, such as the preservation of parental characters
and a high chance of a successful pollination since pollen grains are readily available. However, there
are also disadvantages to self-pollination, such as not being able to enhance genetic variability and
being unable to adapt to any environmental changes due to the lack of presence of any new species.
Such disadvantages of self-pollination are actually the advantages of cross-pollination, as cross-
pollination enhances genetic variability and variation of offspring, and being more able to adapt to
changes in environment. However, there are also disadvantages to cross-pollination, such as being
unable to preserve highly useful characteristics and it is more likely for more pollen to be wasted, thus
being a less economical method.

3. Describe some adaptive strategies of flowering plants that ensure pollination. Give specific
examples.
Flowering plants have various features to ensure pollination. Since many of the flowering plant
species are pollinated by insects, and because insects have a well-developed sense of smell, many
flowers have strong scents. A more specific example of this would be how the carrion flower has a
strong scent that is actually unpleasant to humans, but is pollinated by flies. Another adaptive strategy
is how certain flowers use nectar to attract animals. Bird-pollinated flowers, for example, usually lack a
scent since birds do not have a strong sense of smell; however, such flower do have nectar glands. A
more specific example of this would be the desert flower known as an ocotillo (Fouquieria splendens),
which is pollinated by a hummingbird and obtains nectar.

4. What is the main evolutionary advantage of a flower?

Different flowering species evolved to have certain visual attractants, such as showy, bright
petals or olfactory attractants, such as a scent. Moreover, some flowers produce nectar in special
floral glands, known as nectaries. Nectars are a sugary solution, which are used by pollinators as food
that is rich in energy. The pollen grains found in the flowers also serve as food that is rich in protein for
many animals, thus attracting such animals. As the pollinator move from flower to flower searching for
such food, they inadvertently carry pollen grains around their body, thus being able to facilitate sexual
reproduction in plants.
5. Some angiosperm species have floral structures that are adapted to a single pollinator
species. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of such a relationship.
When an angiosperm has floral structures that are adapted to a single pollinator, there is the
advantage of being more productive, as pollination is more likely to be more efficient. This thus also
means that it is more likely for the pollen to reach the flower. However, there are also disadvantages
only being adapted to a single pollinator species. Firstly, if the population of pollinator fluctuates and
thus becomes less abundant, then there will also be decline in the pollination and thus the angiosperm
species itself. Also, since single pollinator species can only feed on a specific type of angiosperm
species, this will hinder such pollinators to exist in higher numbers, and because they are only one
type of species, no other species can replace them.

References
Berg, L. R. 2008. Introductory botany: plants, people and environment. 2nd ed. Thomson Brooks/Cole.
California, USA. 622p.
Bhatnagar , S. (2015, April 19). Pollination. Retrieved January 17, 2018, from
https://www.slideshare.net/sheryl912/pollination-47166664
Reece, J.B., Urry, L.A., Cain., M.L., Wasserman, S.A., Minorsky, P.V., and R.B. Jackson. 2011,
Campbell Biology, 9th ed. Pearson Benjamin Cummings. California, USA. 1,263 pp.
Self-pollination and Cross-pollination. (n.d.). Retrieved January 17, 2018, from
http://biology-igcse.weebly.com/-self-pollination-cross-pollination.html
Maldonado MB, Lomáscolo SB, Vázquez DP (2013) The Importance of Pollinator Generalization and
Abundance for the Reproductive Success of a Generalist Plant. PLoS ONE 8(10): e75482.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0075482