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(c) Use the Evidence you gathered in this experiment to answer the Question
(classify each of the substances as ionic or molecular).
Evaluation
(d) Do you have confidence in your observations? Do you feel that they can be
used to accurately classify the substances? Explain.
(e) Compare your answer from the Analysis with the answer in your
Hypothesis/Prediction (question (a)). How do you account for any
differences?
Synthesis
(f) Were you able to accurately predict the properties of the substances based
on your initial classification? Why or why not?
(g) What assumptions are being made in this investigation?
Practice
Understanding Concepts
1. What types of elements combine to form
(a) an ionic compound?
(b) a molecular compound?
Table 1: Observations of Five
Unknown Compounds 2. Briefly describe a diagnostic test for an ionic compound, and give a
theoretical explanation for that test.
Compound State at Conductivity
SATP of solution Applying Inquiry Skills
A solid yes 3. A student hypothesizes that an unknown substance is composed of
B liquid no positive and negative ions held together by the attraction of their
opposite charges. Design an experiment that would allow the student
C gas yes
to test this hypothesis.
D solid yes
4. Use the evidence in Table 1 to classify each of the five compounds as
E solid no ionic or molecular. Provide your reasoning for each classification.
68 Chapter 2
2.2
a substance that you have classified as ionic, as it is an electrolyte. Like some other
ionic compounds that you are familiar with, for example, baking soda (sodium
hydrogen carbonate) and chalk (calcium carbonate), it is also brittle and has a
high melting temperature. How do we explain the formation and properties of
this compound?
You will recall, from Chapter 1, that atomic theory describes electrons
moving about the nucleus of the atom in energy levels, and that the electrons in
the outermost energy level are called the valence electrons. It is the valence elec-
trons of an atom that form chemical bonds. chemical bond: the forces of attraction
According to atomic theory, ionic compounds are formed when one or more holding atoms or ions together
valence electrons are transferred from a metal atom to a nonmetal atom. This
leaves the metal atom as a positive ion, or cation, and the nonmetal atom as a ionic bond: the electrostatic attraction
negative ion, or anion. The two oppositely charged ions are attracted to each between positive and negative ions in a com-
other by a force called an ionic bond (Figure 1). pound; a type of chemical bond
+ –
Na Cl Na Cl
Figure 1
An electron is transferred from sodium to
chlorine in the formation of an ionic bond.
Chemical Bonding 69
It requires a great deal of energy to break the strong electrostatic attractions
within a crystal lattice. The ions resist any movement, as even a slight shift would
cause positive ions to move closer to other positive ions, and negative ions closer
to other negative ions, resulting in strong repulsion. We can use this model to
explain why ionic substances are hard (the ions resist movement), and also why
they are often brittle. Once the lattice is broken, repulsions between ions of the
same charge will cause the substance to split into two crystals.
Finally, our model of the structure of ionic compounds can also explain the
electrical conductivity of their solutions. When ionic compounds are dissolved
in water, the positive and negative ions dissociate:
NaCl(s) → Na+(aq) + Cl–(aq)
The ions are responsible for carrying current when charged electrodes are
placed in the ionic solution.
(a)
The Formation of Ionic Compounds
We classify most simple compounds containing metallic elements as ionic.
(b) Elements within a chemical family (group) tend to participate in similar chem-
ical reactions, producing ionic compounds with the same general formula. For
example, the metals in Groups 13 to 15, except mercury, will form ionic oxides
(compounds composed of a metal and oxygen) when burned in air. In the same
way, elements in Groups 1 and 2 form ionic compounds with oxygen: The oxides
formed by Group 1 elements have the general formula M2O while those of
Group 2 elements (e.g., magnesium oxide, MgO) have the general formula MO,
where M represents a metal ion. Because of its high melting point, magnesium
oxide is used to make objects that are exposed to very high temperatures, such as
crucibles, furnace linings, and thermal insulation.
From our discussion of trends in electronegativity, it makes sense that Group 1
metals readily react with the elements in Group 17 to form ionic compounds
with the general formula MX. These compounds, which are composed of a metal
Figure 2 and a halogen, are collectively referred to as ionic halides. Sodium chloride, an
(a) The cubic structure of table salt crystals example of an ionic halide, is found in large underground deposits in various
provides a clue about the internal struc- parts of the world. It is mined from these deposits and used as road salt, table salt,
ture of sodium chloride. and as a reactant in many industrial processes.
(b) The arrangement of sodium and chlorine The elements in Group 2 show a similar trend, as they also react with the
ions in a crystal of sodium chloride. The halogens to produce ionic halides with the general formula MX2.
sodium and chloride ions occupy positions
In general, the addition of a metal from Group 1 or Group 2 to water will
in the crystal lattice known as lattice
points. produce hydrogen gas and a basic ionic compound. Calcium hydroxide,
Ca(OH)2, is an example of an ionic compound that can be produced in this way.
However, the reaction of calcium and water is quite vigorous. A safer means of
producing this ionic compound is to react calcium oxide with water. Calcium
hydroxide is also referred to as slaked lime and is used to make mortar and
plaster for buildings.
70 Chapter 2
2.2
example, we can predict that a Group 1 element will tend to lose one electron,
becoming a cation with a charge of 1+. A Group 16 element, on the other hand,
will tend to gain two electrons to complete a stable octet, so it will form an anion
with a charge of 2–.
Hydrogen is a special case in that, theoretically, it can either give up an elec-
tron to form H+, which is equivalent to a proton, or gain an electron to form H,
which has a filled shell like the noble gas helium.
Practice
Understanding Concepts
1. What properties of ionic compounds suggest that ionic bonds are
strong?
2. What types of elements form ionic bonds with each other?
3. Which of the representative elements tend to form positive ions?
Which tend to form negative ions?
4. What is the minimum number of different ions in the formula of an
ionic compound? Explain.
5. Predict the charge on the most stable ion formed by each of the fol-
lowing elements. Indicate the ion by writing the symbol complete
with charge.
(a) sulfur
(b) barium
(c) bromine
(d) chlorine
(e) calcium
(f) potassium
(g) phosphorus
(h) rubidium
(i) beryllium
Chemical Bonding 71
Practice
Making Connections
7. Research and report upon the importance of one of the ions that
make up the human body. Your report should include: a description of
its biological importance; recommended daily minimum require-
ments; the effects of deficiency or excess on the human body; and
some of the naturally occurring sources. Conclude your report with a
discussion on whether, and under what circumstances, you would
recommend that someone should artificially supplement his/her
intake of this ion.
Follow the links for Nelson Chemistry 11, 2.2.
GO TO www.science.nelson.com
72 Chapter 2
2.2
Using electron dot diagrams, we can show the formation of an ionic bond
between sodium and chlorine.
Na + Cl Na Cl
Sample Problem
Draw electron dot diagrams to illustrate the formation of magnesium oxide.
Write the ion ratio and the chemical formula.
Solution
2 2
Mg O Mg O
The two elements will combine in a ratio of 1:1. The formula is MgO.
Practice
Understanding Concepts
8. (a) How do the electron dot diagrams of metal ions differ from those
of nonmetal ions?
(b) How are the electron dot diagrams of metal ions similar to those
of nonmetal ions?
9. Use electron dot diagrams to illustrate the formation of
(a) lithium iodide
(b) barium chloride
(c) potassium oxide
(d) calcium fluoride
10. Represent each of the following elements using electron dot dia-
grams:
(a) nitrogen
(b) sulfur
(c) argon
(d) iodine
(e) lithium
(f) cesium
(g) calcium
(h) sodium
Chemical Bonding 73
11. Use electron dot diagrams to determine the ratio in which oxygen
will combine with each of the following elements to form an ionic
compound. Label each diagram with the chemical formula of the
compound.
(a) calcium
(b) rubidium
(c) strontium
(d) aluminum
12. Represent the five halogens, using electron dot diagrams. How are
these diagrams consistent with the concept of a chemical family?
13. Explain, referring to stable octets, how the following ionic com-
pounds are formed from pairs of elements; illustrate the formation of
each compound with electron dot diagrams; and predict the formula
of each compound.
(a) magnesium chloride
(b) sodium sulfide
(c) aluminum oxide (bauxite)
(d) barium chloride
(e) calcium fluoride (fluorite)
(f) sodium iodide
(g) potassium chloride (a substitute for table salt)
14. Give the common names for the following chemicals:
(a) sodium bicarbonate
(b) NaCl
(c) calcium carbonate
(d) Ca(OH)2
74 Chapter 2