CHAPTER IV.

DESCRIPTIVE GEOMETRY.

125. APPLICATION TO DESCRIPTIVE GEOMETRY. An extensive manifold

of v — 1 dimensions is a positional manifold of v — 1 dimensions with
other properties superadded. These further properties have in general no
meaning for a positional manifold merely as such. But yet it is often
possible conveniently to prove properties of all positional manifolds by
reasoning which introduces the special extensive properties of extensive
manifolds. This is due to the fact that the calculus of extension and some
of the properties of extensive manifolds are capable of a partial interpreta-
tion which construes them merely as directions to form * constructions ' in a
positional manifold. Ideally a construction is merely an act of fixing attention
upon a certain aggregate of elements so as to them out in the mind
apart from all others ; physically, it represents some operation which makes
the constructed objects evident to the senses. Now an extensive magnitude
of any order, say the /oth, may be interpreted as simply representing the fact
of the construction of the subregion of p — 1 dimensions which it represents.
This interpretation leaves unnoticed that congruent products may differ by
a numerical factor, and that, therefore, extensive magnitudes must be con-
ceived as capable of various intensities. Accordingly, in all applications of
the Calculus to Positional Manifolds by the use of this interpretation it
will be found that the congruence of products is the sole material question,
and that their intensities can be left unnoticed ; except when the products
are numerical and are the coefficients of elements of the first order which
have intensities in positional manifolds. The sign of congruence, viz. = [cf.
§ 64 (2)], rather than that of equality is adapted to this type of reasoning.
Also supplements never explicitly appear, since they answer to no mental
process connected with this type of reasoning.
126. EXPLANATION OF PROCEDURE. (1) In the present chapter and in
the succeeding one some applications of the calculus to positional manifolds
are given. Except in § 130 on Projection, the manifolds are of two dimensions,
125—128] APPLICATION TO DESCRIPTIVE GEOMETRY. 215

and the investigations form an example of the application of the Calculus to

Descriptive Geometry of Two Dimensions. Other applications of this type
have already been given in §§ 106, 107.
(2) In two dimensional complete regions the only products are of two
points which produce a linear element, of two linear elements which produce
a point, and of a point and a linear element which produce a numerical
quantity. If a product yields an extensive magnitude, the act of using such
a product is equivalent to the claim to be able to construct that subregion
which the magnitude represents. Thus the product ab represents the indefi-
nitely produced line joining ab, and the use of the product is the equivalent
to drawing the line. Similarly if L and L' are two linear elements in a
plane, the use of LL' is equivalent to the claim to be able to identify the
point of intersection of the two lines L and L', which by hypothesis have
been constructed. Thus the representation of a point by a product of certain
assumed points is the construction of that point by drawing straight lines
joining the assumed points and is the point of intersection of lines thus drawn.
127. ILLUSTRATION OF METHOD. The method of reasoning in the
application of this algebra to Descriptive Geometry is exemplified by the
proof of the following theorem*.
If abc and def be two coplanar triangles, and if s be a point such that
sd, se, sf cut the sides bc, ca, ab respectively in three collinear points, then
sa, sb, sc cut the sides ef,fd, de respectively in three collinear points.
For by hypothesis
(sd. be) (se . ca) (sf. ab) = 0.
Hence by the extended rule of the middle factor
{(sdc) b — (sdb) c} {(sea) — (sec) a] {(sfb) a — (sfa) b] = 0.
Multiplying out and dividing by the numerical factor (abc),
(sdc) (sea) (sfb) - (sdb) (sec) (sfa) = 0.
The symmetry of this condition as between the triangles abc and def
proves the proposition.
128. VON STAUDT'S CONSTRUCTION. (1) Let a, c, b represent any three
points in a two-dimensional region, which are not collinear.
In ac assume any point d arbitrarily, and in cb assume any point e.
Since the intensities of , and b are quite arbitrary, we may assume that
d = a + bc, e = b + ec,
where 8 and e are any assumed numerical magnitudes.
Then it is to be proved that any point x on ac (i.e. of the form a + fc) can
be exhibited as a product of the assumed points, or in other words can be
constructed. This construction to be given is due to von Staudtf.
* Due, I believe, to H. M. Taylor. t Geometrie der Lage, 1847.
216 DESCRIPTIVE GEOMETRY. [CHAP. IV.

(2) Firstly, consider the following products, or in other words make the
constructions symbolized by them :
q = ae. db, qx = qc. de, pY = qj). ac.
Thus px = ae .db.c .de.b. ac.
Then p1 is the point a 4- 2 Sc.

^ ^ 1 -— d ^1 ^2
a
FIG. 1.

For q = (ab -f eac) (ab + Beb) = Sab . eb + eac . ab + eSac. eb

= S (aeb) b + e (acb) a 4- eS (acb) e = — (<xòc) {ea 4- Se 4- €&}
= ea 4- S6 4- eSc ;
where the numerical factor — (abc) has been dropped for brevity. This will be
done in future without remark.
q1 = (eac 4- 8bc) . de = (eac + 8bc) (ab 4- eac + Sc&)
= eac . a6 4- 8eac. c& 4- 8bc. a6 4- Se6c. ac
= e (acb) a-\-8e (acb) e -f S (acb) b + Be (acb) c = ea + 8b + 2Sec.
= qj). ac= e{a + 28c] b.ac = e (abc) {a 4- 28c] =a + 28c.
Hence pY is the point a 4- 2Sc.
(3) Again, substitute d for a and p1 for d in the above product. The
new lines in the figure are represented by dotted lines. Then since px = d 4- Sc,
we obtain the point
p2= de.pj). ,pYe.b.dc = d-{- 2Sc = a + 3Sc.
Similarly by substituting for d and ^?2 for pY in this construction, we find
p3 = a 4- 4Sc, and so on successively. Thus finally if v be any positive integer,
we find pv = a 4- (v 4- 1) Sc.
128] VON STAUDT'S CONSTRUCTION. 217

(4) Secondly, consider the point e' = qpx.bc = b— ec (cf. fig. 2).
Make the following construction,
= aé.de, px = rj). = .de.b. .
Now
rx = (ab — eac) (ab + eac + beb) = eab . + Bab. eb — . ab — Seac . cb
= — 2eac. ab + Sab . cb — Seac .cb = — 2e (ach) + S (acb) b— Se (ach) ;
and Pi = — (acb) [2eab + Secb} .ac = a + ^8c.
(5) Similarly by substituting pL instead of d in this construction we
obtain

^—- £- ^\e'
a '\ \

FIG. 2.

and by continually proceeding in this manner we finally obtain if v be any

positive integer

2"
(6) Then if ju be any other positive integer, the construction of the first
figure can be applied /^ times starting with p instead of with d. Thus the
point ^

2"
can be constructed.
218 DESCRIPTIVE GEOMETRY. [CHAP. IV.

(7) Thirdly, make the following construction (cf. fig. 3) :

q = ab . de', d' — q'e . ac = ab. de . . .

// /\G

/f /^^^^^^^

FIG. 3.

Now q = ab {ab — -f ècb} = — eab. + Sab .cb = — (abc) [ea + 30},

d' = (eae -f hbe) ac = (eab + êac + bebe)
= eab . 4- Seòc .ac = e (abc) {a — Se] = a — Se.
(8) In this construction if we substitute for d any constructed point of
the form

p^a + ftse,
2"
we obtain
p>^ = a-gSc.
2"

Thus all points of the form [a ± ^-vbc\ can now be constructed.

(9) Fourthly, let p, p' and p" be three constructed points, and let
p=a + > p' = a-\- vr'Sc, p" = a + ^"Sc.
Then = + (« ' - )8 .
 129] VON STAUDT'S CONSTRUCTION. 219

Now in the first construction substitute p for a and p' for d. Then
we obtain
pî = p + 2 ( ' — ) SC = a + (2 ' — ) Bc.
Similarly by substituting _p/ for a, and p " for d, we obtain
p 2 ' = a + (2*x" - 2 + )8 ;
and so on by successive substitutions.
(10) But any positive number £, rational or irrational, can be expressed
to any approximation desired in the scale of 2, as the radix of notation,
in the form
A + f + l + l ' + ete.;
where ß0 is the integer next below f and ßly ß2, etc. are either unity or zero.
If the series is finite any point of the form a ± %Sc can be constructed
in a finite number of constructions ; if the series is infinite it can be con-
structed in an infinite number of constructions ; and (since the series is
convergent) this means that in a finite (but sufficiently large) number of
constructions we can construct a point a ± £'Sc, where f ~ f ' is less than any
assigned finite number however small.
Thus any point a + f c o n the line ac can be constructed, and similarly any
point on the line be can be constructed ; and it is sufficiently easy to see that
any point + ^ + can be constructed.
This type of construction can easily be extended to a projective manifold
of any dimensions.
129. GRASSMANN'S CONSTRUCTIONS. (1) Grassmann's constructions*
in a complete region of two dimensions have for their ultimate object to
construct the point a + yjr(^1} £ 2 )(ai+a 2 )> where -*|r(£i, £2) is any rational
integral homogeneous function of %l} £2, and a, alt a2 are any three given not
collinear points, provided also that the point a + ^ + £2 2 and also certain
points of the form a + a^ -f O A a r e given, where the a's are known coefficients.
In order to accomplish this end the constructions are given for the following
series of points,
a + £i(ai + 0 > a + £ 2 0 i + a2), a + ?i?2 (ai + cfe),
a + £i" («i + (h) {where v is any positive integer}, a 4- £ / («i + a2),
a + il^l—.M.2(tti + a\ {where -f 72 is not zero].
Yi + 72
Then finally a construction is deduced for

7 + 7 + ...
when 7 + + ... is not zero, and /A, V, p\ v', ... are positive integers, and
fJL + V= fl' + v' = ....
* Cf. Ausdehnungslehre von 1862, §§ 325—329.
220 DESCRIPTIVE GEOMETRY. [CHAP. IV.

(2) Let a, al9 a2 denote any t h r e e elements forming a reference triangle

in t h e two dimensional region ; let x = a + £ A 4- £2^2 *> and let d = a 4- aY 4- a 2 .

a2

a di

Fm. 4.

Firstly, m a k e the following constructions (fig. 4),

yY — xa2. ad, y2 = xax. ad.
Then 2/j = (aa2 + ^ ^ ) (aa x 4 aa 2 ) = — (aa^-a) {a + ^ (aj + a2)\
= a 4- | i (aj 4- a 2 ).
Note t h a t in future numerical factors which do not involve ^ or £2 will be
dropped without remark.
Similarly y2 = a 4 £2 ( a : 4- a 2 ).

(3) Secondly, m a k e t h e following constructions (fig. 4),

0i = 2/2^1 • «gd, ' = eYa . y1a2, y = œ'a1. ad.
Then ßj = (aax 4- ^2a2a^ (a2a 4 2 )
= — (aaia 2 ) a — (aaja 2 ) ax — £2 ( a a ^ ) a 2
= a 4- ai 4- f 2 a 2 .
And œ' = (0,0- 4- % ) (aa2 4- f ^)
= — (acheta) a — ^ ( a a ^ ) aj — £j£2 (aa^g) a 2
= « 4 - ^ + ^202.
And y = (aa14- ^ i ^ A ^ i ) (««1 + aa 2 )
= ( ) {a + ££-2 (ax + a2)} = a + f^2 ( ^ + a2)
= 3/2^1 • «2^. a . 2/^2. ax. ad.
(4) Now substitute for 2 in t h e above construction (fig. 5). We
obtain
\ — yi<h • a*d. a . y^a2 ,a1.ad = a + ^12 (a x + a 2 ).
129] GRASSMANN'S CONSTRUCTIONS. 221

Similarly we construct
y2 = y2aY. a2d . a. y^2. . ad = a + £22 («i + <h\

FIG. 5.

It is also obvious that in the constructions aa and a2 can be interchanged.

Thus
y = y2a2. . a. ^Oi. a2. ad,
and 2// = 2/^2. a ^ . a. y ^ . a2. ad,
and 2' = 2 2 • »id. a . ^. 2 . ad.
Also in the construction in subsection (3) for from yY and y2, yY and y2
can be interchanged, thus giving two fresh forms of the construction, namely,
= \^i • » 2 d. a. 2/2<z2. cij. ad, and Î/ = yYa2. aYd. . ^ . 2 . ad.
(5) Let the symbol (£") stand for the point + f^ (ax + a2), and similarly
let (fa") stand for the point + £/ ( ! + 2), and let ( f i f / ) stand for the point
« + fi f / Oi + «a).
Now substitute the point (£iv) for ^/2 in the first construction given for
y, then we obtain
(£i"+1) = (fir) a i • M . . 2. !. ad.
(6) Again, let pR^ denote that the point p has been multiplied succes-
sively by the factors alt a2d, a, yYa2ì a1? ad, so that pRY stands for the point
paY. a2d. a . yYa2. aY. ad. In order to avoid misconception it may be men-
tioned that R1 is not the product aY. a2d. a . y±a2 .aY. ad) for in pRx the first
factor aY is multiplied into the point p. Also pR1 is itself a point : let
(pRi) Ri be denoted by pR±2, and so on.
222 DESCRIPTIVE GEOMETRY. [CHAP. IV.

By applying this notation to the construction for (fi""1"1) in terms of |y,

we see that when v is a positive integer, (£/) = y1R1v~1.
Since yxa2 = xa2, may be conceived to stand for the set of factors
alf a^d, a y xa2) , ad successively multiplied on to a point. Also y1 = xa2. ad.
Hence (|V) = œa2. ad . ""1.
Thus the point a -f %\ (ßi + ^2) is exhibited as a product in which x occurs
v times.
(7) Similarly interchanging the suffixes 1 and 2, let R2 stand for the
set of factors a2, a, xalf a2, ad successively multiplied on to a point.
Also y2 = xax. ad.
Hence ( £ / ) = «!. ad . it!/ -1 .
Thus the point a + f/ ( ^ + a2) is exhibited as a product in which a? occurs
fi times.

/ 9/ ^ ^

Jt— X — a.
a \ I

FIG. 6.

(8) Again, in any of the constructions for (say the first) substitute (Çf)
and ( ^ ) for and y2, say, for example, (f/) for ya and ( £ / ) for y2.
129] GRASSMANN'S CONSTRUCTIONS. 223

Then ((VÌVO = (fJ 1 )a Y .a 2 d,a.(£")a 2 . a^. ad.

Hence the point a + ii& («i + a2) is represented as a product in which x
occurs (fi +1>) times.
(9) Finally, let p and jp' be any two points a + ( + a2) and
a -b ' (aj + a2) on the line ad ; and let denote any point 7 ^ — y2a2 on the
line a^a2. Make the constructions (ûg. 6)
q= . pa2ì r = qc.ad = . pa2. . ad.
Then q = j9ax. ^'a 2 = ( a a ^ ) {a + '&'a1 + t*ra2},
r = {7!««! — 72aa2 + (7i«r 4- 2 ') ) {a^ + aa2}
=( ») }(7! + 72) a + ( 7 ^ + 72<sr') (ax + a 2 )|
7i«r + 72'CT/ .
n /2
=a+ t (ax + a2).
71+72
Similarly, let p" denote a third point a + " (aa + a2), and let c' denote
the point (7i + 72) aY — 2. Make the construction
r = ra1. p"a2 . c' .ad = a+ V^ + V^ + 7 / + a
71 + 72 + 73
And so on for any number of points p, p, p'\ etc.
Thus if any number of points of the form (%/£/•) have been constructed,
then the point

7 + 7 + ...
can be exhibited in the form of a product.
(10) Hence the numerical product
MB7&tfy+-(aa|4
7 + 7 + ...
I t will be observed that x occurs in this product {(/x + v) + (/A' + v) + ...}
times, and that therefore if x be written in the form rja + rj^ + %a2, then the
product is a homogeneous function of 77, %, of degree {(/x + v)+(fi +1/) + ...}.
But let / be the greatest of the numbers (fi +*/), (// +1/), etc., then it is
easily verified that the homogeneous function represented by the product is
any required homogeneous function of degree p multiplied by 77 to the power :
[{(//, + v) + (/ ' + v) + ...} — p], and also by some constant numerical factor.
If however we keep x in the form a + ^aj + f^, then the most general
rational integral algebraic function (not necessarily homogeneous) of £ and
£2 can be exhibited in the form of a product ; or if </>(£i, f2) be the function,
it can be represented by a point

which is constructed as a product of the point x and fixed points, partly

arbitrarily chosen and partly chosen to suit the special function.
224 DESCRIPTIVE GEOMETRY. [CHAP. IV.

130. PROJECTION. (1) Definition. Let the complete region be of v — 1

dimensions, and let x, y, etc., be elements on any given plane A of this
region. Let e be any given point not on this plane and let be any other
given plane. Then the lines ex, ey, etc., intersect the plane in elements
x', , etc. : the assemblage of elements x, y', etc., on the plane is called the
projection on from the vertex e of the assemblage of elements x, y, etc., on
the plane A.
Definition. Two assemblages of elements x, y, etc., on the plane A and
x\ y, etc. on the plane A', which is not necessarily distinct from A, are
called mutually projective, if one assemblage can be derived from the other
by a series of projections.
If one figure can be deduced from another by a single projection, the two
figures are obviously in perspective.
(2) These constructions can be symbolized by products : thus the pro-
jection of x on to the plane from the vertex e is x = xe. B. Let the
projected points always be assumed to be at intensities which are deduced
from the intensities of the original points according to this formula.
Since (\x + fiy) e.B — \xe. -f fiye. , it follows that any range of ele-
ments on a line is projected into a homographie range.
(3) PROPOSITION I. Let any subregional element in the plane A be
denoted by the product xly x2... xpy where p is less than v — 2; also let
Xi, x2' ... xp be the projections of the points xly x2, ... xp on to the plane
from the vertex e, so that for instance xî = . ; then it will be proved
that*
XiX2' ... Xp = ( ^1 2... xpe. = xxx2... . .
In other words, if Xp be any subregional element of the pth order, and
Xp be the corresponding subregional element formed by the projected points,
then
X; = ( -* Xpe.B= Xpe. B.
Thus Xp will be called the projection of Xp, and the above equation forms
the universal formula for the projection of elements of any order.
(4) In order to prove this formula the following notation will be useful.
Let (€yX2... (xa) ... x9e denote that the elements xlt x2... xp, e, with the excep-
tion of Xff, a r e multiplied together in the order indicated. Then the extended
rule of the middle factor gives the transformations

2 ...xpe.B= S (— l) 0 " - 1 (xaB) X-LX2 ... ( ) ... 9 + {—1 (eB) 2... .

< = 1

Also œ'p+1 = +1 e. = ( +1 ) e — (eB) xp+J.

But ^ 2... ( ) . . . . e = 0,
ano. ^ 2... \Xgrj ... . xp_^i = -^ 2... yxaj ... ^ .
* This formula has not, I think, been stated before.
130] PROJECTION. 225

Hence by multiplication and rearrangement of factors it follows that

[ 2... xpe.B} afp+j = (— l)p (eB)(xp+1 B) xYx2... xpe

+ 2 ( - I)*" 1 (eB) (xaB) x,x2 . . . « > . . . xp+1e - ( - 1)" (eBy X^X2 • • • "^p-f-i
<r=l

2 ( - I)«'" 1 (arj?) 2 ...(xff) ... xp+1 e + ( - 1 )P + 1 (eB)x1x2... xp+l

<r=l J
= (eB) xYx2... xp+1e . B.
Hence by successively applying this theorem we deduce
#i'# 2 ' • • • XP — ( ~ &2... xpe. = 2 ... . .
(5) It is obvious that the relation between a point x and its projection
x is reciprocal ; that is, if x be the projection of x on from vertex e, then
x is the projection of x' on A from vertex e.
For x'e.A = {(xB)e-(eB)x}e.A=-(eB)xe.A
= (eB) (eA) x = x,
since (xA) = 0, by hypothesis.
Thus two figures are projective if they can both be projected into the
same figure.
(6) PROPOSITION II. Any three collinear points are projective with any
other three collinear points.
This is the same as the proposition that any two homographie ranges
are projective.
Firstly, let the two lines L and L', on which the points respectively lie,
be intersecting, so that the complete region is of two dimensions. Let a, b,
and a', b', be the two sets of three points on L and L' respectively.
Take e and e any two points on aa'. Construct the points eb. éb' and
ec . e'e : call them the points ", ". Construct the point ad . b"c" = d'.
Then we have evidently
a = d'e . L, b = b"e. X, c = e'e. X,
and d = a V . L\ b' = b"e . L', c' = d'e'. L'.
Thus the collinear points a", b'\ c" can be projected both into a, &, and
d, V, c'. Hence a, b, and d, b\ c' are projective.
(7) It may be noticed that if the regressive multiplications are defined
for a complete region of three dimensions and the ranges abc and db'c' be
coplanar, then the above results must be written
a = d'e. Ld, b = b"e . Ld, = "e. Ld,
and d=d'é .L'd, V = b"€f.L'd, c' = M.L'd\
where d is any point not in the plane of the straight lines L and L\ and e and
e being both on ad are in the plane of L and U.
w. 15
226 DESCRIPTIVE GEOMETRY. [CHAP. IV.

And more generally, if the regressive multiplication be defined for a

complete region of v — 1 dimensions, let ,_3 be any extensive magnitude of
the (v — 3)rd order which does not intersect the two dimensional regions
containing L and L', then ZZ)„_3 and LfDv_3 can be taken as the planes of the
two projections, so that
a = a"e . ZD„_3, etc., and a = ' . Z'D„_3, etc.
(8) Secondly, let the lines containing , , and of a', b', c' be not inter-
secting. Take any point p on abc and p' on db'c'. Construct the line pp\
and on it take any three points a", b", c''. Then a, &, and ", ", c" are
projective, also a', b', and ", ", c" are projective. Hence , 6, and
a', ò', e are projective.
(9) PROPOSITION III. If any p points in a subregion of p — 2 dimen-
sions (with only one addition relation) are projective with any other p
points in another subregion of p — 2 dimensions (with only one addition
relation), then any p + 1 points (with only one addition relation) in a
subregion of p — 1 dimensions are projective with any other p + 1 points
(with only one addition relation) in another subregion of p — 1 dimensions.
For let alf a2,... ap+1 and ò1? ò 2 ,... 6P+1 be any two sets of p -f 1 points in
regions of p — 1 dimensions.
Since the p + 1 points ax... ap+1 are contained in a subregion of /o — 1
dimensions, a p a p+1 must intersect the subregion of the independent points
aly a2, ... ap_! in some point c; and similarly bpbp+1 must intersect the sub-
region of the independent points blf b2}... bp_j in some point d.
Now by hypothesis a series of projections can be made which transforms
b1}b2... òp_i, d into ax, a2... ap_i, c. Assume that such a series transforms bp
and &p+1 into 6/ and b'9+lt
Let J.p_! stand for the subregional element &\(% . . . Cip—i, and let
2 ,_„
denote the product of any v — p independent points which do not lie in _,
where v — 1 is the number of dimensions of the complete region. Then
^4P_! D„_p is a planar element.
Again, c, bp, b'p+1 are collinear and so are c, aPi ap+1> hence 6P', ò'p+1, ap, ap+1
lie in the same two dimensional region. Therefore apbp' and a p+1 6' p+1 intersect
in some point e.
Let D„_p be so chosen that e does not lie in the plane Ap^^Dv_p: also let
DV-P contain a p and a ^ . Then it cannot contain 6P' and b' p+ i, since it does
not contain e.
Project on to the plane Ap_J)v_p from the vertex e. The points
, a2, ... ap_i, are unchanged, being already in that plane, also 6/ is
projected into ap, and ò'p+1 into ap+1.
Hence the proposition is proved.
(10) It has already been proved that three collinear points can be pro-
jected into any other three collinear points ; it follows that any p points in a
130] PROJECTION. 227

subregion of p — 2 dimensions are projective with any other p points in

another subregion of p — 2 dimensions.
(11) PROPOSITION IV. The least number of separate projections required
can also be easily determined. For we have proved in the course of subsec-
tion (9) that if (p) projections are required for two sets of p points in
subregions of p — 2 dimensions, then (p) + 1 projections are required for
two sets of p +1 points in subregions of p — 1 dimensions. We have there-
fore only to determine the least number requisite to project three collinear
elements , , into three other collinear elements a, 6', c'.
The construction given above in the second and general case may be
simplified thus. Join ab'. Project from any point e on bb'. Then a is
unaltered, b becomes b' and becomes some point c". Now project , "
from the point of intersection of aa/ and c'c". Then a becomes a', V is
unaltered, c" becomes c'. Hence two projections are in general requisite.
Thus three projections are requisite for four points in a two dimensional
region, and p — 1 projections for p points in a region of p — 2 dimensions.
(12) These constructions still hold if the two sets of p points are both
in the same subregion of p — 2 dimensions. In such a case the same series of
projections which transforms one set of p elements into another set of p
elements may be conceived as applied to every point of the subregion. Thus
every point of the subregion is transformed into some other point of the
same subregion.
(13) PROPOSITION V. I t will now be proved that the most general type
of such a projective transformation is equivalent to the most general type of
linear transformation which transforms every point of the given subregion
into another point of that subregion.
If x be the point into which any point x is finally projected, the relation
between x' and x can be written in the form
x' — xeY. B-L. e2 • B2. e3. B3... e^ . -Bp_i.
It is obvious therefore that x can be conceived as transformed into x by
some linear transformation. The only question is, whether it is of the most
general type.
Now in the most general type of linear transformation, as applied to a
region of p — 2 dimensions, p — 1 elements must remain unchanged. Let
^h. t ^ 2 > • • • dp—l
be these elements, and let any other point x be represented by
f + £ A Î + . . . + &-1« -1.
Then if xY be the transformed element corresponding to x, we have
#i = aifiOi + ofefA + ••• + OLp-iÇp-iCLp-i, where alt o^, ... ap_! are the constants
which in conjunction with the fixed points define by their ratios the linear
transformation.
Hence if a given point g is to be transformed into a given point d, where
g — %fyay and d = 28a, we must have, «1 = 81/71, a ^ & ^ , ••• «p-i = Sp-iAyp-i•
15—2
228 DESCRIPTIVE GEOMETRY. [CHAP. IV.

Accordingly if the p — 1 unchanged points are arbitrarily assumed, it is not

possible by a linear transformation to transform more than one arbitrarily
assumed point into another arbitrarily assumed point.
But it is possible by a series of projections to transform the p points
Oj, a2, ... a^, into the p points alt a2, ... dp-.ly d.
Hence the general type of projection is equivalent to the general type of
linear transformation.
(14) It is to be noticed that a linear transformation can be conceived as
transforming all the points of the complete region of (say) v—1 dimensions.
But these points cannot be projectively transformed without considering
the region of v — 1 dimensions as a subregion in a containing region of v
dimensions. This fresh conception is of course always possible without in any
way altering the intrinsic properties of the original region of v — 1 dimen-
sions.
The Theory of Linear Transformation in connection with this Calculus is
resumed in Chapter VI. of this Book.