Homework 2

A. Theoretical aspects
1.Ship resistance
1.1. Six degrees of freedom (6DoF) refers to the freedom of movement of a ship in three-
dimensional space. Specifically, the body is free to change position as forward/backward (surge),
up/down (heave), left/right (sway) translation in three perpendicular axes, combined with changes
in orientation through rotation about three perpendicular axes, often termed yaw (normal axis),
pitch (lateral axis), and roll (longitudinal axis).

Translation:

1.Moving forward and backward on the X-axis. (Surging)

2.Moving left and right on the Y-axis. (Swaying)

3.Moving up and down on the Z-axis. (Heaving)

Rotation

4.Tilting side to side on the X-axis. (Rolling)

5.Tilting forward and backward on the Y-axis. (Pitching)

6.Turning left and right on the Z-axis. (Yawing)

The knot is a unit of speed equal to one nautical mile (1.852 km) per hour, approximately 1.15078
mph.

1.2. The retarding force a ship experiences when moving through the water is called resistance. The
two main components are the frictional resistance due to the passage of water over the hull and the
resistance due to wave making .

Frictional resistance is the net fore-and-aft forces upon the ship due to tangential fluid forces.
Frictional resistance accounts for nearly 80 percent of total resistance in slow-speed ships like oil
tankers and as much as 50 percent in high-speed ships like container vessels.

Whenever a body moves in a fluid there is pressure force acting developed that is acting normal to
the surface of the body.

Earlier we have seen that if the fluid is non-viscous and completely immersed, then the forward
component of the pressure force would cancel with the aft component of the pressure (Ideal fluid in
ideal scenario). But as the body comes up to the surface, the pressure developed around the body
generates waves. This wave generation is dependent on the air-water free surface and gravity.

The net fore-and-aft forces upon the ship due to fluid pressure acting normal to all parts of the hull
is the wave making resistance.
Residual resistance RR comprises wave resistance and eddy resistance. Wave resistance refers to the
energy loss caused by waves created by the vessel during its propulsion through the water, while
eddy resistance refers to the loss caused by flow separation which creates eddies, particularly at the
aft end of the ship.

Another major resistance factor in the ships in service is the air resistance. It is assumed that the
wave due to the air is not considered in this. Since the relative velocity of air is important, air
resistance would be present even when the ship is moving in still air.

Total resistance will be the sum of all components : 𝑅𝑇 =𝑅𝑓 +𝑅𝑣 +𝑅𝜔 +𝑅𝑎 +𝑅𝑎𝑒𝑟
𝑉2
𝑅𝑓 =(𝐾𝑐 ∙ 𝜉𝑓 +𝜉𝑟 )∙ 𝜌 ∙𝑠
2

𝑉2
𝑅𝜔 =𝜉𝜔 ∙ 𝜌 ∙ 2
∙𝑠
𝜌𝑎𝑒𝑟
𝑅𝑎𝑒𝑟 =𝑐𝑎𝑒𝑟 ∙ 2
∙ 𝑆𝑣 (𝑉 + 𝑣𝑎𝑒𝑟 )2

1.3. Added resistance in waves is the part of a ship’s total resistance that is caused by encountering
waves.

Calculations of added resistance can be used as an addition to the calm water resistance to predict
the total

resistance of a ship in a seaway. There will always be waves on the sea, so there will always be
added

resistance. A ship can experience a 15-30% resistance increase in a seaway [12], where the added
resistance

is the main reason for this increase. Being able to predict added resistance due to waves is therefore
a vital

part of the prediction of a ships resistance. Prediction of added resistance can for instance be used
in the

following problems:

• Weather margin

The so called Weather Margin for new ship designs can be decided, where the maximum

resistance increase due to weather can be predicted, to decide engine install and so on.

• Weather Routing

Weather Routing is very important due to its economical effect on ship exploitation. It is for

instance very important to make good estimations of the time it will take for a ship to travel a

route, so the cargo owners know when the ship will arrive in port, minimizing the costs of storage
and so on. It is also very important to be able to optimize routes in order to reduce the fuel

consumption and emission. A good prediction of Added resistance in waves is important for both

these tasks.

• Performance analysis

The previous two problems use the prediction of added resistance to get the total resistance, the

reversed problem is however also of interest. Being able to get rid of the influence of the

stochastic waves in a seaway, can be used to calculate a ship’s “real” calm water resistance. This

“real” calm water resistance can be used as a measurement of the ships performance over time.

The ship owners could use this information to determine the value of a ship, and how often it

should be docked for antifouling and so on.

2.Powering of ships
2.1. The traditional agent employed to move a ship is a propeller, sometimes two and, in very rare
cases, more than two. The necessary propeller thrust T required to move the ship at speed V is
normally greater than the pertaining towing resistance 𝑅𝑇 .

The unit is measure is : 1 N(Newton)

F=T-𝑅𝑇

2.2. The corresponding effective (towing) power, PE, necessary to move the ship through the water,
i.e. to tow the ship at the speed V, is then:

𝑃𝐸 = V × 𝑅𝑇

This tendency for a 600 teu container ship, originally designed for the ship speed of 15 knots.
Without any change to the hull design, the ship speed for a sister ship was requested to be
increased to about 17.6 knots. However, this would lead to a relatively high wave resistance,
requiring a doubling of the necessary propulsion power.

A further increase of the propulsion power may only result in a minor ship speed increase, as most
of the extra power will be converted into wave energy, i.e. a ship speed barrier valid for the given
hull design is imposed by what we could call a “wave wall. A modification of the hull lines, suiting
the higher ship speed, is necessary.

2.3. Steam engines were the first mechanical engines used in marine propulsion, but have mostly
been replaced by two-stroke or four-stroke diesel engines, outboard motors, and gas turbine
engines on faster ships. Nuclear reactors producing steam are used to propel warships and
icebreakers, and there have been attempts to utilize them to power commercial vessels.Electric
motors have been used on submarines and electric boats and have been proposed for energy-
efficient propulsion.Recent development in liquified natural gas (LNG) fueled engines are gaining
recognition for their low emissions and cost advantages.
 A line shaft is a power driven rotating shaft for power transmission that was used extensively from
the Industrial Revolution until the early 20th century. Prior to the widespread use of electric motors
small enough to be connected directly to each piece of machinery, line shafting was used to
distribute power from a large central power source to machinery throughout a workshop or an
industrial complex. The central power source could be a water wheel, turbine, windmill, animal
power or a steam engine. Power was distributed from the shaft to the machinery by a system of
belts, pulleys and gears known as millwork.

Shaft Generators (SG) are driven by the main engine to supply power to the mains. The power
generation has to function properly also at changing speeds of the propulsion shaft, when the ship
travels at different speed ranges, or in case of very fast speed changes caused by heavy seas.

PTO=Power Take Off

PTI=Power Take In

2.4. Azipod Concept

In the traditional azimuth thrusters such as Z-drive and L-drive thrusters, the propeller is driven by
an electric motor or a diesel engine inside the ship's hull. The propeller is coupled to the prime mover
with shafts and bevel gears that allow rotating the propeller about a vertical axis. This type of propulsion
system has a long tradition throughout the 1990s and today such propulsion units are produced by a
number of companies around the world.

In the Azipod unit, the electric motor is mounted inside the propulsion unit and the propeller is
connected directly to the motor shaft. Electric power for the propulsion motor is conducted through slip
rings that let the Azipod unit rotate 360 degrees about the vertical axis. Because Azipod units utilize
fixed-pitch propellers,power is always fed through a variable-frequency drive or cycloconverter that
allows speed and direction control of the propulsion motors.

The pod's propeller usually faces forward because in this pulling (or tractor) configuration the propeller
is more efficient due to operation in undisturbed flow. Because it can rotate around its mount axis, the
pod can apply its thrust in any direction. Azimuth thrusters allow ships to be more maneuverable and
enable them to travel backward nearly as efficiently as they can travel forward. In order to get the most
out of it, shiphandling training on simulators and manned models is required.

The podded design typically achieved a 9% better fuel efficiency than the conventional propulsion
system when it was first installed in the 1990s. Improvements to the conventional design have shrunk
the gap to 6%-8%, but on the other hand the hydrodynamic flow around the Azipod has been improved
by fin retrofits and a dynamic computer optimization of the respective operating angles of the pods in
multipod installations, yielding overall efficiency improvements now in the range of 18%.

3.Seakeeping of ships
𝑚
3.1. Wind appears when there are differences of air pressure. (its average speed is about 5 𝑠
)
 Waves are generated by the action of wind upon the water.

There are 2 types of waves :

a)generated by wind

b)generated by earthquakes

-they have irregulate shape

-in the Black Sea the waves are not very strong , their maximum height is 5 m;
𝑐𝑚
Currents have low intensity , average speed = 2 𝑠
.

The are 2 types of currents : RIN and Cyclones(from east and from west)

The annual speed of the wave is between 4,2 m/s – 6,95 m/s (in the Romanian sea zone)

-the highest speeds are registered in the winter (December-February)

-the lowest speeds are registered in the summer(July-September)

Waves are a form of energy transportation at the surface of a fluid without any significant transport
of the fluid’s matter.

Waves classification :

 After how they have been created ( by wind or by tide)

 After the character of forces ( free forces or entertained forces)
 After the variation of principal elements(stabilised or unstabilised)
 After position ( of surface or intern)
 After form( bidimensional , tridimensional , isolated or dome)
 After the length-height ratio(L<h – short waves ; L>h – long waves)
 After movement(on circular orbits or elliptical /stationary - bells)

3.2. The Beaufort Scale measures wind speed to observed conditions at sea or on land.

Developed in 1805 by Sir Francis Beaufort, U.K. Royal Navy

Force Wind(Knots) WMO Classification Appearance of Wind Effects On the Water OnLand

0 Less than 1 Calm Sea surface smooth and mirror-like Calm, smoke rises vertically

1 1-3 Light Air Scaly ripples, no foam crests Smoke drift indicates wind direction,
still wind vanes

2 4-6 Light Breeze Small wavelets, crests glassy, no breaking Wind felt on face,
leaves rustle, vanes begin to move

3 7-10 Gentle Breeze Large wavelets, crests begin to break, scattered whitecaps Leaves
and small twigs constantly moving, light flags extended
4 11-16 Moderate Breeze Small waves 1-4 ft. becoming longer, numerous whitecaps
Dust, leaves, and loose paper lifted, small tree branches move

5 17-21 Fresh Breeze Moderate waves 4-8 ft taking longer form, many whitecaps, some spray
Small trees in leaf begin to sway

6 22-27 Strong Breeze Larger waves 8-13 ft, whitecaps common, more spray Larger tree
branches moving, whistling in wires

7 28-33 Near Gale Sea heaps up, waves 13-19 ft, white foam streaks off breakers Whole
trees moving, resistance felt walking against wind

8 34-40 Gale Moderately high (18-25 ft) waves of greater length, edges of crests begin to
break into spindrift, foam blown in streaks Twigs breaking off trees, generally impedes progress

9 41-47 Strong Gale High waves (23-32 ft), sea begins to roll, dense streaks of foam, spray
may reduce visibility Slight structural damage occurs, slate blows off roofs

10 48-55 Storm Very high waves (29-41 ft) with overhanging crests, sea white with densely
blown foam, heavy rolling, lowered visibility Seldom experienced on land, trees broken or uprooted,
"considerable structural damage"

11 56-63 Violent Storm Exceptionally high (37-52 ft) waves, foam patches cover sea, visibility
more reduced

12 64+ Hurricane Air filled with foam, waves over 45 ft, sea completely white with driving
spray, visibility greatly reduced

The Douglas Sea Scale is a scale which measures the height of the waves and also measures the swell of
the sea. The scale is very simple to follow and is expressed in one of 10 degrees.

Degree Height (m) Description

0 no wave Calm (Glassy)

1 0–0.10 Calm (rippled)

2 0.10–0.50 Smooth

3 0.50–1.25 Slight

4 1.25–2.50 Moderate

5 2.50–4.00 Rough

6 4.00–6.00 Very rough

7 6.00–9.00 High

8 9.00–14.00 Very high

9 14.00+ Phenomenal
3.3. Pitch is the up/down rotation of a vessel about its lateral/Y (side-to-side or port-starboard) axis. An
offset or deviation from normal on this axis is referred to as 'trim' or 'out of trim'.

Slamming is the impact of the bottom structure of a ship onto the sea surface. It is mainly observed
while sailing in waves, when the bow raises from the water and subsequently impacts on it. Slamming
induces extremely high loads to ship structures and is taken into consideration when designing ships.

3.4.

Rolling is a type of motion that combines rotation (commonly, of an axially symmetric object) and
translation of that object with respect to a surface (either one or the other moves), such that, if ideal
conditions exist, the two are in contact with each other without sliding.

A ship in longitudinal seas experiences a completely different shape of the underwater volume as
compared with the ship in calm water and in beam seas. The reduction of righting arm GZ at wave crest
causes a larger heel under the action of wind and sea. The ship rights again, due to the increased
righting arm GZ in the wave trough, when the wave passes the ship. The ship in a seaway behaves
dynamically, i.e. she starts rolling, and passes the upright position when returning from the first large
roll. If the time of the large roll to the opposite side coincides with a wave crest passing the vessel, then
the ship ends up with another reduction of righting arm GZ, and consequently with larger roll. Roll
amplification due to the “timing” of the restoring moment variation with the roll motion is called
“parametric resonance”.

3.5.

A FLUME® roll damping system is a passive free surface open channel type anti-roll tank. It has the
unique ability to adapt to changes in load and operation conditions. By a simple change in the liquid
level, the natural response period of the tank can be adjusted to the roll period of the ship. However,
obtaining and maintaining the correct operational condition of the stabilizer is difficult at sea due to the
constant and turbulent movement of the liquid within the tank

Antiroll tanks are tanks fitted onto ships in order to improve their response to roll motion. Antiroll tanks
are tanks within the vessel fitted with baffles intended to slow the rate of water transfer from the port
side of the tank to the starboard side. The tank is designed such that a larger amount of water is trapped
on the higher side of the vessel. This is intended to have an effect completely opposite to that of the
free surface effect. They can be broadly classified into active and passive antiroll tanks.

U-tube tanks

The use of these tanks was pioneered by Frahm in Germany at the start of the 20th century and they are
often referred to as Frahm tanks. These partially filled tanks consists of two wing tanks connected at the
bottom by a substantial crossover duct. The air columns above the liquid in the two tanks are also
connected by a duct. As in the free surface tanks, as the ship begins to roll the fluid flows from wing tank
to wing tank causing a time varying roll moment to the ship and with careful design this roll moment is
of correct phasing to reduce the roll motion of the ship. They do not restrict fore and aft passage as
space above and below the water-crossover duct is available for other purposes.
Anti rolling active fins

Active Systems: In which the moment opposing roll is produced by moving masses or control surfaces by
means of power like the active fins, Anti – rolling tanks (active), active moving weight & the gyroscope.

4. Manoeuvrability of ships
4.1. Below a certain ship speed, called the manoeuvring speed, the manoeuvrability of the rudder is
insufficient because of a too low velocity of the water arriving at the rudder. It is rather difficult to give
an exact figure for an adequate manoeuvring speed of the ship as the velocity of the water arriving at
the rudder depends on the propeller’s slip stream.

Often a manoeuvring speed of the magnitude of 3.5-4.5 knots is mentioned. According to the propeller
law, a correspondingly low propulsion power will be needed but, of course, this will be higher for
running in heavy weather with increased resistance on the ship.

4.2. The first priority of any ship design, is the achievement of function-ability of the designed product,
and then comes its aesthetic value. Rudders are placed at aft, instead of at the bow, not because of
aesthetics, but because of its hydrodynamic efficiency when placed at aft. To understand this, we need
to delve into the mystery of the role of a rudder in a ship. Let’s assume a starboard turn. Which means,
the rudder is moved to the starboard side. When the helmsman changed the rudder angle from zero to
some angle towards the starboard, at that very moment, a life force acts on the rudder. The direction of
the lift force is towards the port side. This rudder force, as you can see, is directed along a transverse
direction to the ship. In other words, this force will cause the ship to attain a sway velocity towards the
port side, because the rudder force is nothing but a sway force towards the port side. It is because of
this, a ship will sway slightly to the port when the rudder is turned over to hard starboard. But this sway
is so negligible in comparison to the turning moment towards starboard, that the sway is hardly felt. But
yes, the sway does occur. Other than this, the rudder force has another effect on the ship. It creates a
moment about the centre of gravity of the ship.

Radius of gyration or gyradius refers to distribution of the components of an object around an axis. In
terms of [mass moment of inertia], it is the perpendicular distance from the axis of rotation to a point
mass (of mass, m) that gives an equivalent inertia to the original object(s) (of mass, m).

4.3.
The turning circle characteristics including initial response to rudder ; advantage and transfer(the forward
and transverse distance moved by the ship from the time the rudder is put over ) during the turn ; the
rate of steady turn and the loss of speed during the turn.

The zig-zag manoeuvre in which the ship’s initial response to rudder is studied. The rudder is put to a
chosen angle , say 20 degrees , held until the heading has changed by a set angle , again say 20 degrees ,
and then reversed . The sequence is repeated several times nothing the time to reach the intended
course change and the degree to which the ship overshoots the set angle.

4.4. The ship’s directional stability . This is sometimes referred to as a ship’s dynamic stability which should
not be confused with stability . If a ship is directionally stable it will take up a new steady course when
the rudder is returned to amidships . If it is unstable it will not. Nor will it necessarily turn it in the intended
direction when small rudder angles are applied . If a ship is not directionally stable , she will require
constant rudder movements to maintain a steady course . This is wearing on the helmsman and the
steering gear. If the ship has high directional stability it will be more difficult to turn . So again it is a matter
of compromise .

4.5. Besides depending on the hydrodynamic conditions of the ship, the

stopping time and stopping distance of the ship will depend on the propulsion

machinery as mentioned above.

Thè reversing characteristiçs of the propulsiPn machinery differ

with type, make and size. For some types only a few seconds will elapse

from the order "full astern" until the machinery goes astern at required

number of revolutiöns. For other. types and under unfavourable conditions

the operation may call for several minutes.

Assuming that the machinery manoeuvre lasts only a short time the ship speed will only change very little.
Therefore , in the manoeuvre nomogram the operation approximately corresponds to the constant speed
curve through the point of initial speed on the curve for free running (F=O). The curve is followed until
intersection the n-axis (Q=0, the propeller running freely), then to its intersection with the Q-axis (the
direction of rotation of the propeller changing from positive into negative) and finally on to the maximum
negative number of revolutions. Further stopping of the ship will then continue at a nearly constant
number of revolutions but with the propulsion machinery giving even less negative torque. If this
procedure is continued,the ship will stop moving after some time (V=0), whereupon it will start going
astern.

B.Practical problems for final test

1.A flooding dock has L=200 m, B=50 m and weight of 200000KN and work in Constanta Harbour,

in water with density 1,015 t/m**3.

a) What is the draught of the dock? On the dock is climb a ship with weight of 100000KN. What
is the new draught of the dock?

b)If the dock is working into Port Harcourt Harbour(Atlantic Ocean water has the density of 1,035
t/m**3) , which will be these draughts?(g= 9.81 m/s**2).

Solution:

𝑎)𝐺⃗𝑑𝑜𝑐 =⃗⃗⃗⃗
∆𝐺 =m∙ 𝑔 = 𝜌𝑎 ∙ 𝑉 ∙ 𝑔 = 𝜌𝑎 ∙ 𝐿 ∙ 𝐵 ∙ 𝐷 ∙ 𝑔
𝐺𝑑𝑜𝑐
𝐷=
𝜌𝑎 ∙ 𝐿 ∙ 𝐵 ∙ 𝑔

𝐺 = 2 ∙ 105 ∙ 103 𝑁

𝐺1 =3∙ 105 ∙ 103 𝑁

103 𝑘𝑔
𝜌𝑎 = 1,015 ∙
𝑚3
𝑚
2 ∙ 108 𝑘𝑔
2
𝐷= 𝑠 ~2𝑚
1,015 ∙ 103 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 ∙ 104 𝑚2 ∙ 9,81𝑚/𝑠 2

3 ∙ 108
𝐷1 = ~3𝑚
1,015 ∙ 103 ∙ 104 ∙ 9,81

b)

2 ∙ 108
𝐷= = 1,96𝑚
1,035 ∙ 103 ∙ 104 ∙ 9,81
3 ∙ 108
𝐷1 = = 2,95𝑚
1,035 ∙ 103 ∙ 104 ∙ 9,81