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The Scramble for Africa (or the Race for Africa) was the proliferation of conflicting European claims
to African territory during the New Imperialism period, between the 1880s and the start of World War I
(/entry/World_War_I).
The latter half of the nineteenth century saw the transition from the "informal" imperialism of control
through military influence and economic dominance to that of direct rule. Attempts to mediate imperial
competition, such as the Berlin Conference of 1884-85 (/entry/Berlin_Conference_of_1884-85) among
the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland
(/entry/United_Kingdom_of_Great_Britain_and_Ireland), the French Third Republic and the German
Empire, failed to establish definitively the competing powers' claims. These disputes over Africa were
among the central factors precipitating the First World War (/entry/World_War_I).
However, on the eve of the scramble for Africa, only ten percent of the continent was under the
control of Western nations. In 1875, the most important holdings were Algeria, whose conquest by
France had started in the 1830s — despite Abd al-Qadir's strong resistance and the Kabyles'
rebellion in the 1870s; the Cape Colony, held by the United Kingdom, and Angola (/entry/Angola),
held by Portugal (/entry/Portugal).
Strategic rivalry
While tropical Africa was not a large zone of investment, other regions overseas were. The vast
interior — between the gold- and diamond-rich Southern Africa (/entry/Southern_Africa) and
Egypt (/entry/Egypt), had, however, key strategic value in securing the flow of overseas trade.
Britain was thus under intense political pressure, especially among supporters of the
Conservative Party, to secure lucrative markets such as British Raj (/entry/British_Raj) India
(/entry/India), Qing Dynasty (/entry/Qing_Dynasty) China, and Latin America from encroaching
rivals. Thus, securing the key waterway between East and West — the Suez Canal
(/entry/Suez_Canal)— was crucial. The rivalry between the UK, France, Germany and the other
(/entry/File:Dellepiane-exposition-
European powers account for a large part of the colonization. Thus, while Germany, which had
nationale-coloniale-1906.jpg)
been unified under Prussia (/entry/Prussia)'s rule only after the 1866 Battle of Sadowa and the
Poster for the 1906 Colonial
Exhibition in Marseilles (France). 1870 Franco-Prussian War (/entry/Franco-Prussian_War), was hardly a colonial power before the
New Imperialism period, it would eagerly participate in the race. A rising industrial power
(/entry/Industrial_revolution) close on the heels of Great Britain, it hadn't yet had the chance to
control oversea territories, mainly due to its late unification, its fragmentation in various states, and its absence of experience in modern
navigation. This would change under Bismarck (/entry/Otto_von_Bismarck)'s leadership, who implemented the Weltpolitik (World Policy)
and, after putting in place the bases of France's isolation with the Dual Alliance with Austria-Hungary (/entry/Austria-Hungary) and then
the 1882 Triple Alliance with Italy, called for the 1884-85 Berlin Conference which set the rules of effective control of a foreign territory.
Germany's expansionism would lead to the Tirpitz Plan, implemented by Admiral von Tirpitz, who would also champion the various Fleet
Acts starting in 1898, thus engaging in an arms race with Great Britain. By 1914, they had given Germany the second largest naval force
in the world (roughly 40% smaller than the Royal Navy). According to von Tirpitz, this aggressive naval policy was supported by the
National Liberal Party rather than by the conservatives, thus demonstrating that the main supports of the European nation states'
imperialism were the rising bourgeoisie classes.[3]
Bismarck's Weltpolitik
Germany began its world expansion in the 1880s under Bismarck's leadership, encouraged by the national bourgeoisie. Some of them,
claiming themselves of Friedrich List (/entry/Friedrich_List)'s thought, advocated expansion in the Philippines (/entry/Philippines) and in
Timor, other proposed to set themselves in Formosa (modern Taiwan), etc. In the end of the 1870s, these isolated voices began to be
relayed by a real imperialist policy, known as the Weltpolitik ("World Policy"), which was backed by mercantilist thesis
(/entry/Mercantilism). Pan-germanism was thus linked to the young nation's imperialist drives. In the beginning of the 1880s, the
Deutscher Kolonialverein was created, and got its own magazine in 1884, the Kolonialzeitung. This colonial lobby was also relayed by
the nationalist Alldeutscher Verband.
Germany thus became the third largest colonial power in Africa, acquiring an overall empire of 2.6 million square kilometers and 14
million colonial subjects, mostly in its African possessions (Southwest Africa, Togoland, the Cameroons, and Tanganyika). The scramble
for Africa led Bismarck to propose the 1884-85 Berlin Conference. Following the 1904 Entente cordiale between France and the UK,
Germany tried to test the alliance in 1905, with the First Moroccan Crisis. This led to the 1905 Algeciras Conference, in which France's
influence on Morocco was compensated by the exchange of others territories, and then to the 1911 Agadir Crisis. Along with the 1898
Fashoda Incident between France and the UK, this succession of international crisis proves the bitterness of the struggle between the
various imperialisms (/entry/Imperialism), which ultimately led to World War I (/entry/World_War_I).
France occupied Tunisia (/entry/Tunisia) in May 1881 (and Guinea in 1884), which partly convinced Italy (/entry/Italy) to adhere in 1882 to
the German-Austrian Dual Alliance, thus forming the Triple Alliance. The same year, Great Britain occupied the nominally Ottoman Egypt,
which in turn ruled over the Sudan and parts of Somalia. In 1870 and 1882, Italy took possession of the first parts of Eritrea
(/entry/Eritrea), while Germany declared Togoland, the Cameroons and South West Africa to be under its protection in 1884. French
West Africa (AOF) was founded in 1895, and French Equatorial Africa (AEF) in 1910.
Italy continued its conquest to gain its "place in the sun." Following the defeat of the First Italo-Abyssinian War (1895-96), it acquired
Somaliland in 1899-90 and the whole of Eritrea (1899). In 1911, it engaged in a war with the Ottoman Empire, in which it acquired
Tripolitania and Cyrenaica (modern Libya (/entry/Libya)). Enrico Corradini, who fully supported the war, and later merged his group in the
early fascist party (PNF), developed in 1919 the concept of Proletarian Nationalism, supposed to legitimize
Italy's imperialism by a surprising mixture of socialism (/entry/Socialism) with nationalism: "We must start
by recognizing the fact that there are proletarian nations as well as proletarian classes; that is to say, there
are nations whose living conditions are subject… to the way of life of other nations, just as classes are.
Once this is realized, nationalism must insist firmly on this truth: Italy is, materially and morally, a
proletarian nation."[4] The Second Italo-Abyssinian War (1935-1936), ordered by Mussolini
(/entry/Benito_Mussolini), would actually be one of the last colonial wars (that is, intended to colonize a
foreign country, opposed to wars of national liberation), occupying Ethiopia (/entry/Ethiopia) for five years,
which had remained the last African independent territory. The Spanish Civil War
(/entry/File:Francesco_Cris (/entry/Spanish_Civil_War), marking for some the beginning of the European Civil War, would begin in
Francesco Crispi, Italian 1936.
(/entry/Italy) prime minister
(1887-1891;1893-96). On the other hand, the British abandoned their splendid isolation in 1902 with the Anglo-Japanese Alliance,
Crispi opposed himself to which would enable the Empire of Japan to be victorious during the war against Russia (1904-1905). The
Radical Felice Cavallotti UK then signed the Entente cordiale with France in 1904, and, in 1907, the Triple Entente
over the Triple Alliance
and the abandon of the (/entry/Triple_Entente) which included Russia, thus pitted against the Triple Alliance which Bismarck
Eritrean colony (/entry/Otto_von_Bismarck) had patiently made up.
(/entry/Eritrea). He
resigned after the 1896 The American Colonization Society and the foundation of Liberia
defeat at Adowa during
the First Italo-Abyssinian The United States (/entry/United_States) took part, marginally, in this enterprise, through the American
War. Colonization Society (/entry/American_Colonization_Society) (ACS), established in 1816 by Robert Finley.
The ACS offered emigration to Liberia (/entry/Liberia) ("Land of the Free"), a colony founded in 1820, to
free black slaves; emancipated slave Lott Cary actually became the first American Baptist (/entry/Baptist) missionary in Africa. This
colonization attempt was resisted by the native people.
Led by Southerners (/entry/Southern_United_States), the American Colonization Society's first president was
James Monroe (/entry/James_Monroe), from Virginia (/entry/Virginia), who became the fifth president of the
United States from 1817 to 1825. Thus, one of the main proponents of American colonization of Africa was the
same man who proclaimed, in his 1823 State of the Union address, the opinion that European powers should
no longer colonize the Americas or interfere with the affairs of sovereign nations located in the Americas. In
return, the US planned to stay neutral in wars between European powers and in wars between a European
power and its colonies. However, if these latter type of wars were to occur in the Americas, the U.S. would view
such action as hostile toward itself. This famous statement became known as the Monroe Doctrine
(/entry/File:Jamesmon
(/entry/Monroe_Doctrine) and was the base of the US' isolationism during the nineteenth century.
npgallery.jpg)
James Monroe Although the Liberia (/entry/Liberia) colony never became quite as big as envisaged, it was only the first step in
(/entry/James_Monroe) the American colonization of Africa, according to its early proponents. Thus, Jehudi Ashmun, an early leader of
first president of the
American
the ACS, envisioned an American empire in Africa. Between 1825 and 1826, he took steps to lease, annex, or
Colonization Society buy tribal lands along the coast and along major rivers leading inland. Like his predecessor Lt. Robert Stockton,
(/entry/American_Colon who in 1821 established the site for Monrovia by "persuading" a local chief referred to as "King Peter" to sell
and President of the
Cape Montserado (or Mesurado) by pointing a pistol at his head, Ashmun was prepared to use force to extend
United States (1817-
1825). He formulated the colony's territory. In a May 1825 treaty, King Peter and other native kings agreed to sell land in return for
the Monroe Doctrine 500 bars of tobacco (/entry/Tobacco), three barrels of rum, five casks of powder, five umbrellas, ten iron posts,
(/entry/Monroe_Doctrin
and ten pairs of shoes, among other items. In March 1825, the ACS began a quarterly, The African Repository
a policy of the US
isolationism during and Colonial Journal, edited by Rev. Ralph Randolph Gurley (1797-1872), who headed the Society until 1844.
the nineteenth Conceived as the Society's propaganda organ, the Repository promoted both colonization and Liberia.
century.
The Society controlled the colony of Liberia until 1847 when, under the perception that the British might annex
the settlement, Liberia was proclaimed a free and independent state, thus becoming the first African
decolonised state. By 1867, the Society had sent more than 13,000 emigrants. After the American Civil War (/entry/American_Civil_War)
(1861-1865), when many blacks wanted to go to Liberia, financial support for colonization had waned. During its later years the society
focused on educational (/entry/Education) and missionary efforts in Liberia rather than further emigration.
The French thrust into the African interior was mainly from
West Africa (/entry/West_Africa) (modern day Senegal
(/entry/File:Boercamp1.jpg) (/entry/Senegal)) eastward, through the Sahel (/entry/Sahel)
Boer women and children in a concentration along the southern border of the Sahara, a territory covering
camp (/entry/Concentration_camp) during the modern day Senegal, Mali (/entry/Mali), Niger (/entry/Niger),
Second Boer War (/entry/Second_Boer_War)
(1899-1902). and Chad (/entry/Chad). Their ultimate aim was to have an
uninterrupted link between the Niger River (/entry/Niger_River)
and the Nile, thus controlling all trade to and from the Sahel
region, by virtue of their existing control over the Caravan routes through the Sahara. The British, on the other
hand, wanted to link their possessions in Southern Africa (/entry/Southern_Africa) (modern South Africa (/entry/File:Julesferry.jpg
(/entry/South_Africa), Botswana (/entry/Botswana), Zimbabwe (/entry/Zimbabwe), Lesotho (/entry/Lesotho), Jules Ferry, French
Swaziland (/entry/Swaziland), and Zambia (/entry/Zambia)), with their territories in East Africa (/entry/France)
Republican who, as
(/entry/East_Africa) (modern Kenya (/entry/Kenya)), and these two areas with the Nile basin. Sudan prime minister, directed
(/entry/Sudan) (which in those days included modern day Uganda) was obviously key to the fulfillment of the negotiations which
these ambitions, especially since Egypt was already under British control. This 'red line' through Africa is led to the establishment
of a protectorate in
made most famous by Cecil Rhodes (/entry/Cecil_Rhodes). Along with Lord Milner (the British colonial Tunis (1881), prepared
minister in South Africa), Rhodes advocated such a "Cape to Cairo" empire linking by rail the Suez Canal to the December 17, 1885
the mineral-rich Southern part of the continent. Though hampered by German occupation of Tanganyika until treaty for the occupation
of Madagascar; directed
the end of World War I (/entry/World_War_I), Rhodes successfully lobbied on behalf of such a sprawling East
the exploration of the
African empire. Congo and of the Niger
region; and organized
If one draws a line from Cape Town (/entry/Cape_Town) to Cairo (/entry/Cairo) (Rhodes' dream), and one
the conquest of
from Dakar (/entry/Dakar) to the Horn of Africa (/entry/Horn_of_Africa) (now Ethiopia (/entry/Ethiopia), Eritrea Indochina. He resigned
(/entry/Eritrea), Djibouti (/entry/Djibouti), and Somalia (/entry/Somalia)), (the French ambition), these two lines after the 1885 Tonkin
incident.
intersect somewhere in eastern Sudan near Fashoda, explaining its strategic importance. In short, Britain had
sought to extend its East African empire contiguously from Cairo to the Cape of Good Hope
(/entry/Cape_of_Good_Hope), while France had sought to extend its own holdings from Dakar to the Sudan (/entry/Sudan), which would
enable its empire to span the entire continent from the Atlantic Ocean (/entry/Atlantic_Ocean) to the Red Sea (/entry/Red_Sea).
A French force under Jean-Baptiste Marchand arrived first at the strategically located fort at Fashoda soon followed by a British force
under Lord Kitchener, commander in chief of the British army since 1892. The French withdrew after a standoff, and continued to press
claims to other posts in the region. In March 1899 the French and British agreed that the source of the Nile and Congo Rivers
(/entry/Congo_River) should mark the frontier between their spheres of influence.
Thus, on March 31, 1905, the Kaiser Wilhelm II visited Tangiers and made a speech in favor of Moroccan independence, challenging
French influence in Morocco. France's influence in Morocco had been reaffirmed by Britain and Spain in 1904. The Kaiser's speech
bolstered French nationalism and with British support the French foreign minister, Théophile Delcassé, took a defiant line. The crisis
peaked in mid-June 1905, when Delcassé was forced out of the ministry by the more conciliation minded premier Maurice Rouvier. But
by July 1905 Germany was becoming isolated and the French agreed to a conference to solve the crisis. Both France and Germany
continued to posture up to the conference, with Germany mobilizing reserve army units in late December and France actually moving
troops to the border in January 1906.
The 1906 Algeciras Conference was called to settle the dispute. Of the 13 nations present the German representatives found their only
supporter was Austria-Hungary (/entry/Austria-Hungary). France had firm support from Britain, Russia, Italy, Spain, and the U.S. The
Germans eventually accepted an agreement, signed on May 31, 1906, where France yielded certain domestic changes in Morocco but
retained control of key areas.
However, five years later, the second Moroccan crisis (or Agadir Crisis) was sparked by the deployment of the German gunboat Panther
(/p/index.php?title=Panther_(gunboat)&action=edit&redlink=1), to the port of Agadir on July 1, 1911. Germany had started to attempt to
surpass Britain (/entry/Britain)'s naval supremacy — the British navy had a policy of remaining larger than the next two naval fleets in the
world combined. When the British heard of the Panther's arrival in Morocco, they wrongly believed that the Germans meant to turn Agadir
into a naval base on the Atlantic.
The German move was aimed at reinforcing claims for compensation for acceptance of effective French control of the North African
(/entry/North_Africa) kingdom, where France's pre-eminence had been upheld by the 1906 Algeciras Conference. In November 1911, a
convention was signed under which Germany accepted France's position in Morocco in return for territory in the French Equatorial
African colony of Middle Congo (now the Republic of the Congo (/entry/Republic_of_the_Congo)).
France subsequently established a full protectorate over Morocco (March 30, 1912), ending what remained of the country's formal
independence. Furthermore, British backing for France during the two Moroccan crises reinforced the Entente between the two countries
and added to Anglo-German estrangement, deepening the divisions which would culminate in World War I.
Thus, colonial lobbies (/entry/Lobbying) were progressively set up to legitimize the Scramble for Africa and other expensive oversea
adventures. In Germany, in France, in Britain, the bourgeoisie began to claim strong oversea policies to insure the market's growth. In
1916, Lenin (/entry/Lenin) would publish his famous Imperialism, the Highest Stage of Capitalism[6] to explain this phenomenon. Even in
lesser powers, voices like Corradini began to claim a "place in the sun" for so-called "proletarian nations," bolstering nationalism and
militarism in an early prototype of fascism (/entry/Fascism).
Geoffroy de Saint-Hilaire, director of the Parisian Jardin d'acclimatation, decided in 1877 to organize two "ethnological spectacles,"
presenting Nubians and Inuit (/entry/Inuit). Public attendance of the Jardin d'acclimatation doubled, with a million paying entrance fees
that year, a huge success for the times. Between 1877 and 1912, approximately 30 "ethnological exhibitions" were presented at the
Jardin zoologique d'acclimatation.[8] "Negro villages" would be presented in Paris' 1878 and 1879 World's Fair; the 1900 World's Fair
presented the famous diorama "living" in Madagascar, while the Colonial Exhibitions in Marseilles (1906 and 1922) and in Paris (1907
and 1931) would also display human beings in cages, often nudes or quasi-nudes.[9] Nomadic "Senegalese (/entry/Senegal) villages"
were also created, thus displaying the power of the colonial empire to all the population.
In the United States, Madison Grant, head of the New York Zoological Society, exhibited pigmy Ota Benga in the Bronx Zoo alongside
the apes and others in 1906. At the behest of Madison Grant, a prominent scientific racist and eugenicist, zoo director William Hornaday
placed Ota Benga in a cage with an orangutan (/entry/Orangutan) and labeled him "The Missing Link" in an attempt to illustrate
Darwinism (/entry/Darwinism), and in particular that Africans like Ota Benga were closer to apes than were Europeans.
Such colonial exhibitions, which include the 1924 British Empire Exhibition and the successful 1931 Paris Exposition coloniale, were
doubtlessly a key element of the colonisation project and legitimized the ruthless Scramble for Africa, in the same way that the popular
comic-strip The Adventures of Tintin, full of clichés, were obviously carrier of an ethnocentric (/entry/Ethnocentrism) and racist
(/entry/Racism) ideology (/entry/Ideology) which was the condition of the masses' consent to the imperialist phenomenon. Hergé's work
attained summits with Tintin in the Congo (1930-1931) or The Broken Ear (1935).
While comic-strips played the same role as westerns to legitimize the Indian Wars (/entry/Indian_Wars) in the United States, colonial
exhibitions were both popular and scientific, being an interface between the crowds and serious scientific research. Thus, anthropologists
(/entry/Anthropologist) such as Madison Grant or Alexis Carrel built their pseudo-scientific racism, inspired by Gobineau
(/entry/Arthur_de_Gobineau)'s An Essay on the Inequality of the Human Races (1853-1855). "Human zoos" provided both a real-size
laboratory for these racial hypothesis and a demonstration of their validity: by labelling Ota Benga as the "missing link" between apes
and Europeans, as was done in the Bronx Zoo, social Darwinism and the pseudo-hierarchy of races, grounded in the biologization of the
notion of "race," were simultaneously "proved," and the layman could observe this "scientific truth."
Anthropology (/entry/Anthropology), the daughter of colonization, participated in this so-called scientific racism based on social
Darwinism by supporting, along with social positivism and scientism (/entry/Scientism), the claims of the superiority of the Western
civilization over "primitive cultures." However, the discovery of ancient cultures would dialectically lead anthropology to criticize itself and
revalue the importance of foreign cultures. Thus, the 1897 Punitive Expedition led by the British Admiral Harry Rawson captured, burned,
and looted the city of Benin, incidentally bringing to an end the highly sophisticated West African (/entry/West_Africa) Kingdom of Benin.
However, the sack of Benin distributed the famous Benin bronzes and other works of art into the European art market, as the British
Admiralty auctioned off the confiscated patrimony to defray costs of the Expedition. Most of the great Benin (/entry/Benin) bronzes
(/entry/Bronze) went first to purchasers in Germany, though a sizable group remain in the British Museum (/entry/British_Museum). The
Benin bronzes then catalyzed the beginnings of a long reassessment of the value of West African culture, which had strong influences on
the formation of modernism (/entry/Modernism).
Several contemporary studies have thus focused on the construction of the racist discourse in the nineteenth century and its propaganda
as a precondition of the colonization project and of the Scramble of Africa, made with total lack of concern for the local population, as
exemplified by Stanley (/entry/Henry_Morton_Stanley), according to whom "the savage only respects force, power, boldness, and
decision." Anthropology (/entry/Anthropology), which was related to criminology (/entry/Criminology), thrived on these explorations, as
had geography before them and ethnology (/entry/Ethnology) — which, along with Claude Lévi-Strauss (/entry/Claude_L%C3%A9vi-
Strauss)' studies, would theorize the ethnocentric illusion — afterwards. According to several historians, the formulation of this racist
discourse and practices would also be a precondition of "state racism" (Michel Foucault (/entry/Michel_Foucault)) as incarnated by the
Holocaust (/entry/Holocaust) (see also Olivier LeCour Grandmaison's description of the conquest of Algeria and Sven Lindqvist, as well
as Hannah Arendt (/entry/Hannah_Arendt)). The invention of concentration camps (/entry/Concentration_camp) during the Second Boer
War (/entry/Second_Boer_War) would also be an innovation (/entry/Innovation) used by the Third Reich (/entry/Third_Reich).
Political imperialism followed the economic expansion, with the "colonial lobbies" bolstering chauvinism and jingoism at each crisis in
order to legitimize the colonial enterprise. Tensions between imperial powers led to a succession of crises, which finally exploded in
August 1914, when previous rivalries and alliances created a domino situation that drew the major European nations into the war.
Austria-Hungary attacked Serbia to avenge the murder of Austrian crown prince Francis Ferdinand; Russia mobilized to assist its Slav
brothers in Serbia; Germany intervened to support Austria-Hungary against Russia. Since Russia had a military alliance with France
against Germany, the German General Staff, led by General von Moltke decided to realize the well prepared Schlieffen Plan to invade
France and quickly knock her out of the war before turning against Russia in what was expected to be a long campaign. This required an
invasion of Belgium which brought Great Britain into the war against Germany, Austria-Hungary and their allies. German U-Boat
campaigns against ships bound for Britain eventually drew the United States into what had become the First World War
(/entry/First_World_War). Moreover, using the Anglo-Japanese Alliance as an excuse, Japan (/entry/Japan) leaped onto this opportunity
to conquer German interests in China and the Pacific (/entry/Pacific) to become the dominating power in Western Pacific, setting the
stage for the Second Sino-Japanese War (/entry/Second_Sino-Japanese_War) (starting in 1937) and eventually the Second World War
(/entry/Second_World_War).
Colonial Africa
By 1914, only Liberia (/entry/Liberia), founded by the United States (/entry/United_States)' American Colonization Society
(/entry/American_Colonization_Society) in 1847 and Ethiopia (/entry/Ethiopia) were self-governing. Ethiopia lost territory to Italian Eritrea
(/entry/Eritrea) and French Somaliland (modern Djibouti (/entry/Djibouti)) and was briefly occupied by Italy from 1936-1941 during World
War II (/entry/World_War_II)'s Abyssinia Crisis. The rest of Africa was governed by colonial powers as indicated on the map.
See also
History of Africa (/entry/History_of_Africa)
Notes
1. ↑ S. Gertrude Millin. Rhodes. (London: Harper & Brothers, 1933), 138
2. ↑ Tunde Obadina, 2000, "The Myth of Neo-Colonialism." The Myth of Neo-Colonialism (http://www.afbis.com/analysis/neo-
colonialism.html). Africa Economic Analysis. Retrieved August 7, 2007
3. ↑ Alfred von Tirpitz. Erinnerungen. (Leipzig: K.F. Koehler, 1919), quoted by Hannah Arendt. The Origins of Totalitarianism. section on
Imperialism, chapter I, part 3
4. ↑ Enrico Corradini, Tingfu F. Tsiang. Report to China. 1944-10-27. 1944. December 3, 1919.
5. ↑ J. A. Hobson. Imperialism, A Study. (Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press, 1965), 61 (quoted by Arendt)
6. ↑ V.I. Lenin. Imperialism, the Highest Stage of Capitalism. (Lenin Internet Archive, 1999), Imperialism, the Highest Stage of Capitalism
(http://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1916/imp-hsc/index.htm).marxists.org. Retrieved August 6, 2007
7. ↑ Pascal Blanchard, Nicolas Bancel, and Sandrine Lemaire, From human zoos to colonial apotheoses: the era of exhibiting the Other
(http://www.ces.uc.pt/formacao/materiais_racismo_pos_racismo/From_human_zoos_to_colonial_apotheoses_the_era_of_exhibiting_the_Othe
Retrieved May 11, 2015.
8. ↑ Nicolas Bancel and Pascal Lemaire, "These Human Zoos of the Colonial Period," Le Monde diplomatique (August 2000), "These
human zoos of the Colonial Republic" (http://www.monde-diplomatique.fr/2000/08/BANCEL/14145.html), (in French).English
Translation (http://mondediplo.com/2000/08/07humanzoo) Retrieved August 6, 2007.
9. ↑ The end of an era, Musée des Arts d'Afrique et d'Océanie (http://www.discoverparis.net/newsletter/The-End-of-an-Era.html)
Discover Paris, February 2003. Retrieved May 11, 2015.
10. ↑ Benjamin Whitaker, July 2, 1985, The Whitaker Report (http://www.scribd.com/doc/119129564/Whitaker-Report-UN-Economic-and-
Social-Council) scribd.com. Retrieved May 11, 2015.
References
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Hobsbawm, Eric. The Age of Empire. NY: Pantheon Books, 1987. ISBN 978-0394563190
(http://www.amazon.com/dp/03945631911?tag=encyclopediap-
20&camp=14573&creative=327641&linkCode=as1&creativeASIN=03945631911&adid=0NQQZXQ96PDAJGB1J8XS).
Hobson, J.A. Imperialism, A Study. Cosimo Classics, 2005. ISBN 978-1596052505 (http://www.amazon.com/dp/1596052503?
tag=encyclopediap-
20&camp=14573&creative=327641&linkCode=as1&creativeASIN=1596052503&adid=0NQQZXQ96PDAJGB1J8XS).
Lindqvist, Sven, and Joan Tate, Translator. Exterminate All the Brutes: One Man's Odyssey into the Heart of Darkness and the
Origins of European Genocide. (Utrota varenda jävel) NY: New Press, 1996. ISBN 9781565840027
(http://www.amazon.com/dp/156584002X?tag=encyclopediap-
20&camp=14573&creative=327641&linkCode=as1&creativeASIN=156584002X&adid=0NQQZXQ96PDAJGB1J8XS). based on
nineteenth century newspaper clippings.
Millin, S. Gertrude. Rhodes. London: Harper & Brothers, 1933.
Pakenham, Thomas. The Scramble for Africa. New York: Random House/Abacus, 1991. ISBN 0349104492
(http://www.amazon.com/dp/0349104492?tag=encyclopediap-
20&camp=14573&creative=327641&linkCode=as1&creativeASIN=0349104492&adid=0NQQZXQ96PDAJGB1J8XS).
Petringa, Maria. Brazza, A Life for Africa. Bloomington, IN: AuthorHouse, 2006. ISBN 978-1425911980
(http://www.amazon.com/dp/1425911986?tag=encyclopediap-
20&camp=14573&creative=327641&linkCode=as1&creativeASIN=1425911986&adid=0NQQZXQ96PDAJGB1J8XS).
Rodney, Walter. How Europe Underdeveloped Africa. London: Bogle-L'Ouverture Publications; Dar-Es-Salaam: Tanzanian
Publishing House, 1973. online at How Europe Underdeveloped Africa (http://www.blackherbals.com/walter_rodney.pdf). Retrieved
August 6, 2007.
External links
All links retrieved May 11, 2015.
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