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NAVIGATION VI
Operational Use of Radar/ARPA
Objectives
At the end of the grading period, the students will be able
to demonstrates a knowledge and understanding of the
following:
• Fundamental Principle of Radar
• Safe Distance
• Radiation Hazards and Precaution
• Characteristics of Radar Sets and Factors Affecting
Performances
• Factors External to the Radar Set Affecting Detection
• Factors Causing Faulty Interpretation
• Performance Standards Resolution 477(XII)
Fundamental Principle
of Radar
• RADAR- derived from the phrase RADIO
DETECTION AND RANGING.
A short burst of electro magnetic energy
transmitted and hit to an object and then
return, since the velocity of the
propagation is known it would be easy to
calculate because the distance to the
object as long as it can measure time from
which the transmission started until the
echo return.
Fundamental Principle
of Radar
EQUALIZER
TRIGGER
VIDEO AMPLIFIER DISPLAY
Marine Radar Component
RADAR ANTENNA
Transmit and receive in an concentrated
beam and a motor turns the antenna in
rotation, the signal, which are amplified the
signal becomes visible to the operator in
form of a radar picture.
Marine Radar Component
Two types of RADAR ANTENNA:
PARABOLIC TYPE
Marine Radar Component
RECEIVER
The incoming signal is fed to a series of
amplifier and further to detect or
demodulator for which smoothes the signal,
the main task of the receiver is to amplify
the reflected (incoming echoes) weak
echoes and make them suitable for
transmission to the indicator.
Marine Radar Component
TRANSMITTER
It is the trigger pulses to the modulator and
converted the inputs into a high frequency
oscillation thru magnetron. A high frequency
oscillation are fed via wave guide or into a
coaxial cable to the transmitter/receiver
switch.
Marine Radar Component
DISPLAY
A radar echoes are display in a cathode ray
tube (CRT). Several types of CRT are
utilized like A-SCAN or Short Persistent
Tube, Plan Position Indicator or PPI, Raster
Scan Display.
A-SCAN or short persistent tube, the
strength of an echo derived from its
amplitude.
Marine Radar Component
P.P.I DISPLAY
Marine Radar Component
DISPLAY
PPI is a long persistent tube, the trace is
rotated around in unison with the rotation of
the scanner and echoes previously
recorded are retained during a period of at
least one scanner revolution.
Marine Radar Component
DISPLAY
RASTER SCAN DISPLAY. Normally a
rectangular screen with dimension in the ratio
4:3 consisting of; example 1024 horizontal
lines and 1280 vertical line or picture elements
(pixel)
The radar provides all echoes information in
Cartesian form (i.e. range, bearing). Before the
information can be displayed the information
must be recalculated into X-Y coordinated by a
processor.
Marine Radar Component
START UP SEQUENCE
Radar ON/OFF
Radar Standby
Scanner ON/OFF
Setting Up Radar Display
CHOICE OF RADAR PRESENTATION
Many factors may influence a navigator’s choice of radar
presentation. Availability of equipment and own experience will
naturally be deciding factors, but it is important that navigator is
aware that he is not completely free in his selection of radar
presentations.
A navigator on a ship equipped with True Motion Radar,
operating in an area with dense traffic is obliged to utilize True
Motion radar presentation in order to avoid additional problems
in a possible collision case. The reason for this is that True
Motion presentation is considered to be, and is the best choice
under such conditions. Most navigators who use their equipment
correctly will soon obtain the needed experience to choose the
presentation that provides the simplest and most accurate
information at anytime.
Setting Up Radar Display
MEASUREMENT OF RANGE
The range accuracy of radar is generally high. Range can be
measured on radar with reference to fixed range rings equally
spaced around own ships position on the radar screen. For
more accurate measurement of range, most modern radars
provide a variable range ring that can be positioned in any range
on the screen.
The Variable range ring should regularly be checked for
accuracy against the fixed range rings, which are normally most
stable. With a variable range ring more accurate measurements
can be taken. Fixed range rings can be used when the need for
high accuracy is not important.
Setting Up Radar Display
BEARING ACCURACY
The bearing accuracy of massive radars is normally not so high
Beam with distortion, which can be partly eliminated by
reduction in gain.
Heading marker error, which can be determined by various
methods
Centering error, which can easily be corrected
Error due to yawing of own ship
Error due to parallax when viewing the display
Always read and follow the radar manufacturer recommendations
for use and maintenance of the radar equipment. This will save
you time and money and ensure proper use of equipment.
Marine Radar Performance
Specification
Target Ship
Aspect Red 40
Own Ship
M
E
R - M = Echo Line/Relative Track
E – M = Target Ship Course and Speed
E – R = Own Ship Course and Speed
PLOTTING
Heading
Defined as the direction in which the bow of a
vessel is pointing, expressed as an angular
distance from north.
North
Heading 45
45 degrees
PLOTTING
Relative Bearing
If the relative bearing of an approaching target
remains the same over time, collision danger is
observed.
Relative Bearing
of Target 030 degrees
Bearing
On a ship bearing can be relative or true in
connection with traffic surveillance, relative
bearing are often used. Ship’s Heading
True North
015 degrees
Relative Bearing
Relative Bearing
PLOTTING
CPA
PLOTTING
CPA
PLOTTING
Maneuvering Board
Plotting can be done with head up or north up
however, regardless of selected radar presentation
it is advantageous to plot with north up.
True Plotting
Gives a natural and easily understood picture of the
course of events.
Can be done directly in the chart if the scale is
large enough to give a clear picture.
Gives an easily understood picture of the situation
PLOTTING
Relative Plotting
Own ship is considered a fixed point. Plotting
must be done with high accuracy and great care.
Heavy traffic can make manual plotting
impossible.
PLOTTING
Electronic Plotting
Today many modern radars are equipped with
an electronic plotting feature. Used together with
EBL (Electronic Bearing Lines) is very good tool
in the hands of a qualified navigator. These radar
features make plotting direct on the radar display
very convenient and replace the need for
reflection plotter or plotting sheets.
PLOTTING
Errors in Manual Plotting
Even small errors in one or several of these
parameters can cause large and dangerous
errors in the plot calculations. Always check
these parameters as thoroughly as possible in
order to reduce the possibilities for “nasty
surprises” during manual plotting work.
PLOTTING
Sources of Errors in Manual Plotting
Bearing Error
Distance Error
Error in timing between plots
Error in speed
Gyro Error
Relative Speed
Maneuvering of own vessel
Unstable steering, yawing, etc.
Errors in Manual Plotting
Collision Danger
The usual method of deciding whether a collision
danger is present is taking several bearings. This
is time consuming, and it requires that many
bearings have to be taken.
A dangerous situation can quickly emerged by
taking a few inaccurate bearings from a
comparatively long distance and then “forgetting”
the target if the CPA is considered large enough.
Errors in Manual Plotting
Errors in Distance Measurement
An error in distance measurement, as in bearing
error, can produce grave results when judging
the traffic situation.
Errors in Timing
A timing error between two plots will result in
calculation of incorrect target course, speed and
time to CPA.
Errors in Manual Plotting
Errors in Speed
An error on speed causes incorrect calculation in
the same manner as error timing. However, we
must remember that in all plotting where we wish
a picture of aspect, own vessels speed through
the water must be utilized. Never make
corrections due to current or drift. In connection
with plotting, speed through water should be
used.
Errors in Manual Plotting
Gyro Error
Make it a habit to always correct the gyro for
known gyro error target with low speed.
Factors That Affects Manual Plotting
Unstable Steering
Maneuvering of Own Ship
The Technical Exactness of the Equipment
Rough Weather Conditions
Target Relative Speed
The Navigator’s Experience and Lack of Plotting Practice
VHF (Very High Frequency)
Communication
Importance of VHF Communication
A way to make ones intentions clear to another
vessel.
To arrive at an unambiguous decision about
avoiding tactics.
Broadcasting a general information report to
ships in the vicinity.
Use of VHF is not explicitly advocated in the
rules, but implicitly (“by all available means”) its
use is recommended.
VHF (Very High Frequency)
Communication
VHF Communication Report Content
Time
Position
Course
Speed
Maneuvers
VHF (Very High Frequency)
Communication
Three Basic Steps to Remember in Using VHF:
Identification (Own ship name, call sign, type)
Ascertainment of Movements and Intensions
(time, position, course, speed, etc.)
Disengagement (indicating both vessels have
recognized the action completed)
Sea speak is the official maritime language initiated by
Captain F.F. Weeks and later adapted by IMO. The
center principle of Sea speak is that receiver should be
alerted to the type of message that follows, at the
beginning of the message.
VHF (Very High Frequency)
Communication
Sea Speak Type of Message
Question- indicates that the following message
is of interrogative character.
Answer- indicates that the following message is
the reply to previous question
Request- indicates that the content of the
following message is asking for action from
others with respect to the ship.
Information- indicates that the following
message is restricted to observed facts.
VHF (Very High Frequency)
Communication
Sea Speak Components
Intention- indicates that the following informs
other about immediate action to be taken.
Warning- indicates that the following message
informs other traffic participants about danger.
Advice- indicates that the following message
implies the intention of the sender to influence
the recipient by a recommendation.
Instruction- indicates that the following
message implies the intention of the sender to
influence the recipient by regulation.
Relative Radar Plotting Symbols
Symbols are signs, letters, or abbreviations used
to replace words. They are used in mathematics
and certain sciences to good advantage by
reducing the amount of space required
explaining a thing. Since symbols take the place
of words and, they form a language of their own
her here is a list that is used in Radar Plotting.
Relative Radar Plotting Symbols
CPA - Closest Point of Approach.
DRM - Direction of relative movement
e - point of origin of the own ship
e-m - Contact's vector
e-r - Own ship's initial vector
e-r' - Own ship's final
OC - Own ship's initial course.
m - The head of the relative motion vector (r-m)
also the head of the contact's vector (e-m).
Relative Radar Plotting Symbols
RML - Relative Motion Line.
SRM - Speed of Relative Movement.
TCPA- time closest point of approach
NCPA- new closest point of approach
ST- actual target’s true speed
CT- true course of target
mx- point of execution
AC- collision avoidance course
AS- collision avoidance speed
ROCS- resume ownership course and speed
Relative Radar Plotting Symbols
NRML - New Relative Motion Line the Relative
Motion Line after own ship has maneuvered.
r - The head of own ship vector (e-r).
r-m - The relative motion vector.
M1 - First plotted position of contact
SEMI FINAL
Objectives
At the end of the grading period, the students will
be able to demonstrates a knowledge and
understanding of the following:
• Principal ARPA System
• ARPA system display characteristics
• Methods of Displaying Information
• IMO performance standards for ARPA
Principal ARPA System
What is ARPA?
An abbreviation for Automatic Radar Plotting
Aids. Basically an ARPA is a computerized radar
plotting system, which can perform radar plotting
manually or automatically according to operator’s
choice.
When it works properly, ARPA is a fantastic tool in
the hands of a qualified navigator with proper
training. One prime requirement for all users of
ARPA is to have good knowledge of the principle of
manual plotting in order to understand the
information given by the ARPA.
Principal ARPA System
What is ARPA?
An ARPA assesses the risk of collision, and enables
operator to see proposed maneuvers by own ship. While
many different models of ARPAs are available on the
market, the following functions are usually provided:
1. True or relative motion radar presentation.
2. Automatic acquisition of targets plus manual acquisition.
3. Digital read-out of acquired targets which provides course,
speed, range,bearing, closest point of approach (CPA, and
time to CPA (TCPA).
4. The ability to display collision assessment information
directly on the PPI, using vectors (true or relative) or a
graphical Predicted Area of Danger (PAD) display.
Principal ARPA System
What is ARPA?
An ARPA assesses the risk of collision, and enables
operator to see proposed maneuvers by own ship. While
many different models of ARPAs are available on the
market, the following functions are usually provided:
5. The ability to perform trial maneuvers, including course
changes, speed changes, and combined course/speed
changes.
6. Automatic ground stabilization for navigation purposes.
ARPA processes radar information much more rapidly than
conventional radar but is still subject to the same
limitations. ARPA data is only as accurate as the data that
comes from inputs such as the gyro and speed log.
Principal ARPA System
Types of ARPA
In the early days, ARPAs of broad categories existed
and were generally referred to as “stand alone”
and “integral”
a) Stand-alone ARPA
These were primarily intended as additions to
conventional radars. They provided all of the ARPA
facilities but derived their data from “host” radar. This
was an attractive means of upgrading the ship’s
radar system without incurring the expense of
removing the existing radar and installing a new
ARPA system.
Principal ARPA System
a) Stand-alone ARPA
Stand-alone equipment had to be interfaced to a variety of
existing equipment and while it was the less expensive
and more expedient of the two alternative, it was never
the solution and so, today, most of the ARPA’s being
fitted into the “integral” category.
Stand-alone ARPA works in two ways; The radar system
receives all the raw data and transmits all these data to
ARPA for processing. This may work, but having these
two units doing the work of a single one convinced the
ship owners that the dawn of new age in the electronic
navigation has come and they must be able to adopt to
the new system provided by this advancement in
science.
Principal ARPA System
b) Integral ARPA
In the modern integral ARPAs, a computer, usually referred
to as the processor, is incorporated in the radar/ARPA
system so that the ARPA data can be displayed on the
same screen as the conventional radar data.
The main operational advantage is that the radar and ARPA
data are readily comparable. In practical terms, it is
much better than the same manufacturer is responsible
for the design, testing, installation and functioning of the
system.
Gradually the trend has been for all ARPA development to
follow this form, although there is still a small group who
continue to develop stand-alone modules.
Principal ARPA System
How ARPA is used?
The ARPA is connected to the radar from which it automatically
extracts data, processes it and displays it along with graphics
and possibly alphanumeric. A computer forms the heart of
the system which plots the targets and displays the vector
associated with each tracked target.
Having first set up the ARPA display (as normal radar display),
select:
a) Range scale- e.g 12 miles
b) Plot- Relative (true) bearings
c) Mode- North-up (head-up or course up)
d) Mark the targets to be tracked (using joystick and gate)
e) Set the “vector length”--- in minutes
f) Check the course and speed input
Principal ARPA System
Principal ARPA System
General Features
• Daylight-bright high-resolution display
• 28 inch diagonal CRT presents radar picture of 360 mm
effective diameter with alphanumeric data area around it
• User friendly operation by combination of tactile backlit
touch pads, a trackball and rotary controls
• Audio-visual alert for targets in guard zone
• Echo trail to assess targets’ speed and course by
simulated afterglow
• Electronic plotting of up to 10 targets in different symbols
(This function is disabled when ARPA is activated)
Principal ARPA System
General Features
• Electronic parallel index lines
• Interswitch (optional) built in radar or ARPA display unit
• Enhanced visual target detection by Echo Average, Echo
Stretch,
• Interference Rejector, and multi-level quantization
• Stylish display
• Choice of 10, 25 or 50 KW output for X-band; 30 KW
output for S-band,either in the transceiver aloft (gearbox)
or RF down (transceiver in bridge)
• Exclusive FURUNO MIC low noise receiver
Principal ARPA System
ARPA Features
• Acquires up to 20 targets automatically
• Movement of tracked targets shown by true or relative vectors
(Vector length 1 to 99 min. selected in 1 min steps)
• Setting of nav lines, buoy marks and other symbols to enhance
navigation safety
• On-screen digital readouts of range, bearing, course, speed,
CPA, TCPA,
• BCR (Bow Crossing Range) and BCT (Bow Crossing Time) of
two targets out of all tracked targets.
• Audible and visual alarms against threatening targets coming
into operator-selected CPA/TCPA limits, lost targets, two guard
rings, visual alarm against system failure and target full situation
Principal ARPA System
ARPA Features
• Electronic plotting of up to 10 targets in different symbols (This
function is disabled when ARPA is activated)
• Electronic parallel index lines
• Interswitching (optional) built in radar or ARPA display unit
• Enhanced visual target detection by Echo Average, Echo
Stretch,
• Interference Rejector, and multi-level quantization
• Stylish display
• Choice of 10,25 or 50 kW output for X-band; 30kw output for S-
band, either in the transceiver aloft (gearbox) or RF down
(transceiver in bridge)
• Exclusive FURUNO MIC low noise receiver
•
Principal ARPA System
Principal ARPA System
DISPLAY CONTROLS - MODE PANEL
Principal ARPA System
DISPLAY CONTROLS - MODE PANEL
HM OFF- Temporarily erases the heading marker.
ECHO TRAILS- Shows trails of target echoes in the form
of simulated afterglow.
MODE- Selects presentation modes: Head-up, Head-
up/TB, North-up, Course-up, and True Motion.
GUARD ALARM- Used for setting the guard alarm.
EBL OFFSET- Activates and deactivates off-centering of
the sweep origin.
BKGR COLOR- Selects the background color.
INDEX LINES- Alternately shows and erases parallel index
lines.
Principal ARPA System
DISPLAY CONTROLS - MODE PANEL
X2 ZOOM- enlarges a user selected portion of picture
twice as large as normal. (R-type only)
CU, TM RESET- Resets the heading line to 000 in course-
up mode; moves own ship position 50% radius in stern
direction in the true motion mode.
INT REJECT- Reduces mutual radar interference
RANGE RINGS- Adjusts the brightness of range rings.
Principal ARPA System
How is numerical data relating to a particular target
found?
By using the joystick and placing the gate marker ring over
a particular target, data in numerical form relating to that
target can be obtained:
a)range and bearing
b)course and speed
c)CPA and TCPA
This data may be made to appear sequentially
simultaneously on a special data display. Alternatively, alpha-
numeric may be used to make the data appear on the
display, alongside the particular target.
Principal ARPA System
What extra facilities are available in the ARPA system?
1.Trial Maneuver
It should be possible to simulate the effect to a maneuver-- “own
ship”- o- on all tracked targets. This is done by the feeding in:
a)the propose course
b)the proposed speed
c)the delay(if any)
This display can be made to indicate the effect of such a
maneuver. The method is the display may be either static or
dynamic, in which case the tracked targets and own ship are made
to move at some 30 times normal speed. “Own Ship” will of course
move at the “propose” speed in the “proposed” direction with own
ship’s handling characteristics being taken into account.
Principal ARPA System
What extra facilities are available in the ARPA system?
2.Operational Warning
a)CPA warnings- it is possible to set limit of CPA and TCPA
which if violated by a tracked target, whether its vector
actually reaches the warning area or not, will activate an
alarm. The offending target will be by a brighter than normal
or flashing vector or a special symbol.
b)Guard rings and zones- it should also be possible to warn
the observer if any distinguishable target closes to a range or
transits a zone chosen by the observer. The first appear will
not activate the alarm. The existence of guard rings should
not be regarded as an alternative to keeping a proper
lookout.
Principal ARPA System
What extra facilities are available in the ARPA system?
2.Operational Warning
c)Target lost- the ARPA should clearly indicate if a target is
lost with the last tracked position being clearly indicated.
Methods of Displaying Information
Since the first computerized radar system came on the
market and to this very day many different ways of
presenting the information has been developed, produced
and delivered. Today, regardless of graphic presentation, all
ARPA systems must be able to present target information in
form of both relative and true vectors.
Principal ARPA System
Methods of Displaying Information
Both time of vectors should be time adjustable. In addition
to displaying target information graphically, all ARPA’s also
display target information digitally on the traffic display or on
a separate screen.
In additional a number of graphical symbols are used for
different purposes:
Defining stationary targets
Indicating navigational marks
Sailing routes
Pointing out targets that cause alarms etc.
ARPA’s Graphical Symbols
Symbols and Definition
TV - True Speed Vector indicates the targets speed and
course.
ARPA’s Graphical Symbols
Symbols and Definition
RV - Relative Speed Vector indicates target relative
course and speed.
ARPA’s Graphical Symbols
Symbols and Definition
TH - Track History should be provided on request,
consisting of at least four equally spaced past positions of the
echo.
ARPA’s Graphical Symbols
Symbols and Definition
PPC - POINT OF POSSIBLE COLLISION is the point at
which a collision could take place.
ARPA’s Graphical Symbols
Symbols and Definition
PAD - Predicted Area Of Danger is the area to be
avoided based on CPA and TCPA setting and relative target
speed.
Principal ARPA System
Area Rejection Boundaries (ARBs, AEBs)
It is possible to place electronic lines on the
screen which eliminate automatic plotting in
selected areas. The lines are adjusted for “rotation”
and “transaction” controls. These reduced the load
on the tracker when in the proximity to a coast echo.
Alternative systems provide automatic acquisition
in zones which may be designated by range and
sector controls.
Principal ARPA System
Equipment Fault in ARPA system
a.Connection with other equipment
The connection of the ARPA to any other equipment should
not downgrade the performance of that equipment. The
failure of an input from other equipment, such as log or
compass, should activate an alarm.
b.Performance tests and warnings
Self diagnosis should activate a warning in the event of ARPA
malfunction. Also means shall be available to check the
correct interpretation of data against a known solution.
Principal ARPA System
What alternatives facilities are available on
ARPA system?
a.Automatic Acquisition
It is permissible for targets to automatically, as well as
manually acquired. But where automatic acquisition is
provided, the operator must be able to select the areas in
which it operates.
b.Manual Acquisition
The operator specifies the target to be subsequently tracked.
To do this, a joystick and screen marker or tracker ball and
screen marker are used. The target is entered into or
removed from the computer memory when the acquire or
cancel button is press.
Principal ARPA System
What alternatives facilities are available on ARPA system?
c.Tracking and Acquisition Limits
There will may be times when targets are close to own ship but
present no real threat, and whose vectors may well clutter up the
center of the display. It may be possible therefore to set limits on
the ranges at which targets are acquired and to which they are
tracked.
d.Potential Points of Collision (PPCs)
From the basic plot of a target, it is possible to determine the
course to steer in order a collision or interception will take place.
It is possible to have these PPCs appear on the display and in
this way, allow the navigator to avoid them.
Principal ARPA System
What alternatives facilities are available on ARPA system?
e.Predicted Areas of Danger (PAD)
It is logical step from PPCs to indicate areas around these points
into which vessel should not do in order to ensure that some
specified clearing range is maintained.
These predicted areas of danger are feature of the Sperry
Collision Avoidance System. Earlier models as appear as
ellipse is not necessarily the PPC.
f.Methods of Testing an ARPA for malfunction
These usually take the form of self-diagnostic routines with
some indicator of the unit or Printed Circuit Board which is found
to be faulty.
Principal ARPA System
What alternatives facilities are available on ARPA system?
g.ARPA facilities
Finally the first true ARPA appeared, a system able to extract the
signal from the targets then pass them to a digital processor.
Once the data is within the processor of these equipment, a
variety of facilities will present information to the observer.
These facilities includes:
1.Relative Vectors 6. Trial Maneuver
2.True Vectors Output 7. Digital Data
3.Points of Collision 8. Navigational Lines and Limits
4.Predicted Areas of Warning 9. Operational Danger
5.History of Warning 10. Equipment
11. Rejection Boundaries
Principal ARPA System
0 0 0 0 0
0 1 1 1 0
0 1 1 1 0
0 1 1 1 0
0 0 0 0 0
Sweep 1 2 3 4 5