Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
By
Abu Obaida Mohammed El Obeid
B.Sc.(Agric)
University of Mansoura A.R.E.
1980
Supervision
Dr. Amir Bakheit Saeed
Page
Table of Contents ...... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... .... i
List of Tables ... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... .. ... vi
List of Figures ... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ... viii
List of Plates ... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... . .... .... ix
Dedication ...... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ... . ... .... x
Acknowledgement ... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... .... . ... xi
English Abstract . ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... .. ..... ..... xii
Arabic Abstract ... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ...... ......... ..... .... xv
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION . ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... 1
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... .... 4
2.1 Introduction ...... ...... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... .... ..4
2.2 Irrigation definition .. ...... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ...... ......4
2.3 Irrigation methods ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ...... 5
2.3.1 Surface irrigation...... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... .....5
2.3.2 Sub-surface irrigation. ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... . 5
2.3.3 Sprinkler irrigation .. ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ...5
2.3.4 Drip (Trickle) irrigation ...... ...... ...... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... ...... ...5
2.4 Concept of drip irrigation ...... ...... ...... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ...6
2.5 Definition of drip irrigation ...... ...... ...... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... ......6
2.6 Historical review. ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... 6
2.7 Advantages of drip irrigation . ...... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... . 7
2.8 Disadvantages of drip irrigation ........... ..... ..... ..... ........... ...... ...8
2.9 Types of drip irrigation ...... ...... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..9
2.9.1 Bubbler irrigation ...... ...... ...... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... .9
2.9.2 Drip (trickle) irrigation ...... ...... ...... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ... .9
2.9.3 Micro- Sprayers ...... ...... ...... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ...9
2.9.4 Mobile drip system ...... ...... ...... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... .... 9
2.10 System components ...... ...... ...... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ....... 10
2.10.1 Pump ...... ...... ...... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ...... ......... 10
2.10.2 Control head ...... ...... ...... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... .... 11
2.10.3 Valves ...... ...... ...... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... 11
2.10.4 Backflow preventers ...... ...... ...... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... .. .11
2.10.5 Pressure and flow regulators...... ...... ...... ...... ..... ..... ..... .... .11
2.10.6 Filters ...... ...... ...... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ...11
2.11 Fertilizing methods.... ...... ...... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ...... 14
2.12Main and submain lines ...... ...... ...... ....... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ...15
2.13 Laterals . ...... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ....15
2.14 Manifolds ...... ...... ...... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ...... .... .15
2.15 Fittings...... ...... ...... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ....16
2.16 Emission point ...... ...... ...... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... .....16
2.16.1 Line source-tubing ...... ...... ...... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..16
2.16.2 Emitters ...... ...... ...... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ...... .... 16
2.17 Hydraulics of emitters ...... ...... ...... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ... 18
2.17.1 Reynold's number (RN) ...... ...... ...... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... .18
2.17.2 Emitter discharge exponent (X) ...... ...... ...... ...... ..... ..... ..... .18
2.17.3 Emitter manufacturing coefficient of variation (CV) ...... ......19
2.17.4 Classification of emitter manufacturing
coefficient of variation (CV) ............ ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... .19
2.18 Determining of allowable pressure difference ...... ...... ...... ......20
2.19 Laterals hydraulics ..... .......... ...... ...... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... .21
2.19.1 Blasius equation ...... ...... ...... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ......21
2.19.2 Darcy-Weisbach equation ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ...... ...... .... 22
2.19.4 Christensen's friction factor (F) ...... ...... ...... ...... ..... ..... ..... 22
2.19.3 Hazen-Williams equation ...... ...... ...... ...... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..23
2.20 Uniformity of drip irrigation (EU%) ...... ...... ...... ...... ..... .... 23
2.21 Soil moisture content ...... ...... ...... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ......24
2.21.1 Field capacity (F.C) ...... ...... ...... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... 24
2.21.2 Permanent wilting point (P.W.P) ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... ........ 24
2.21.3Available water ..... .......... ...... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... 24
2.22 Measurement of soil moisture content ..... ..... ........... ...... .... .24
2.23 Drip and plant rooting ...... ...... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ...... 25
2.24 Drip irrigation system design ...... ...... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... ...... . 25
2.25 Emitter spacing ...... ...... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ...... ......25
2.26 Number of emitters per plant ...... ...... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... ...... 26
2.27 Crop water requirement (CWR) ...... ...... ...... ..... ..... .......... . 27
2.28 The net crop water requirement (NCWR) ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... .29
2.29 Gross irrigation requirement (Ig) ...... ...... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... 30
2.30 Irrigation efficiency for drip system..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ....... .31
2.31 depth of water to be applied by irrigation...... ...... ..... ..... ...... 32
2.32 Irrigation set time for drip...... ...... ...... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... ...... 32
2.33 Irrigation frequency...... ...... ...... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ...... . 33
2.34 System capacity...... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ... ...... ...... ......... 33
2.35 Squash...... ...... ...... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ...... ........ ... 33
2.36 Practices on drip irrigation... ...... ...... ...... ..... ..... ...... ..... ...... 34
CHAPTER THREE: MATERIALS AND METHODS ..... ..... .. .. 42
3.1 Site description and Experimental layout...... ...... ..... ...... ...... .... 42
3.2 Land preparation..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ...... ...42
3.3 Drip irrigation system description ..... ..... ..... .... ..... ..... ..... ....... 43
3.3.1 Pump unit.... .... ....... ...... ...... ...... ..... ...... ..... .. ..... ..... .... ... 43
3.3.2 Control unit ...... .... ..... ..... ..... ..... .... ..... .......... ..... .......... ..... 43
3.3.3 The main line ... ..... ..... ..... ..... ...... ...... ..... ........ ...... ..... ...... 43
3.3.5The lateral lines.. .... ..... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... .......44
3.3.6 Emitters .... ..... ....... ...... ..... ...... ...... ..... .... ..... .... .... .... .......44
3.4 Furrow method .... ...... ..... ...... ...... ...... ..... ...... ...... ...... ...... ... 44
3.5 The squash data collection ..... ..... ..... ..... .... ...... ...... ..... ..... . .. 44
3.6 Measurements .... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... .. 45
3.6.1 Measurement of the discharge ...... ..... ...... .... ...... ........ ....... ...45
3.6.2 Measurement of the pressure ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ... .... 45
3.6.3 Measurement of the soil moisture content .... ..... ..... .... .... .... 45
3.6.4 Measurement of the wetted soil depth...... ...... ...... ...... ..... ..... 45
3.7 Experimental procedure..... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ... 46
Chapter four: RESULTS AND DISCUSSING ..... ..... ..... ........ 51
4.1 Emitters discharge...... ...... ...... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... .... ..... ..... ... 51
4.2 Emitters exponent (X) and discharge coefficient (Kd) ..... ..... ..... 51
4.3 Manufactory variation (CV) ...... ...... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... .... 52
4.4 T he relation between the laterals lines length and emitters
discharge ...... ...... ...... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... 52
4.5 Emission uniformity (EU %) ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... .... 54
4.6 Reynold's number (Rn) and Blasius factor (f)..... ...... ...... ........ ...55
4.7 The pressure variation (head loss) along the lateral length.... .. . ..55
4.8 The calculated allowable pressure difference (head loss).... ...... 59
4.9 Calculated pressure difference (head loss) according to
Darcy-Weisbach equation ..... ......... ...... ...... ........ ....... ....... 59
4.10 Calculated pressure difference (head loss) according to
Hazen- Williams equation ..... ...... ...... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... .... 60
4.11 Squash water requirement ....... ...... ..... ...... ..... ...... ...... ..... .... 63
4.12 Irrigation efficiencies for the first season ..... ..... ..... ..... ...... ...63
4.12.1 Emission uniformity for squash lines (EU %) first season . ... 64
4.12.2 Water application efficiency first season...... ....... ...... ...... .... 65
4.13 Irrigation efficiencies for the second season ….. ….. ….. ..... 65
4.13.1 Emission uniformity for squash lines second season ...... ........65
4.13.2 Water application efficiency ...... ..... ...... ...... ..... ..... ..... .......66
4.14 Efficiency of water use (first season) ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... . 66
4.15 Efficiency of water use (second season) ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... .....66
4.16 Soil properties .... ..... ...... ..... .. ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... .....67
4.17 Squash plant under drip irrigation ..... ..... .......... ..... ...... ..... .... 68
4.18 Squash plant under furrow line...... ...... .... ..... .... ..... ... ....... 68
4.19 Data analysis .... .......... ...... ...... .... ..... .... ..... ...... .... .... 69
CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS..76
5.1 Conclusions ….. ….. …… … … …… …… ….. ….. …… …... 76
5.2 Recommendations ….. …… …… …. …… …… …… ……. .. 76
REFERENCES …. ….. …… …… ….. ….. ….. ….. ….. ….. …… . 77
APPENDICES …. ….. ….. ….. …… ….. ….. ….. ….. ….. ….. …... 80
List of Tables
أﺟﺮﻳﺖ هﺬﻩ اﻟﺪراﺳﺔ ﺑﻬﺪف دراﺳﺔ اﻟﺼﻔﺎت اﻟﻤﻤﻴﺰة ﻟﻬﻴﺪروﻟﻴﻜﺎ ﻧﻈﺎم اﻟﺮي ﺑ ﺎﻟﺘﻨﻘﻴﻂ ،آﻔ ﺎءة اﻟ ﺮي،
آﻔﺎءة اﺳ ﺘﺨﺪام اﻟﻤﻴ ﺎﻩ و ﻣﻘﺎرﻧ ﺔ ذﻟ ﻚ ﺑ ﺎﻟﺮي اﻟ ﺴﻄﺤﻲ )اﻟ ﺴﺮاب( .ﺗ ﻢ اﺳ ﺘﺨﺪام ﻧﻈ ﺎم اﻟﻤﺮﺑﻌ ﺎت ﻓ ﻲ
اﻟﺘﻮزﻳ ﻊ اﻟﻌ ﺸﻮاﺋﻲ ﻟﻠﺨﻄ ﻮط ﻓ ﻲ ﺗﻨﻔﻴ ﺬ اﻟﺘﺠﺮﺑ ﺔ اﻟﺤﻘﻠﻴ ﺔ اﻟﺘ ﻲ أﻗﻴﻤ ﺖ ﺑﺎﻟﻤﺰرﻋ ﺔ اﻟﺘﺠﺮﻳﺒﻴ ﺔ ﻟﺠﺎﻣﻌ ﺔ
2005 -2003اﻟﺨﺮﻃﻮم ،ﺷﻤﺒﺎت.ﻓﻲ اﻟﻔﺘﺮة ﺑﻴﻦ ﻋﺎﻣﻲ
ﺗﻢ ﺗﺼﻤﻴﻢ و ﺗﺮآﻴﺐ ﻧﻈﺎم اﻟﺮي ﺑﺎﻟﺘﻨﻘﻴﻂ ﻟﻴﺘﻜﻮن ﻣﻦ ﺛﻼث ﺧﻄﻮط ﺛﺎﻧﻮﻳﺔ ذات أﻃﻮال ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻔﺔ
ﻣﺘ ﺮ( ﻟﻨ ﻮﻋﻴﻦ ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻔ ﻴﻦ ﻣ ﻦ اﻟﻨﻘﺎﻃ ﺎت ،ﻧﻘﺎﻃ ﺎت داﺧ ﻞ اﻟﺨ ﻂ )ﺟ ﻲ-ﺁر( و ﻧﻘﺎﻃ ﺎت ) 40, 60, 80
ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺨﻂ )ﺗﻮرﺑﻮ – آﻲ( ﺗﺤﺖ ﺿﻐﻄﻴﻦ ﺗﺸﻐﻴﻠﻴﻴﻦ ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻔﻴﻦ )ﻧﺼﻒ ﺑﺎر و واﺣﺪ ﺑﺎر(.
ﻣﺘ ﺮ ﺗﺤ ﺖ ﺿ ﻐﻂ ﺗ ﺸﻐﻴﻠﻲ واﺣ ﺪ ﺑ ﺎر و 40ﺗﻤﺖ زراﻋﺔ ﻧﺒﺎت اﻟﻜﻮﺳﺎ آﻤﺆﺷﺮ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺧﻄﻮط ﺑﻄ ﻮل
ﺳ ﻢ ﺗﺤ ﺖ ﺳ ﻄﺢ اﻟﺘﺮﺑ ﺔ ،و ﻋﻠ ﻰ ﺳ ﻄﺢ اﻟﺘﺮﺑ ﺔ( ﺑﺎﻹﺿ ﺎﻓﺔ ﻟﺨ ﻂ ﻟﻠ ﺮي 10ﻋﻠﻰ وﺿﻌﻴﻦ ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻔ ﻴﻦ )
اﻟﺴﻄﺤﻲ )اﻟﺴﺮاب( ﻟﺘﺘﻢ اﻟﻤﻘﺎرﻧﺔ ﺑﻪ.
( ﻣﻘﺎرﻧﺔ ﺑﺎﻟﻨﻘﺎﻃﺎت ﻋﻠﻰ %95.9 %95.1,آﺎن ﻣﻌﺎﻣﻞ اﻧﺘﻈﺎم اﻟﺘﻨﻘﻴﻂ أﻋﻠﻰ ﻟﻠﻨﻘﺎﻃﺎت داﺧﻞ اﻟﺨﻂ )
( ﻟﻠﺜﻼث ﺧﻄﻮط ﺗﺤﺖ ﺿﻐﻄﻴﻲ اﻟﺘﺸﻐﻴﻞ اﻟﻤﺬآﻮرة%96 ،%94.5 .اﻟﺨﻂ )
و 0.384و ﺛﺎﺑ ﺖ أس اﻟﺘ ﺼﺮﻳﻒ ﻟﻠﻨﻘﺎﻃ ﺎت 0.010و 0.011آ ﺎن ﻣﻌﺎﻣ ﻞ اﻹﺧ ﺘﻼف اﻟﺘ ﺼﻨﻴﻌﻲ
ﻟﻠﻨﻘﺎﻃﺎت داﺧﻞ اﻟﺨﻂ وﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺨﻂ ﻋﻠ ﻰ اﻟﺘ ﻮاﻟﻲ ،ﺣﻴ ﺚ ﺗ ﺼﻨﻒ ﻧﺘ ﺎﺋﺞ ه ﺬﻩ اﻟﻨﻘﺎﻃ ﺎت ﺑﺄﻧﻬ ﺎ 0.433
ﻣﻤﺘﺎزة و ﻣﻌﻮﺿﺔ ﻟﻠﻀﻐﻂ ﺟﺰﺋﻴًَُﺎ .
ﺗﻢ ﺣﺴﺎب ﻓﻮاﻗﺪ اﻟﻀﻐﻂ اﻟﻨﺎﺗﺠﺔ ﻋﻦ اﻹﺣﺘﻜﺎك ﺑﻮاﺳﻄﺔ ﻣﻌﺎدﻟﺘﻲ دارﺳﻲ -واﻳﺰﺑﺎخ
و هﺎزﻳﻦ -وﻟﻴﺎﻣﺰ و ﻟﻘﺪ أﻋﻄﺖ اﻟﻤﻌﺎدﻟﺘﻴﻦ ﻧﺘﺎﺋﺞ ﻣﺘﻘﺎرﺑﺔ ﻟﺘﻠﻚ اﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﻢ ﺣﺴﺎﺑﻬﺎ ﻣﻦ ﺧﻄ ﻮط اﻟﺘﺠﺮﺑ ﺔ،
ﻣﺘﺮ ﻟﻠﺨﻄﻮط اﻟﻔﺮﻋﻴﺔ50.آﻤﺎ آﺎن اﻧﺨﻔﺎض اﻟﻀﻐﻂ ﻓﻲ اﻟﺤﺪود اﻟﻤﺴﻤﻮح ﺑﻬﺎ ﺣﺘﻰ ﻃﻮل
ﺣﺴﺐ ﻣﻌﺎدﻟﺔ ﺑﻨﻤﺎن -ﻣﻮﻧﺘﻴﺚ ﺣﻴﺚ آﺎﻧ ﺖ )(ETsquashﺗﻢ ﺣﺴﺎب اﻻﺣﺘﻴﺎﺟﺎت اﻟﻤﺎﺋﻴﺔ ﻟﻨﺒﺎت اﻟﻜﻮﺳﺔ
ﻣﻢ /ﻳﻮم4.8 .
ﻟﻠﻨﻘﺎﻃﺎت داﺧﻞ اﻟﺨ ﻂ ﻓ ﻮق 55.2 %و59.6 % ، 55.6 %ﺗﻔﻮق اﻹﻧﺘﺎج ﻟﻨﺒﺎت اﻟﻜﻮﺳﺎ ﺑﺤﻮاﻟﻲ
وﺗﺤﺖ ﺳﻄﺢ اﻟﺘﺮﺑﺔ واﻟﻨﻘﺎﻃﺎت ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺨﻂ ﻓﻮق ﺳﻄﺢ اﻟﺘﺮﺑﺔ ﻋﻠ ﻰ اﻟﺘ ﻮاﻟﻲ ﻣﻘﺎرﻧ ﺔ ﺑ ﺎﻟﺮي اﻟ ﺴﻄﺤﻲ
ﻟﻠﻨﻘﺎﻃﺎت ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺨ ﻂ ﺗﺤ ﺖ ﺳ ﻄﺢ اﻟﺘﺮﺑ ﺔ و 18.1%ﻓﻲ ﺣﻴﻦ اﻧﺨﻔﺾ ﺑﺤﻮاﻟﻲ اﻟﺘﻘﻠﻴﺪي )اﻟﺴﺮاب(
ﻳﻌﺰى ذﻟﻚ ﻟﻺﻧﺴﺪاد اﻟﻤﺘﻜﺮر ﻟﻠﻨﻘﺎﻃﺎت.
CHAPTER ONE
Introduction
2.10.1 Pump:
The irrigation pumps force the water to create matching pressure for
the
system designed. Centrifugal pumps are usually used in irrigation. Its
mechanism uses an impeller to spin water rapidly in a housing. This type
of
pump must have water in the case so it has a small valve to hold water.
Centrifugal pumps are divided into End–Suction Centrifugal the most
common pump in drip systems, Submersible usually shaped like a long
cylinder to match the works inside the wells and Turbine pumps which are
mounted under the water and would be attached by a shaft to a motor
raised
above the water. Turbine pumps are the most efficient type of pumps that
can
be used in wells or lakes.
2.10.2 Control head
The head works consist of the main control station and may consist
of the pump, filters, pressure regulating, valves, flow regulating valves,
control valves, water meters, pressure gauge, automatic controllers, or
time clocks, and chemical injection equipment, (Jensen,1993) Plate 2.1
Cartridge Filter
Disc filter
Plate 2.3 shows three types of drip irrigation filters
e- Centrifugal filters:
Also known as 'sand separation', they are primary for removing
particulates such as sand from water where a lot of sand is present in
the water (Stryker, 2001).
Table 2.1 gives a summary of recommendation on the types of filters to be
used under different condition of water quality. On the other hand Table
2.2exhibits classification of screen and particle size as adopted from
Nakayama,
(1986) and Cuenca, (1989).
Table 2.1 Filters types recommendations
Water source Filter
Municipal water system Screen filter, centrifugal filter, or disk
filter
Well Screen filter, centrifugal filter, or disk
filter
River or creak Disk filter, media filter, screen filter, and
centrifugal filter.
Pond or lake disk filter, Media filter, screen filter, and
centrifugal filter.
Spring or Artesian well Screen filter, centrifugal filter, or disk
filter
Organic material in disk filter, media filter, screen filter, and
water centrifugal filter.
Sand in water Screen filter, centrifugal filter, or disk
filter
Source: Stryker, (2001).
Grommets Connectors
c- Porous-wall tubing: It is a small diameter hose ( less than 25mm ) that has
a
uniformly porous wall The pores are at capillary size and ooze water when
under pressure.
2.16.2 Emitters
The emitter is a device used to dissipate the pressure and to discharge
water at a constant rate at many points along a lateral. It is the main
component of the drip irrigation system and determines it
characteristics.
Emitters have many types and may be classified according to the
flowing
criteria; flow rate, form of pressure dissipation and details of
construction and incorporation in the lateral, (Karmeli, 1977;
Dasberg,
etal., 1999), (Plate 2.6).
a- Flow rate and its variation:
Each emitter has a certain design flow rate, by its mean at normal
operating pressure. The coefficient of manufacturing variation
(CV) may vary from 0.02 for spiral long path emitters to 0.4 for
porous pipe, and has a critical effect on the irrigation efficiency of
the system. The flow rate is affected by pressure, temperature and
obviously by clogging.
b- Form of pressure dissipation:
The operating pressure of most emitters is in the range of 0.1 –
0.2 MPa. This pressure is dissipated in the emitter pathway and
reaches the outlet at atmospheric pressure, by directing water
flow through long narrow path (long–path emitters), through
small opening (orifices emitters) or through labyrinth to create a
turbulent flow.
c- Discharge regulation by pressure compensating:
Some emitters are equipped with special constructed membrane
or diaphragm to ensure a constant pressure over a wide range of
pressures. These emitters are usually more expensive but allow
very long laterals (more than 500 m for emitters of 1.6 (l/h) at 1
m distance between emitters), (Dasberg etal., 1999).
2.17 Hydraulics of emitters:
The relation between emitter discharge and operating pressure is
dependent on flow regime, which is determined by the dimensionless
Reynold's number (RN).
2.17.1 Reynold's number(RN):
RN = VD / (1000v) ...................................................... .. (2.2)
Where :
Rn = Reynold's number, dimensionless
V = flow velocity, m /sec
D = emitter diameter, mm
v = kinematics viscosity of water, m2 /sec
The flow regime is divided into the following types due to Rn:
a – Laminar flow (RN < 2000)
b – Turbulent flow (RN > 4500)
c – Unstable flow regime (2000 < RN > 4500)
The friction factor (f) for laminar flow is, (f) = 64 / RN ........ . (2.3)
The friction factor (f) for turbulent flow is, (f) = 0.316 / RN0.25
...(2.4)
2.17.2 Emitter discharge exponent:
According to Hillel, (1987) the discharge for most trickle
irrigation
emitters or sprays with fixed or unfixed cross section can be given by:
X
Q = Kd × H .......................................................................
...(2.5)
Where :
Q = Emitter flow rate or discharge (l /h)
Kd = Discharge coefficient (empirical factor)
H = Working head pressure at the emitter
X = Emitter discharge exponent
In order to find the value of (X) the expression used is :
X = Log (Q2 / Q1) ................................................ (2.6)
Log (H2 / H1)
Where :
Q1, Q2 are discharge; H1, H2 are pressure at two known
points.
(Kd) is computed by compensating (X) value in equation (2.4)
The values of (X) should range from 0 for pressure compensating
emitter
to 1 for an emitter in laminar flow regime. The discharge exponent
should
equal about 0.5 for emitter operating in turbulent flow regime,
(Cuenca, 1989).
2.17.3 Emitters manufacturing coefficient of variation( CV):
It is impossible to manufacture the emitters exactly alike , because
of
the critical dimensions of emitter passage .So the small difference may
cause significant variation .The manufacturing coefficient of variation
for
emitter (CV) can be calculated from the discharge data of a sample of
at
least 50 emitters by the following equation:
2 2 2
CV = √ (q1 + q2 + ….. qn – nqa2 ) / (n-1)
………(2.7)
qa
which is CV = sd / q a ………………
(2.8)
Where :
CV = coefficient of manufacturing variation
n = number of emitters in the sample
qa = average emitter discharge rate for the sample
( q1 + q2 … + qn ) / n , l/h.
sd = estimated standard deviation of discharge rates of the
population (l/h)
Table 2.3 Classification of emitter coefficient of manufacturing variation
(CV)
Where:
∆ P = allowable pressure difference
dq = discharge variation.
q = Emitter discharge (l/h).
X = Emitter exponent.
H = Operating pressure.
(2) Design uniformity technique
Fertilizer injector
Pressure gauges
Zone one
Water filter
Pump
Laterals
Submain line
Main line
e- Vacuum breaker .
f- Pressure regulator
j- Venturi tube principle
3.3.3 The main line:
A 30 m, 5cm diameter polyvinyl chloride (PVC), main line was
buried below ground surface at a depth of 50 cm meters.
3.3.4 Submain line:
Two PVC submain pipes were connected directly to the main line
each pipe was 16 meter in length and 2.5cm in diameter. The
submains
were also buried at 50 cm below ground surface.
3.3.5 The lateral lines:
The 13 mm diameter lateral pipes, were made of black linear,
low densi Poly ethylene (LLDPE). There were two types of the
emitters
(built-in GR. and built-on Turbo-Key). The laterals were connected
to
the submain at 0.75 m spacing and 140 cm spacing for squash.
3.3.6 Emitters:
The built-in, G.R. Eurodrop emitter rated at 3.8 l/h, are Egyptian
make, and the Turbo Key on-line emitter rated at 4 l/h, are Saudi
Arabian
make. Plates 3.2 and 3.3 show built-in and built-on emitter
respectively.
The emitters specifications are show in Table 3.1
CHAPTER FOUR
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
4.1 Emitters discharge:
Table 4.1 shows the results of average discharge for two
different
working pressures and it appears that the discharge increases as
pressure increases.(App. 1)
Table 4.1Emitters discharge
Type of emitters Pressure (bar)
0.5 1.0
Discharge (l/h)
Built-in tube 2.95 3.84
Built-on line 2.97 4.01
Table 4.2 shows the value of the emitter discharge exponent (X) and
the discharge coefficient (Kd) of equations (2.5) and (2.6). It shows also
the discharge-pressure co-relation for the two types of emitters used.
(App.2)
Table 4.2 Emitters discharge exponent (X) and the discharge coefficient
(Kd)
Co-relation
Type of emitters X Kd (r2)
Built-in line 0.384 1.59 0.98
Built-on line 0.433 1.48 0.96
4.4 The relation between the laterals lines length and emitters
discharge:
Tables 4.4, 4.5 and 4.6 show emitter discharge in (l/h) at 10 m
intervals
for the different types of drippers for 40, 60, and 80 m lateral
length.
Table 4.4 The relation between the laterals lines length and emitters
discharge at 40 m length.
Type of Pressure at Distance (m)
average
dripper beginning
of lateral 0 10 20 30 40
(bar) Discharge (l/h)
Built-in 0.5 3.05 2.96 2.98 2.92 2.84 2.95
line 1.0 4.01 3.90 3.92 3.79 3.64 3.85
Built-on 0.5 2.97 2.90 2.94 2.79 283 2.97
line 1.0 4.16 4.13 3.98 3.99 3.78 4.01
Table 4.5 The relation between the laterals lines length and emitters
discharge at 60 m length.
Type of Pressure at Distance (m) average
dripper beginning
of lateral 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
(bar)
Discharge (l/h)
Built-in 0.5 2.94 2.93 2.88 2.84 2.77 2.67 2.59 2.81
line 1.0 3.79 3.78 3.74 3.62 3.64 3.51 3.31 3.62
Built-on .05 2.97 2.95 2.90 2.82 2.73 2.67 2.52 2.79
line 1.0 4.00 4.00 3.94 3.85 3.65 3.59 3.39 3.77
Table 4.6 The relation between the laterals lines length and emitters
discharge at 80 m length.
Type of Pressure Distance (m) average
dripper at
beginning 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
of lateral Discharge (l/h)
(bar)
Built in 0.5 2.95 2.90 2.84 2.72 2.61 2.45 2.45 2.35 2.29 2.62
line 1.0 3.79 3.75 3.69 3.54 3.36 3.22 3.14 3.00 2.95 3.38
Built on 0.5 2.97 2.92 2.84 2.70 2.59 2.43 2.39 2.29 2.21 2.59
line 1.0 4.01 3.89 3.84 3.68 3.48 3.20 3.06 3.00 2.87 3.40
It is apparent that the average discharge decreases with the increase in
lateral length.
4.5 Emission uniformity (EU %)
Table 4.7 shows the emission uniformity (EU %) for different types of
emitters, lengths of laterals, pressures, and emitter cost, per Sudanese
Dinar for 100 meter, 50 cm spacing.
Table (4.7) Emission uniformity (EU %) for different types of
emitters and emitter cost.
Lateral length (m) Pressure (bar) Emission uniformity
(EU%)
Built-in Built-on
40 0.5 96.3 95.3
1.0 94.5 94.2
60 0.5 92.1 90.3
1.0 91.4 89.9
80 0.5 88.4 85.3
1.0 88 84.4
Cost SD / 100 m ___ 11250 17500
App. 4 and Table 4.7 show that the emission uniformity (EU %) decreases
with the increasing lateral length, the following information can also be
drawn:
• The emission uniformity (EU %) of built-in and built-on lines at
working pressure of 0.5 bar, for 40 m length were found to be 96.3
% and 95.3 %
respectively, and they were the highest emission uniformities
compared with other lengths in the experiment.
• The emission uniformity (EU %) of built-in and built-on lines at
working pressure of 1.0 bar, for 40 m length were found to be 94.5
% and 94.2 %
respectively.
• The emission uniformity (EU %) of built-in and built-on lines at
working pressure of 0.5 bar, for 60 m length were found to be 92.1
% and 90.3 %
respectively.
• The emission uniformity (EU %) of built-in and built-on lines at
working pressure of 1.0 bar, for 60 m length were found to be 91.4
% and 89.9 %
respectively.
• The emission uniformity (EU %) of built-in and built-on lines at
working pressure of 0.5 bar, for 80 m length were found to be 88.4
% and 85.3 % respectively.
• The emission uniformity (EU %) of built-in and built-on lines at
working pressure of 1.0 bar, for 80 m length were found to be 88 %
and 84.4 %
respectively.
• The cost of drip irrigation lines using built-on (Turbo-Key), 50 cm
spacing was approximately twice that for the built-in.
4.6 Reynold's number (Rn) and Blasius factor (f):
Reynold's number (Rn) was found to be 8450, 8775 for built-in and
built-on respectively App. 5 indicating turbulent flow regime since
RN > 4500 the flow regime is fully turbulent. According to the
Blasius
equation (2.4) the friction factor (f) for both built-in and built-on
was
found to be 0.033
4.7 The pressure variation (head loss) along the lateral length:
Table 4.8 Pressure variation along 40 m. lateral length.
Type of emitters Distance (m)
0 10 20 30 40
Pressure (bar)
Built-in line 0.5 0.49 0.48 0.47 0.46
1.0 0.98 0.97 0.94 0.93
Built-on line 0.5 0.48 0.46 0.45 0.45
2.5
Built-in 1.5
Built-on 1
0.5
0
80 60 50 40
Lateral length (m)
Fig 4.1
4
Built-in 3
Built-on 2
1
0
80 60 50 40
Lateral length (m )
Fig. 4.2
Figs 4.1 and 4.2 Summary of results for the pressure variation
(head loss) in meters for the different laterals types and lengths.
4.8 The calculated allowable pressure difference (head loss):
Table 4.11 shows the calculated allowable pressure difference ( head loss)
in meters for the different laterals types and lengths according to ASAE
technique, using equation (2.10), App. 6
Table 4.11 Calculated allowable pressure difference for the different
laterals types and lengths according to ASAE technique.
Type of emitters Pressure at the Lateral length m
Lateral beginning 40 50 60 80
(m) Head losses (m)
Built-in line 5.0 0.48 o.64 1.01 1.64
10.0 1.42 1.41 1.87 2.8
Built-on line 5.0 0.54 0.57 1.12 1.69
10.0 0.92 1.1 1.65 3.67
The pressure decreases with increasing lateral length. The difference in the
pressure is allowable up to 50 meters lateral length.
4.9 Calculated pressure difference (head loss) according to Darcy-
Weisbach
equation:
Table 4.12 shows the calculated pressure difference, ( head loss) in meters for
the different laterals types and lengths according to Darcy-Weisbach
equation, using equation (2.11) and App.7
2.5
Headloss (m)
1.5
0.5
0
80
60
50 e ill
40 ze ill s
80 ze ill s
60 rcy ill s
50 rcy eis s
40 rcy eis ch
80 rcy eis h
60 AE eis ch
50 AE
40 AE
80 AE
60 as
50 as d
40 as d
H
H n-
H n- iam
H n- iam
D n- iam
D -W iam
D -W ba
D -W ba
AS -W ba
AS
AS
AS
M ure
M ure
M ure
az
az W
a W
a W
a
a W
ea d
e
su
re
d
ba
c
ch
Head loss (m )
4
0
80
60
50
40
80
60
50 cy - sb a
40 rcy - sb a
80
60 AE isb a
50 AE
40 AE
80 AE
60 a su
50 a su
40 a su
Ha
Ha
Ha
Ha
Da
D a We s
D a We ch
Da
AS - We ach
AS
AS
AS
M r ed
M r ed
M r ed
e
ea
ze
ze
ze
ze
rc
r c
su
y - iam
y
n-
n-
n-
n-
re
W
W
d
ei h
i ll i
i ll i
i ll i
i ll
s
am
am
am
b
c
ch
s
Plate 4.4 Built-in above soil surface, with pressure gauge connected
and furrow lines respectively App 13. The results show the
superiority of
drip irrigation over the furrow method, guard statistic.
Table 4.19 Squash plant parameters (second season)
Parameters Leaf width Plant height Plant diameter Yield
cm cm cm Kg/line
Irrigation Max Min Mean Max Min Mean Max Min Mean
system
Built-in 25 23 24w 57 52 55h 53 51 52 44.7
subsurface
Built-in 23 22 23 56 50 54 52 53 53 45.3
surface
Built-on 23 8 15 54 9 33 51 15 33 32.2
subsurface
Built-on 23 21 22 51 48 50 51 50 50 45
surface
Furrow 25 11 18 58 11 35 52 16 34 37.1
Table 4.20 gives a summary for App. 17 that shows that there are
significant differences (p ≤ 0.05) between the built-in lines below and
above the soil surface, and built-on above the soil surface as compared
with furrow system, with respect to crop yield, plant height and plant
diameter, but for leaf width is significant difference was found (p ≤
0.05).
CAPTER FIVE
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 Conclusions:
From the results of this study the following conclusions can be
drawn:
• Darcy-Weisbach and Hazen-Williams equations have similar
results for lateral hydraulic calculations.
• For high performance of drip irrigation the lateral length
should not be more than 50 meters, particularly when
partially pressure compensating emitters are used.
• Built-on emitters should not to be used below soil surface.
• Using Penman-Monteith formula, the estimated squash
water requirement (ETsquash) was found to be 4.8 mm/day
under Shambat conditions.
• Drip irrigation systems produce more yield per unit area
and yield per unit volume of water than conventional
surface
irrigation system.
5.2 Recommendations:
• For a perfect drip irrigation system design it is necessary to
consider the manufacturing coefficient of variation under the
recommended pressure.
• For a higher performance of drip irrigation system the
matching type of filter and the recommended number of mesh
must be used.
REFERENCES
Abas, J.I; Abd Elnasir, A. (1992). “Irrigation and Drainage” Halab
University,
Syrian. Directorate of books and bulletin of the
universities.
Abd Alla. N.A. (2000). “Drip irrigation System Performance a Case
study.
Oumdom farm” M.Sc. Thesis, Depart of Agric.
Engineering
Faculty of Agriculture, University of Khartoum.
Abd Elazeem, B.M. (1997). “Irrigation Principles and Practise in Land
Reclamation” Elmalim Institution, Alexandria, A.R.E.
A.B.E. (2001). “Drip irrigation”
http://ag.ari3ona.edu/classes/ABE456/2001ABE456/Drip%20irrigation.ht
m
Ahmed, M. A. (2002). “Design and Installation of Drip Irrigation System
for Establishment of a Shelter-belt at Al- Rawakeeb Area”
M.Sc. Thesis, Depart of Agric. Engineering Faculty of
Agriculture, University of Khartoum.
Al-Amoud, A.L. (1992). “Drip irrigation Systems” University of King
Saud,
Riyadh, Saudi Arabian.
Alteif, N.I; Isam, K.A. (1988) “Irrigation principles and practices”
Ministry of
High Education and Scientific Researches University of
Baghdad, Iraq.
Anwar, A.A. (1999) “Factor of G for Pipelines with Equally Spaced
Multiple
Outlet and Outflow” American Society of Civil Engineers
(1999) pp34 – 38.
Bashir, E.E.(2001) “Drip Irrigation System Design under the Semi Arid
conditions of Shambat using simple computer model” M.Sc.
Thesis,Depart of Agric. Engineering Faculty of Agriculture,
University of Khartoum.
Cuenca, H.R. (1989). “Irrigation System Design, an Engineering
Approach”
Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey.
Dasberg, S; Dani O. (1999). “Drip Irrigation Applied Agriculture”
Springer- Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg, (1999), Germany
Elghundi, A. M; Ahmmed, A. A; Isam, A.S; Deya-Eldeen, A.(2000)
“Design
of Irrigation and Drainage Nets” Ain - Shams University,
Cairo (A.R.E).
Elramlawi, H. R. (2001). “Simulation and Operation of Irrigation Water
Demand and Supply”. Ph. D. Thesis, Depart of Agric
Engineering Faculty of Agriculture, University of
Khartoum.
FAO, (1992). “Irrigation and Drainage” paper No. 46. Food and
Agriculture Organization of the United Nation (FAO),
Rome.
FAO, (1996). “Guidelines for Planning Irrigation and Drainage
Investment
Projects” FAO Investment Centre, Technical paper
No.11. Rome.
FAO, (2001). “Handbook on Pressurized Irrigation Techniques” Rome.
Ferguson, J. (1970) “The values of Natural Evaporation from Shallow
Ponds”
Aust. J. Sc. Res. (5): 315 – 330.
Goldberg, S. D; Rinot, M; Karu, N. (1971) “ Effect of Trickle Irrigation
Intervals on Distribution and Utilization of Soil Moisture
in
Vineyard” Soil. Sci. Soc. Am. Proc.35.
Hillel, D. (1987). “Advances in Irrigation” Academic press, Inc. Harcourt
Brace
Jovanovich publishers.
Ismail, S.A. (2002). “Design and Management of Field Irrigation
systems”
1st. Ed. Glal Hazi and Participates, Education institution
Alexandria, A.R.E.
James, L.G. (1988). “Principles of Farm Irrigation System Design”
1st . Ed. John Willey and Sons, Inc, New York.
Jensen. M. E. (1993). “Design and Operation of Farm Irrigation Systems”
Revised printing. American Society of Agric.
Engineers,
St. Joseph, Michigan, U.S.A.
Juana, L; Leonor, R. S; Alberto, L. M. “Determining Minor Head Losses
in
Drip Irrigation Laterals”.
I: Methodology
II: Experimental study and validation
American Society of Civil Engineers Journal of Irrigation
and
Drainage Engineering”. Vol.128, No. 5.2002, pp 376 –
396.
Keller. J; Ron, D. B. (1990). “Sprinkler and Trickle Irrigation” Van Host
rend
Peihold New York.
Khalil, A. M. (1998). “Irrigation Systems and Water Relationship”,
Glal Hazi and participates, Education institution Alexandria.
Michael, A.M. (1978). “Irrigation: Theory and Practice”, 1st Ed. Vikas.
Publishing House PVT. L.T.D. New Delhi. India.
Michael, A.M. (1999). “Irrigation Theory and Practice” Vikas
Publishing, T. L.T.D. New Delhi. India.
Saeed, A.M. (1968). “Some physical and Chemical Properties of Centre
Shambat Soil”. M. Sc. Thesis, Depart of Agric. Engineering
Faculty of Agriculture, University of Khartoum.
Schwab, G.O; D.D. Fang Meier; W.J. Elliot and R.K. Frevert (1993).
“Soil
and Water Conservation Engineering” 4th Ed. John Wiley &
Sons Inc New York.
Scott, H.D. (2001). “Soil Physics, Agricultural and Environmental
Applications” Iowa Sate University Press /Ames.
Smith, M.G; Allan, J. L; Monteith, A; Perrier, L; Pereira, ; A. Sergen, A.
(1991). “ Report of the Expert Consultation on Procedures
for
Revision of FAO Guidelines for Prediction of Crop Water
Requirement” UN. FAO, Rome, Italy, 54p.
Smith, W.S. (1990). “landscape Irrigation Design and Management”
John Willey and Sons, Inc.
Solomon, K. (1979). “ Manufacturing Variation of Trickle Emitters”.
American Society of Civil Engineers Journal of Irrigation
and
Drainage Engineering. Vol. 22 No. (5) pp 1034 – 1043.
Stryker’s. J. (2001). “Irrigation Tutorials”.
WWW.Irrigationtutorials.com
Sudan Meteorological Department. (1980), “Annual Report” (1951 –
1980),
Shambat Metrological Station, Sudan.
Valiantzas, D. J. “ Continues Outflow Variation Along Irrigation Laterals
Effect of the Number of Outlets”. American Society of Civil
Engineers, Journal of Irrigation and Drainage Engineering.
Vol. 128. No.1 2002.pp. 34 – 42.
Valiantzas, J. D. “Hydraulic Analysis and Optimum Design of Multi
Diameter
Irrigation laterals”, American Society of Civil Engineers,
(ASCE) Journal of Irrigation and Drainage Engineering
Vol.128.No.2.2002.pp 18 – 86.
Vallesguino, P; Pedro, L.L. “Equivalent Friction Factor Method for
Hydraulic
in Irrigation Laterals” American Society of Civil Engineer
Journal of Irrigation and Drainage Engineering. Vol.128.
No.5.pp 278 – 285.
Vermeiren, L; Gobling, G. A. (1980). “Localized Irrigation and
Drainage”
Paper No. (36), Food and Agriculture Organization of the
United Nation (FAO), Rome.
Wu, I. P. (1975) “Design Capacity of Drip Irrigation System”. Engineer
Notebook. No. (25) Coo. Ext. Srv. Hawaii, Monoa.
Wu. I. P. “Design Criteria for Microirrigation Systems” Transactions of
the
ASAE.Vol.43. No5.2000. paper 1145
APPENDICES
Appendix (1) discharge distribution:
Distance built-on (0.5 bar) Average
0 3.25 3.32 3.16 3.15 3.23 2.95 3.20 2.86 2.98 3.16 3.13
10 3.19 3.1 3.16 3.18 3.13 3.00 2.95 3.2 3.03 3.25 3.07
20 2.83 2.96 2.87 2.79 2.8 2.56 2.77 2.90 3.09 2.85 2.94
30 3.03 3.84 2.95 2.88 2.67 2.60 2.28 2.79 2.77 2.81 2.86
40 2.71 3.00 2.86 2.73 2.68 2.87 2.63 3.15 2.89 2.82 2.83
Average 2.97
Distance
built-on (0.5 bar)=
Average
Distance built-on (1.0 bar) Average
0 4.26 4.35 4.09 4.20 3.96 4.28 4.12 4.09 4.17 4.12 4.16
10 4.31 4.25 4.00 4.22 4.11 3.95 4.17 4.08 3.99 4.21 4.13
20 4.01 4.14 4.00 3.86 4.01 3.95 4.07 3.96 3.69 4.11 3.98
30 4.10 4.27 3.97 4.06 3.87 3.89 4.02 4.07 3.82 3.85 3.99
40 3.96 4.08 4.00 3.73 3.79 3.69 3.69 3.68 3.69 3.51 3.78
Average 4.01
r2 = (n Σ xy - Σ x y)2
[n Σx2 - (Σ x2)] [n Σ y2 - Σ y2 ]
Appendix (4)
Uniformity of system hydraulic studies (EU%):
EU = (Qmin /Qave) 100%
Built-in 0.5 bar length 40m (2.84 / 2.95) 100 = 97.4%
Built-in 0.5 bar length 60m (2.59 / 2.81) 100 = 92.2%
Built-in 0.5 bar length 80m (2.29 / 2.62) 100 = 87.4%
Built-in 1.0 bar length 40m (3.72 / 3.85) 100 = 96.6%
Built-in 1.0 bar length 60m (3.48 / 3.62) 100 = 92.8%
Built-in 1.0 bar length 80m (2.97 / 3.38) 100 = 87.9%
Built on 0.5 bar length 40m (2.83 / 2.97) 100 = 95.3%
Built-on 0.5 bar length 60m (2.52 /2.79) 100 = 90.3%
Built-on 0.5 bar length 80m (2.21 /2.59) 100 = 85.3%
Built-on 1.0 bar length 40m (3.85 /4.01) 100 = 96.0%
Built-on 1.0 bar length 60m (3.40 /3.77) 100 = 90.2%
Built-on 1.0 bar length 80m (2.87 /3.40) 100 = 84.4
Appendix (5)
Reynolds number(RN),Blasius friction factor (f) and Christensens
friction (F)
a- (for built-in tube, pressure 1.0 bar, length 40 m)
RN = VD / (1000v)
V = Q /A (l/h)
= 308/(1000×3600)
(0.0065)2 ×3.142
V = 0.64 m/sec
RN = 0.65 ×13 × 1000 = 8450
b- (for built-on tube, pressure 1.0 bar, length 40 m)
V= 320.8/(1000×3600)
(0.0065)2 ×3.142
V= 0.675 m/sec
RN = 0.675 ×13 × 1000 = 8775
Where (RN > 4500) so the regime of the flow is fully turbulent
and,
according to the Blasius equation the friction factor (f) for
turbulent
flow is, f = o.316/RN0.25
f = 0.316 /8450.25 and 0.316 /8775.25 = 0.033 for built-
in
and built-on respectively.
Christensen's friction factor (F) for 80 emitter:
F= 1 + 1 + ( m – 1)0.5
m +1 2(80) 6(80)2
Christensen's friction factor (F) with (m = 1.852) for 80, 100, 120,160
outlet was found to be: 0.357, 0.356, 0.355, 0.353 respectively.
Christensen's friction factor (F) with (m = 2) for 80, 100, 120,160 outlet
was found to be: 0.340, 0.338, 0.337, 0.336 respectively.
Appendix (6)
6.1 Allowable Pressure difference ASAE Technique:
∆P = 1/X (dq) h
(Q)
6.1.1 Built-in 0.5 bar
X = 0.384 1/X = 2.6
∆P = 40m length 2.6 (0.11) 5 = 0.484m
(2.95)
= 50m length 2.6 (0.17) 5 = 0.778m
(2.84)
= 60m length 2.6 (0.22) 5 = 1.017m
(2.81)
= 80m length 2.6 (0.33) 5 = 1.637m
(2.62)
6.1.2 Built-in 1.0 bar:
40m length 2.6 (0.21)10 = 1.418m
(3.85)
50m length 2.6 (0.20)10 = 1.41m
(3.68)
60m length 2.6 (3.62)10 = 1.867m
(3.62)
80m length 2.6 (0.41)10 = 3.153m
(3.38)
6.1.3 Built-on:
X = 0.433 1/X = 2.31
∆P 0.5 bar, 40m length = 2.31 (0.14) 5 = 0.544m
(2.97)
50m length = 2.31 (0.17) 5 = 0.691m
(3.77)
60m length = 2.31 (0.27) 5 = 1.177m
(2.97)
80m length = 2.31 (0.38) 5 = 1.694m
(2.59)
6.1.4 Built-on: 1.0 bar,
40m length = 2.31 (0.16) 10 = 0.921m
(4.01)
50m length = 2.31 (0.17)10 = 1.382m
(2.84)
60m length = 2.31 (0.25) 10 = 2.267m
(3.77)
80m length = 2.31 (0.53) 10 = 4.82m
(3.40)
Appendix (7)
Head loss according to Darcy–Weisbach equation:
hf = 6.377 fL Q2 /D5
Where: L =lateral length (m); Q = [q (emitters average
discharge)×N (No. of outlets -l/sec )]; D (inner diameter) =
13mm
hf = 6.377×0.033×40×2362 /135
For the built-in with a begging pressure of 0.5 bar, the pressure head
loss was found to be 0.43, 0.764, 1.29, 2.75 meters for 40, 50, 60,
80
(m) lateral length respectively.
For the built-on with a begging pressure of 0.5 bar, the pressure head
loss was found to be 0.43, 0.76, 1.27, 2.59 meters for 40, 50, 60,
80
(m) lateral length respectively.
For the built-in with a begging pressure of 1.0 bar, the pressure head
loss was found to be 0.73, 1.28, 2.11, 4.4 meters for 40, 50, 60, 80
(m) lateral length respectively.
For the built-on with a begging pressure of 1.0 bar, the pressure head
loss was found to be 0.78, 1.4, 2.32, 4.46 meters for 40, 50, 60, 80
(m) lateral length respectively.
Appendix (8)
Head losses according to Hazen–Williams equation: (with C= 140)
hf = KL [Q/1401.852]
D4.87
K =1.21×1010 ;L = lateral length (m); Q = [q (emitters average
discharge)×N (No. of outlets- l/sec )] D (inner diameter) =
13mm
For the built-in with a begging pressure of 0.5 bar, the pressure head
loss was found to be 0.443, 0.933, 1.279, 2.538 meters for 40, 50,
60, 80
(m) lateral length respectively.
For the built-on with a begging pressure of 0.5 bar, the pressure head
loss was found to be 0.448, 0.933, 1.263, 2.485 meters for 40, 50,
60, 80
(m) lateral length respectively.
For the built-in with a begging pressure of 1.0 bar, the pressure head
loss was found to be 0.722, 1.505, 2.205, 4.068 meters for 40, 50,
60, 80
(m) lateral length respectively.
For the built-on with a begging pressure of 1.0 bar, the pressure head
loss was found to be 0.782, 1.671, 2.045, 4.113 meters for 40, 50,
60, 80
(m) lateral length respectively.
Mean monthly meteorological data and the values of Penman Monteith formula elements.
Appendix (10)
Appendix (9)
Feb: ea = 3.075× 0.21 = 0.646
March: ea = 3.089× 0.21 =0.494
April: ea = 4.739× 0.21 =0.719
Oct.: ea = 4.891× 0.21 =1.445
Nov.: ea = 3.780× 0.21 =0.983
Dec.: ea = 3.075× 0.21 =0.892
Appendix (11)
Value of soil heat flux (G) (Mj m-2 day-1).
G moth = 0.14 (T month – T month-1) ………………......... (2.23)
G Feb. = 0.14 (24.7 – 23.2) = 0.21
G March = 0.14 (28.4 – 24.7) = 0.518
G April = 0.14 (32.2 – 28.4) = 0.532
G Oct. = 0.14 (32.6 –32.5) = 0.014
G Nov. = 0.14 (28.1 –32.6) = -0.63
G Dec. = 0.14 (24.4 –28.1) = -0.58
Appendix (11a)
Penman-Monteith formulas:
Appendix (12)
Uniformity of the squash drip irrigation lines (EU%)
EU % = (Qmin /Qave) 100%
Built-in line above soil surface (3.66 3.81) = 96.1%
Built-in line 10 cm below the soil surface (3.60/ 3.78) = 95.5%
Built-on line above soil surface (3.80 /4.00) = 95.0%
Built-on lines 10 cm below the soil surface (2.08 / 3.01) = 69.1%
Appendix (13) Irrigation efficiency (Ea):
Ea =Ks × EU………….. (2.34)
Ks% = {100(clay) + 97(loam) + 95(fine sand)} / 3 = 97.3% (Ismail,
2002)
Built-in line above soil surface (97.3× 96.1) = 93.5 %
Built-in line 10 cm below the soil surface (97.3× 95.5) = 92.9 %
Built-on line above soil surface (97.3× 95.0) = 92.4 %
Built-on line 10 cm below the soil surface (97.3× 69.1) = 67.2 %
Furrow line(Control) = 60%
Appendix (14) Squash:
Reduction factor (kr) 77 / 85 = 91%.
Depth of water to be applied (D) under drip irrigation system
=10 (Fc - pwp) d × z × p (equation
2.35)
= 10 × 0.3 × (27– 13) ×0.3 × 0.91= 11.47 mm /day
Gross irrigation requirement (GIR) = NIR / E
11.47/93 = 12.33 mm /day
Irrigation intervals (Ii) =NIR / ETc
= 11.47 / 4.8 = 3 days.
Irrigation set time (T) = ETc ×Se ×SL ×K / Q × E (equation 2.36)
= 0.5×1.4×4.8× × / 4 = 0.9 hour.
Appendix (15)
Furrow line discharge:
Discharge Discharge
litre / 5 minutes Litre / hour
62.4 748.8
57.6 691.2
60.7 728.4
65.6 797.2
64.7 776.4
53.4 640.8
63.0 756
63.2 758.4
54.3 651.6
71.6 859.2
Average 74 0.8
The discharge (Q) was found to be 740.8 (l/h) for the furrow line.
Net irrigation requirement (NIR) = MAD (Fc - PWP)
= 0.5 × (27– 13) ×0.3 = 21 mm
/day
Gross irrigation requirement (GIR) = NIR /Ea (60%)
= 21 / 0.6 = 35 mm /day.
Irrigation intervals (Ii) = NIR / ETc
= 35 / 4.8 = 7 days.
Irrigation set time (T) = 0.5×1.4×4.8×80 ×7 / 740.8 = 2.5 hour.
Appendix (16)