Nuclear Activation Analysis:

DEFINITION: This is when samples are irridated with neutrons in a nuclear reactor to produce a
radioactive isotope.
– Gamma ray

What happens?
1. A sample is bombarded with neutrons. This creates a radioactive isotope.
2. A prompt gamma ray is released

What are advantages and disadvantages of the process?

Advantages:
– Very sensitive
– Most elements can be used in the process
– Quick process
– Little amount of pretreatment is needed
– Very small amount of sample is needed

Disadvantages:
– No information is given about where the element came from(the origin)
– Legal requirements must be met
– Neutron source is needed

What are the different catergories of NAA?

Prompt gamma ray neutron activation analysis(PGNAA):
– Mostly used for:
– Elements with high neutron capture cross-sections
– Elements which decay too quickly to be measured by DGNAA
– Element with weak decay intensities
Delayed gamma ray neutron activation analysis(DGNAA):
– e

How do gamma rays interact matter?

Photoelectron effect:
– When light hits a metal, electrons can be ejected from the surface of the metal.
– The more intense the incoming radiation is → more electrons ejected → each electron
carries the same energy.

Compton scattering:
EQUATION: Using gamma-ray to calculate concentration

Scintillators:
- They are materials which produce small flashes of light when struck by ionising
radiation(particles, gamma rays and neutrons).

Ionisation Detectors:
Projectiles and Gunshot Residues
PARTS AND STRUTURES:

What are the different parts of a bullet?

1.The bullet
– f
–

2.Cartidge case
– Holds everything together

3.Propellant
– This is the explosive of the gun. It powers the bullet through the air from gun → target
– It is a mixture of fuel and oxidiser.

4.The rim
5.Primer
– Explodes when hit
–

What are propellants made of?

– Lead styphnate → detonator
– Barium nitrate → oxidant
– Antimony sulfide → fuel

Spot test for lead:

WHAT HAPPENS WHEN YOU FIRE A GUN?

1. Pull the trigger
2. The hammer moves forwards → pin strikes the primer
3. This creates a spark which ignites the gunpowder(3)
4.

HOW TO FIND EVIDENCE:

– You can compare the metal jacket fragments with how much Zn and Cu is in the metal
jacket.
–

HOW BULLETS WORK:

X-ray Fluorescence

Electronic Spectroscopy

Atomic Spectroscopy

Fingerprinting

Poisoning Electrophoresis

Arson Chromatography
Synchrotron Techniques

Mass Spectroscopy

ARSON
Arson:
– This is a crime where people intentionally and deliberately set fire to
buildings, vehicles or propetry.
– Crimes with arson is difficult because we need to establish:
– There was a fire
– The fire was deliberately lit
– The fire was lit in the intention to do harm/damage
ALSO, most the evidence is damaged or contaminated by the fire
Accelerants:
– Liquid accelerants
– Solid accelerants
–
Atomic Absorption Flame Spectroscopy
– This is a technique that measures the concentration of elements.

Light Source:
– Light source is a HOLLOW CATHODE LAMP
– Each element has their own special lamp which emits a unique light.

Calibration curve:
– This is used to determine the unknown concentration of a element in a
solution.
– This is done using many concentrations of solutions of known
concentrations.
– The absorbance of each known solution is measured using
spectrophotometry, and hence a calibration curve can be plotted of
concentration vs absorbance.

Application:
– Analysis of blood, plasma, serum and different elements(e.g. Ca, Mg, Li,
Na etc).
– Environmental analysis: monitoring the environment by figuring out
 concentration of elements in water, rivers, air and petrol.
– Mining: By determining the concentration of elements, we can deduce
whether or not it is worth mining the rocks to extract a element.

Flame Emission Spectroscopy:

– This is also another technique ot measure the concentration of elements in
a sample
– PRINCIPLE: When the atom of some metals are given heat, they become
excited and release the energy at different wavelengths.
– The intensity of the energy produced is proportional to the number of
atoms excited in the falme which is also proportional to the concentration
of the metal in the sample.
– INSTRUMENTS: They are the same as the atomic absorption, however
there is no radiation source. The sample is converted to a atomic phase
AND the sample is excited to a higher level, all in the atomiser.

Difference:

Atomic Absorption Emission Spectroscopy

- Relies on number of ground state
atoms
Measures radiation absorbed by
ground state atoms
Presence of a light source → Hollow
Cathode Lamp
- Relies on number of excited atoms
Measures radiation released by excited
atoms
No light source needed