Types of Printers

Printers are classified as :

a) Impact Printer
b) Non Impact Printer
a) Impact Printer
Impact printers are similar to typewriters. They use hammer to strike a character against an inked ribbon and the impact of
the hammer causes the image of the character to be printed on paper. E.g. Dot matrix printers, line printers, daisy wheel
printers.
Advantages of impact printers:
Their functioning is relatively easy
Multiple copies can be produced at the same time with the help of carbon paper.
Impact printers are noisy in operation and are subject to wear and tear of mechanical parts.
Types of impact printers :
1) Dot Matrix Printers
Dot matrix printer prints each character as a pattern of dots. The printer has a printer head with a matrix of pins (needles).
Typical heads have a matrix of 7 rows and 9 columns. These pins produce a pattern of dots to form the individual
characters. These printers are relatively low in cost and print at speeds of 50-500 characters per second. The programmer
can also define the shape of characters for this printer.Therefore it is possible to print many special characters, characters
in various sizes as well as charts and graphs on such printers. Dot matrix printers are very commonly
used in most computer systems.
2) Daisy Wheel Printer :
These printers are also called as letter quality printers. These printers have a daisy wheel with a number of petals. A
character is embossed on each wheel. There is a motor which spins the wheel at a fast rate. When the desired character is
brought to the correct position, a hammer strikes the petal to produce the output. Thus these printers are impact printers.
The letter quality of these printers is much superior as compared to the dot matrix printers. But they are slow and typically
print in the range of 10-50 characters per second.

3) Line Printer:
Line printers are very fast printers which print at speed of 200-2500 lines per minute. These printers are impact printers and
normally have 132 print positions per line. Different types of character set are available for different printers. Line printers
arenormally used in applications where large volumes of data are to be printed.
The two types of line printers are :
(i) Drum printers
This consists of a metallic cylinder. On the surface of this drum there are characters in bands. Each column or band on the
drum contains all the characters.Opposite to each band there is a hammer located behind the paper. The drum rotates at
a fast rate. The hammer strikes the paper along with the inked ribbon and produces the
output. One line is printed in each revolution of the printer.
(ii) Chain printers
In the chain printers there is one print hammer for each print position on a line. There is a fast moving chain called the print
chain. W hen this chain rotates, the print hammer and the inked ribbon strike the paper against the proper character on the
chain.
b) Non Impact Printer
They use thermal, chemical, electrostatic and inkjet technologies for printing as against the hammer mechanism of impact
printers. E.g. Laser printers, DeskJet printers.
Ink Jet Printer:
Ink jet printer is a non impact printer. It prints characters by spraying ink from tiny nozzles onto the paper. A special type of
ink which has a high iron content is used. This ink is charged electrically when it comes out of the nozzle. This ink is
absorbed by the paper and dries instantly. The output of the ink jet printer is of a superior quality. Also it is possible to
obtain colored output. A number of character styles and sizes are available. However, being a non impact printer it is not
possible to prepare carbon copies with this printer.
Laser Printers : These printers are used where a very superior quality output is desired. The image is created on a photo
sensitive drum ; with a laser beam. The laser is turned on and off when it moves back and forward across the drum. It
leaves a negative charge on the drum to which a positively charged black toner powder sticks. When the paper rolls by the
drum, the ink is transferred to the paper. Laser printers have a buffer memory to store entire pages and hence their speed
is very fast.
The biggest advantage of these printers is that no mechanical movement is involved, therefore they are noiseless in
operation. However there are comparatively expensive.
MEMORY

A memory is just like a human brain. It is used to store data and instruction. Computer memory is the storage space in
computer where data is to be processed and instructions required for processing are stored.

The memory is divided into large number of small parts. Each part is called a cell. Each location or cell has a unique
address which varies from zero to memory size minus one.

For example if computer has 64k words, then this memory unit has 64 * 1024 = 65536 memory location. The address of
these locations varies from 0 to 65535.
Memory is primarily of two types

 Internal Memory − cache memory and primary/main memory

 External Memory − magnetic disk / optical disk etc.

Characteristics of Memory Hierarchy are following when we go from top to bottom.

 Capacity in terms of storage increases.

 Cost per bit of storage decreases.
 Frequency of access of the memory by the CPU decreases.
 Access time by the CPU increases.

Cache Memory
Cache memory is a very high speed semiconductor memory which can speed up the CPU.
It acts as a buffer between the CPU and the main memory. It is used to hold those parts
of data and program which are most frequently used by the CPU. The parts of data and
programs are transferred from the disk to cache memory by the operating system, from
where the CPU can access them.

Advantages
The advantages of cache memory are as follows:
Cache memory is faster than main memory.
It consumes less access time as compared to main memory.
It stores the program that can be executed within a short period of time.
It stores data for temporary use.

Disadvantages
The disadvantages of cache memory are as follows:
Cache memory has limited capacity.
It is very expensive.
Primary Memory (Main Memory)
Primary memory holds only those data and instructions on which the computer is currently
working. It has a limited capacity and data is lost when power is switched off. It is generally
made up of semiconductor device. These memories are not as fast as registers. The data
and instruction required to be processed resides in the main memory. It is divided into
two subcategories RAM and ROM.

Characteristics of Main Memory

These are semiconductor memories. It is known as the main memory.
Usually volatile memory.
Data is lost in case power is switched off.
It is the working memory of the computer.
Faster than secondary memories.
A computer cannot run without the primary memory.

Secondary Memory
This type of memory is also known as external memory or non-volatile. It is slower than
the main memory. These are used for storing data/information permanently. CPU directly
does not access these memories, instead they are accessed via input-output routines. The
contents of secondary memories are first transferred to the main memory, and then the
CPU can access it. For example, disk, CD-ROM, DVD, etc

Characteristics of Secondary Memory

These are magnetic and optical memories. It is known as the backup memory.
It is a non-volatile memory.
Data is permanently stored even if power is switched off.
It is used for storage of data in a computer.
Computer may run without the secondary memory.
Slower than primary memories.

RANDOM ACCESS MEMORY (RAM)

RAM (Random Access Memory) is the internal memory of the CPU for storing data,program, and program
result. It is a read/write memory which stores data until the machine is working. As soon as the machine is
switched off, data is erased. Access time in RAM is independent of the address, that is, each storage
location inside the memory is as easy to reach as other locations and takes the same amount of time. Data
in the RAM can be accessed randomly but it is very expensive. RAM is volatile, i.e. data stored in it is lost
when we switch off the computer or if there is a power failure. Hence, a backup Uninterruptible Power
System (UPS) is often used with computers. RAM is small, both in terms of its physical size and in the
amount of data it can hold.
RAM is of two types -
Static RAM (SRAM)
Dynamic RAM (DRAM)

Static RAM (SRAM)

The word static indicates that the memory retains its contents as long as power is being supplied. However,
data is lost when the power gets down due to volatile nature. SRAM chips use a matrix of 6-transistors and
no capacitors. Transistors do not require power to prevent leakage, so SRAM need not be refreshed on a
regular basis. There is extra space in the matrix, hence SRAM uses more chips than DRAM for the same
amount of storage space, making the manufacturing costs higher. SRAM is thus used as
cache memory and has very fast access.

Characteristic of Static RAM

Long life
No need to refresh
Faster
Used as cache memory
Large size
Expensive
High power consumption

Dynamic RAM (DRAM)

DRAM, unlike SRAM, must be continually refreshed in order to maintain the data. This is
done by placing the memory on a refresh circuit that rewrites the data several hundred
times per second. DRAM is used for most system memory as it is cheap and small. All
DRAMs are made up of memory cells, which are composed of one capacitor and one
transistor.
Characteristics of Dynamic RAM
Short data lifetime
Needs to be refreshed continuously
Slower as compared to SRAM
Used as RAM
Smaller in size
Less expensive
Less power consumption

READ ONLY MEMORY(ROM)

ROM stands for Read Only Memory. The memory from which we can only read but cannot
write on it. This type of memory is non-volatile. The information is stored permanently in
such memories during manufacture. A ROM stores such instructions that are required to
start a computer. This operation is referred to as bootstrap. ROM chips are not only used
in the computer but also in other electronic items like washing machine and microwave
oven.

Let us now discuss the various types of ROMs and their characteristics.
MROM (Masked ROM)
The very first ROMs were hard-wired devices that contained a pre-programmed set of data
or instructions. These kind of ROMs are known as masked ROMs, which are inexpensive.
PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory)
PROM is read-only memory that can be modified only once by a user. The user buys a
blank PROM and enters the desired contents using a PROM program. Inside the PROM chip,
there are small fuses which are burnt open during programming. It can be programmed
only once and is not erasable.

EPROM (Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory)

EPROM can be erased by exposing it to ultra-violet light for a duration of up to 40 minutes.
Usually, an EPROM eraser achieves this function. During programming, an electrical charge
is trapped in an insulated gate region. The charge is retained for more than 10 years
because the charge has no leakage path. For erasing this charge, ultra-violet light is
passed through a quartz crystal window (lid). This exposure to ultra-violet light dissipates
the charge. During normal use, the quartz lid is sealed with a sticker.

EEPROM (Electrically Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory)

EEPROM is programmed and erased electrically. It can be erased and reprogrammed about
ten thousand times. Both erasing and programming take about 4 to 10 ms (millisecond).
In EEPROM, any location can be selectively erased and programmed. EEPROMs can be
erased one byte at a time, rather than erasing the entire chip. Hence, the process of reprogramming is
flexible but slow.
Advantages of ROM
The advantages of ROM are as follows:
Non-volatile in nature
Cannot be accidentally changed
Cheaper than RAMs
Easy to test
More reliable than RAMs
Static and do not require refreshing
Contents are always known and can be verified
MOTHERBOARD
The motherboard serves as a single platform to connect all of the parts of a computer
together. It connects the CPU, memory, hard drives, optical drives, video card, sound card,
and other ports and expansion cards directly or via cables. It can be considered as the
backbone of a computer.
Features of Motherboard
A motherboard comes with following features:
Motherboard varies greatly in supporting various types of components.
Motherboard supports a single type of CPU and few types of memories.
Video cards, hard disks, sound cards have to be compatible with the motherboard
to function properly.
Motherboards, cases, and power supplies must be compatible to work properly
together.

Popular Manufacturers
Following are the popular manufacturers of the motherboard.
Intel
ASUS
AOpen
ABIT
Biostar
Gigabyte
MSI
Description of Motherboard
The motherboard is mounted inside the case and is securely attached via small screws
through pre-drilled holes. Motherboard contains ports to connect all of the internal
components. It provides a single socket for CPU, whereas for memory, normally one or
more slots are available. Motherboards provide ports to attach the floppy drive, hard drive,
and optical drives via ribbon cables. Motherboard carries fans and a special port designed
for power supply.
There is a peripheral card slot in front of the motherboard using which video cards, sound
cards, and other expansion cards can be connected to the motherboard.
On the left side, motherboards carry a number of ports to connect the monitor, printer,
mouse, keyboard, speaker, and network cables. Motherboards also provide USB ports,
which allow compatible devices to be connected in plug-in/plug-out fashion. For example,
pen drive, digital cameras, etc.

HARDWARE

Hardware represents the physical and tangible components of a computer, i.e. the
components that can be seen and touched.
Examples of Hardware are the following:
Input devices - keyboard, mouse, etc.
Output devices - printer, monitor, etc.
Secondary storage devices - Hard disk, CD, DVD, etc.
Internal components - CPU, motherboard, RAM, etc.

Relationship between Hardware and Software

Hardware and software are mutually dependent on each other. Both of them must
work together to make a computer produce a useful output.
Software cannot be utilized without supporting hardware.
Hardware without a set of programs to operate upon cannot be utilized and is
useless.

To get a particular job done on the computer, relevant software should be loaded
into the hardware.
Hardware is a one-time expense.
Software development is very expensive and is a continuing expense.
Different software applications can be loaded on a hardware to run different jobs.
A software acts as an interface between the user and the hardware.
If the hardware is the 'heart' of a computer system, then the software is its 'soul'.
Both are complementary to each other.

SOFTWARE

Software is a set of programs, designed to perform a well-defined function. A program is

a sequence of instructions written to solve a particular problem.
There are two types of software -
System Software
Application Software
System Software
The system software is a collection of programs designed to operate, control, and extend
the processing capabilities of the computer itself. System software is generally prepared
by the computer manufacturers. These software products comprise of programs written in
low-level languages, which interact with the hardware at a very basic level. System
software serves as the interface between the hardware and the end users.
Some examples of system software are Operating System, Compilers, Interpreter,
Assemblers, etc.

Here is a list of some of the most prominent features of a system software:

Close to the system
Fast in speed
Difficult to design
Difficult to understand
Less interactive
Smaller in size
Difficult to manipulate
Generally written in low-level language

Application Software
Application software products are designed to satisfy a particular need of a particular
environment. All software applications prepared in the computer lab can come under the
category of Application software.
Application software may consist of a single program, such as Microsoft's notepad for
writing and editing a simple text. It may also consist of a collection of programs, often
called a software package, which work together to accomplish a task, such as a
spreadsheet package.

Examples of Application software are the following:

Payroll Software
Student Record Software
Inventory Management Software
Income Tax Software
Railways Reservation Software
Microsoft Office Suite Software
Microsoft Word
Microsoft Excel
Microsoft PowerPoint

Features of application software are as follows:

Close to the user
Easy to design
More interactive
Slow in speed
Generally written in high-level language
Easy to understand
Easy to manipulate and use
Bigger in size and requires large storage space

OPERATING SYSTEM

An Operating System (OS) is an interface between a computer user and computer hardware. An operating system is a software which
performs all the basic tasks like file management, memory management, process management, handling input and output, and
controlling peripheral devices such as disk drives and printers.

Some popular Operating Systems include Linux, Windows, OS X, VMS, OS/400, AIX, z/OS, etc.

Definition

An operating system is a program that acts as an interface between the user and the computer hardware and controls the execution of all
kinds of programs.

Following are some of important functions of an operating System.

 Memory Management
 Processor Management
 Device Management
 File Management
 Security
 Control over system performance
 Job accounting
 Error detecting aids
 Coordination between other software and users
Memory Management

Memory management refers to management of Primary Memory or Main Memory. Main memory is a large array of words or bytes
where each word or byte has its own address.

Main memory provides a fast storage that can be accessed directly by the CPU. For a program to be executed, it must in the main
memory. An Operating System does the following activities for memory management −

 Keeps tracks of primary memory, i.e., what part of it are in use by whom, what part are not in use.
 In multiprogramming, the OS decides which process will get memory when and how much.
 Allocates the memory when a process requests it to do so.
 De-allocates the memory when a process no longer needs it or has been terminated.

Processor Management

In multiprogramming environment, the OS decides which process gets the processor when and for how much time. This function is
called process scheduling. An Operating System does the following activities for processor management −

 Keeps tracks of processor and status of process. The program responsible for this task is known as traffic controller.
 Allocates the processor (CPU) to a process.
 De-allocates processor when a process is no longer required.

Device Management

An Operating System manages device communication via their respective drivers. It does the following activities for device
management −

 Keeps tracks of all devices. Program responsible for this task is known as the I/O controller.
 Decides which process gets the device when and for how much time.
 Allocates the device in the efficient way.
 De-allocates devices.

File Management

A file system is normally organized into directories for easy navigation and usage. These directories may contain files and other
directions.

An Operating System does the following activities for file management −

 Keeps track of information, location, uses, status etc. The collective facilities are often known as file system.
 Decides who gets the resources.
 Allocates the resources.
 De-allocates the resources.

Other Important Activities

Following are some of the important activities that an Operating System performs −

 Security − By means of password and similar other techniques, it prevents unauthorized access to programs and data.
 Control over system performance − Recording delays between request for a service and response from the system.
 Job accounting − Keeping track of time and resources used by various jobs and users.
 Error detecting aids − Production of dumps, traces, error messages, and other debugging and error detecting aids.
 Coordination between other softwares and users − Coordination and assignment of compilers, interpreters, assemblers and
other software to the various users of the computer systems.

Features of Operating System

The Operating System is a program with the following features:

An operating system is a program that acts as an interface between the software
and the computer hardware.
It is an integrated set of specialized programs used to manage overall resources
and operations of the computer.
It is a specialized software that controls and monitors the execution of all other
programs that reside in the computer, including application programs and other
system software.
Objectives of Operating System
The objectives of the operating system are -
To make the computer system convenient to use in an efficient manner.
To hide the details of the hardware resources from the users.
To provide users a convenient interface to use the computer system.

To act as an intermediary between the hardware and its users, making it easier for the users to access
and use other resources.

To manage the resources of a computer system.

To keep track of who is using which resource, granting resource requests, and
mediating conflicting requests from different programs and users.
To provide efficient and fair sharing of resources among users and programs.
Types of Operating System
Operating systems are there from the very first computer generation and they keep evolving with time. In this chapter, we will discuss
some of the important types of operating systems which are most commonly used.

Batch operating system

The users of a batch operating system do not interact with the computer directly. Each user prepares his job on an off-line device like
punch cards and submits it to the computer operator. To speed up processing, jobs with similar needs are batched together and run as a
group. The programmers leave their programs with the operator and the operator then sorts the programs with similar requirements into
batches.

The problems with Batch Systems are as follows −

 Lack of interaction between the user and the job.

 CPU is often idle, because the speed of the mechanical I/O devices is slower than the CPU.
 Difficult to provide the desired priority.

Time-sharing operating systems

Time-sharing is a technique which enables many people, located at various terminals, to use a particular computer system at the same
time. Time-sharing or multitasking is a logical extension of multiprogramming. Processor's time which is shared among multiple users
simultaneously is termed as time-sharing.

The main difference between Multiprogrammed Batch Systems and Time-Sharing Systems is that in case of Multiprogrammed batch
systems, the objective is to maximize processor use, whereas in Time-Sharing Systems, the objective is to minimize response time.

Multiple jobs are executed by the CPU by switching between them, but the switches occur so frequently. Thus, the user can receive an
immediate response. For example, in a transaction processing, the processor executes each user program in a short burst or quantum of
computation. That is, if n users are present, then each user can get a time quantum. When the user submits the command, the response
time is in few seconds at most.

The operating system uses CPU scheduling and multiprogramming to provide each user with a small portion of a time. Computer
systems that were designed primarily as batch systems have been modified to time-sharing systems.

Advantages of Timesharing operating systems are as follows −

 Provides the advantage of quick response.

 Avoids duplication of software.
 Reduces CPU idle time.
Disadvantages of Time-sharing operating systems are as follows −

 Problem of reliability.
 Question of security and integrity of user programs and data.
 Problem of data communication.

Distributed operating System

Distributed systems use multiple central processors to serve multiple real-time applications and multiple users. Data processing jobs are
distributed among the processors accordingly.

The processors communicate with one another through various communication lines (such as high-speed buses or telephone lines).
These are referred as loosely coupled systems or distributed systems. Processors in a distributed system may vary in size and function.
These processors are referred as sites, nodes, computers, and so on.

The advantages of distributed systems are as follows −

 With resource sharing facility, a user at one site may be able to use the resources available at another.
 Speedup the exchange of data with one another via electronic mail.
 If one site fails in a distributed system, the remaining sites can potentially continue operating.
 Better service to the customers.
 Reduction of the load on the host computer.
 Reduction of delays in data processing.

Network operating System

A Network Operating System runs on a server and provides the server the capability to manage data, users, groups, security,
applications, and other networking functions. The primary purpose of the network operating system is to allow shared file and printer
access among multiple computers in a network, typically a local area network (LAN), a private network or to other networks.

Examples of network operating systems include Microsoft Windows Server 2003, Microsoft Windows Server 2008, UNIX, Linux, Mac
OS X, Novell NetWare, and BSD.

The advantages of network operating systems are as follows −

 Centralized servers are highly stable.

 Security is server managed.
 Upgrades to new technologies and hardware can be easily integrated into the system.
 Remote access to servers is possible from different locations and types of systems.

The disadvantages of network operating systems are as follows −

 High cost of buying and running a server.

 Dependency on a central location for most operations.
 Regular maintenance and updates are required.

Real Time operating System

A real-time system is defined as a data processing system in which the time interval required to process and respond to inputs is so
small that it controls the environment. The time taken by the system to respond to an input and display of required updated information
is termed as the response time. So in this method, the response time is very less as compared to online processing.

Real-time systems are used when there are rigid time requirements on the operation of a processor or the flow of data and real-time
systems can be used as a control device in a dedicated application. A real-time operating system must have well-defined, fixed time
constraints, otherwise the system will fail. For example, Scientific experiments, medical imaging systems, industrial control systems,
weapon systems, robots, air traffic control systems, etc.

There are two types of real-time operating systems.

Hard real-time systems

Hard real-time systems guarantee that critical tasks complete on time. In hard real-time systems, secondary storage is limited or missing
and the data is stored in ROM. In these systems, virtual memory is almost never found.
Soft real-time systems
Soft real-time systems are less restrictive. A critical real-time task gets priority over other tasks and retains the priority until it
completes. Soft real-time systems have limited utility than hard real-time systems. For example, multimedia, virtual reality, Advanced
Scientific Projects like undersea exploration and planetary rovers, etc.

Role of Computer in Management

A management information system is a set of processes that allows companies to move information through their business
operations. Business owners and managers use the information to make decisions, among other things. The expanding variety and
use of information technology—particularly computers—allows companies to automate this critical business function.

Many tasks in the business environment involve the use of computers. Employees input data in software applications and programs
that allow other individuals to view the information. Owners and managers rely on computers to access the information from the
management information systems.

Importance

The use of computers and Information Technology (IT)-based systems in mainstream businesses has redefined workplace practices,
operational metrics and business models. Top management and key business executives have been able to leverage the various
capabilities of computer-based systems and productivity software technologies to get a better handle on business operations, channelize
employee productivity and address strategic goals. The importance of computers in management cannot be overstated.

Planning: In order to be competitive, mega corporations, large-workforce organizations and even small and medium businesses need
to do long range corporate planning in a systematic manner. Such organization development initiatives encompass human resources
development, finance and budget allocation, procurement and supply chain, sales and marketing, research and development.
Automated business processes, advanced computer systems and allied software applications provide companies with reports, tools
and practices to address strategic objectives and the techniques and methods to achieve organizational goals.

Communication:Computer networks connected over an intranet-based system or Web-based environment can communicate with
one another. In modern businesses, business owners and enterprise decision makers need employees to communicate instantly with
each other, collaborate and share files, information and relevant documents quickly in order to execute work-related tasks and
pursuits. Use of e-mail systems, instant messaging tools and more recently social networking applications has also enhanced swifter
communication with business partners, customers, suppliers and other key external stakeholders.

Transactions Management:Organizations and businesses perform thousands of transactions at varied customer and business
partner –facing interfaces. Purchase managers, inventory system professionals and accounts and financial personnel need to keep
track of invoices, purchase orders, payment gateways on organization websites and all transactions at the operational level. Computer
systems integrate varied transaction processes and activities and facilitate real-time tracking of transactions. IT applications speed the
process of transaction activities and help in calculations, generation of accurate summaries and reports.

Decision-making:In contemporary businesses, gigabytes and masses of data and information is generated on a daily basis. Computers,
IT systems and allied software programs help companies to classify, arrange, systematize and analyze information. Use of CRM
solutions, Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) systems Management Information Systems (MIS) and database systems enable
companies to operationally manage business processes and functional areas. Market intelligence, sales reports and customer insights
generated from such systems aid business managers, top management and project heads in important decision making processes.

Improve Productivity:One of the primary purposes of deploying large-scale computer systems, software, networking and IT tools is to
gain productivity on all levels in an organization. All departments, manufacturing and production facilities and offshore centers should
be able to leverage the capabilities and of modern IT systems and technologies and function more effectively and efficiently. Used
strategically, computers streamline employee workflows, operational activities and functional processes, ensure better control in
business management and impact the bottom-line.