Introduction

 to  Continuum  Mechanics  

LECTURE    TOPICS  
—  I.    Vectors  
—  Definition  
—  Addition  of  Vectors  
—  Scalar  Multiplication  of  Vectors  
—  Inner/Dot  Product  
—  Cross  Product  
—  Scalar  Triple  Product  
—  Vector  Triple  Product  
—  II.    Indicial  Notation  
—  Indicial  Operators  
—  Vector  Operation  
LECTURE    TOPICS  
—  III.    Rotational  Transformation  and  Tensor  
—  Definition  –  Direction  Cosines  
—  Rotational  Transformation  
—  Tensor  
—  Stress  Tensor  
Vectors  
—  Vector  -­‐    in  a  three  dimensional  Euclidean  space,  is  defined  
as  a  directed  line  segment  with  a  given  magnitude  and  a  
given  direction.  (e.g.  force,  velocity,  acceleration)  
—  Consider:  

z  
r = rxiˆ + ry ˆj + rz kˆ
rz kˆ r
§     where,  rx,  ry,  rz  are  scalar  components  of  r  
ry ˆj y   along  x,  y,  z  respectively.  
rxiˆ  
x   §     i  ,  j  ,  k  are  unit  basis  vectors  
Vectors  
—  Addition  of  Vectors  
—  PARALLELOGRAM  LAW  
! !
a +b
! ! Properties:  
!
+   b a ! ! ! !
a =   1) a + b = b + a
! à    commutative  
! b ! ! ! ! ! !
a = axiˆ + a y ˆj + az kˆ ( )
2) a + b + c = a + b + c ( )
! à    associative  
b = bxiˆ + by ˆj + bz kˆ ! ! !
3) a + 0 = a
! !
a + b = (ax + bx ) iˆ + (a y + by ) ˆj à    zero  vector  
! ! !
+ (a + b )kˆ 4) a + (− a ) = 0
z z
Vectors  
—  Scalar  Multiplication  of  Vectors  
!
Given:   a = a xiˆ + a y ˆj + a z kˆ
α = scalar quantity
→ α, β = constants
Properties:  
! !
! 1) a ∗α = α∗a
a ! ! ! !
αa 2) (α + β)a = α ∗ a + β ∗ a
! ! ! !
! ! ˆ
b = (αa ) = (α ∗ ax )i + (α ∗ a y ) j ˆ 3) ( )
α a + b = α ∗ a + α ∗b
! !
ˆ 4) αβ ∗ a = βα ∗ a
+ (α ∗ az )k
!
b = bxiˆ + by ˆj + bz kˆ à    the  result  is  a  vector  
Vectors  
—  Inner/Dot  Product   ! !
a • b = a b cos θ à    the  result  is  a  scalar  
Given  two  vectors:   !
a ! ! !
! Where:   a = a • a → magnitude of a
a = ax iˆ + a y ˆj + az kˆ ! 2 2 2
! θ b a = ax + a y + az
b = bx iˆ + by ˆj + bz kˆ ! ! !
b = b • b → magnitude of b
! ! b = bx + by + bz
2 2 2
( )(
a • b = axiˆ + a y ˆj + az kˆ • bxiˆ + by ˆj + bz kˆ ) ! !
! ! θ ≡ angle between a & b
a • b = axbx + a yby + az bz Note:  

iˆ • iˆ = 1 ∗1 ∗ cos (0) = 1
The  above  two  equations  can  be  used   ˆj • ˆj = kˆ • kˆ = 1
simultaneously  in  getting  the  angle  
between  the  two  given  vectors.   iˆ • ˆj = ˆj • kˆ = kˆ • iˆ = 0 → because iˆ ⊥ ˆj ⊥ kˆ
Vectors  
—  Inner/Dot  Product   ! ˆ
Example  1:   a = i + 2 ˆj + kˆ
Properties:   !
! ! ! ! b = iˆ + xˆj + ykˆ
1) a •b = b •a ! !
! ! ! ! a • b = (1)(1) + (2)(x ) + (1)( y )
2) ( ) (
a • αb = α a • b ) ! !
! ! a • b = 1 + 2x + y
= (αa ) • b
! ! ! ! ! ! !
3) ( )
a • b + c = a •b + a •c Example  2:  
!
a = 2iˆ + 0 ˆj + 0kˆ
! ! ! ! !
4) a • a > 0, except if a = 0 b = 0iˆ + 10 ˆj + 0kˆ
! !
a • b = (2)(0) + (0)(10) + (0)(0)
! ! ! !
a • b = 0 bec. a ⊥ b
Vectors  
—  Cross  Product   -­‐  given  2  vectors,  the  result  is  a  vector  orthogonal  to  
the  given  vectors  
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
Note : c ⊥ to both a & b c •a = a •c = 0
a ×b = c ! ! ! !
Therefore,   c •b = b •c = 0

! ! ! ! ! !
c = a ×b c = a × b = a b sin θ
!
b !
θ     ! à    magnitude  of  vector     c
! c
a
à    Numerically  equal  to  the  
! ! ! area  of  the  parallelogram  
−c =b ×a created  by  vectors  a  and  b.  
Vectors  
! !
—  Cross  Product   a × b = (a y bz − az by ) iˆ + (az bx − axbz ) ˆj + (axby − a y bx )kˆ

Considering  unit  basis  vectors,   This  can  be  remembered  conveniently  

! as  the  determinant:  
ˆi × iˆ = ˆj × ˆj = kˆ × kˆ = 0

î iˆ × ˆj = kˆ ˆj × iˆ = −kˆ iˆ ˆj kˆ
ˆj × kˆ = iˆ kˆ × ˆj = −iˆ
! !
k̂ ĵ a × b = ax ay az
kˆ × iˆ = ˆj iˆ × kˆ = − ˆj bx by bz
Properties:  
!
! ! ! ! Example  3:   a! = 2iˆ + 0 ˆj + 0kˆ
1) a × b = − b × a ( ) b = 0iˆ + 3 ˆj + 0kˆ
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
(
2) a × b × c ≠ a × b × c ) ( ) c = a × b = 0iˆ + 0 ˆj + (2 ∗ 3)kˆ
! ! ! ! ! ! !
( ) (
3) a × b + c = a × b + (a × c ) ) !
c = 6kˆ
Vectors  
—  Scalar  Triple  Product  
! ! ! -­‐-­‐-­‐>    Scalar  quantity  equal  to  the  volume  of  the  
(a ×b •c ) parallelepiped  formed  w/  a,  b  and  c  as  3  edges.  

ax ay az
! ! ! !
! c
v !
( )
a × b • c = bx by bz
b cx cy cz
! ! ! !
a
! ! !
( )
a × b • c = axby cz + a y bz cx + az bx c y
v = a ×b − az by cx − axbz c y − a ybx cz
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
Magnitude  of  v  =  area  of  the   ( ) (
Note:   a × b • c = b × c • a = (c × a ) • b)
parallelogram  formed  by  a  and  b   a
! ! Convenient  way  of  remembering:   c b
Direction  of  v  =   ⊥ a & b
Vectors  
—  Vector  Triple  Product  
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
( )
a × b × c = (a • c )b − b • c a ( ) -­‐-­‐-­‐>    the  result  is  a  vector  w/c  
is  a  scalar  multiple  of  the  
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
( )
a × b × c = (a • c )b − a • b c ( ) vectors  in  the  parenthesis  

Note:  The  vector  product  is  not  associative.  

! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
Proof:   ( )
a × b × c = −c × a × b = c × b × a ( ) ( )
! ! ! ! ! !
= (c • a )b − ( c •b ) a
! ! ! ! ! !
= (a • c )b − ( b •c ) a
Indicial  Nota9on  
—  Consider  the  vector  as  shown  
z   x3  

! !
a a
k̂ ê3
y   x2  
iˆ ê1
ê2
ĵ
x1  
x  
! !
a = ax iˆ + a y ˆj + az kˆ a = a1 eˆ1 + a2 eˆ2 + a3 eˆ3

The  Coordinate  Axes   Basis  Vectors  

x → x1 iˆ → eˆ1
y → x2 ˆj → eˆ2
z → x3 kˆ → eˆ3
Indicial  Nota9on  
—  index  –  either  a  subscript  or  superscript  which  represents  
a  component  of  the  given  quantity.    It  is  normally  denoted  
by  lower  case  letters  i,  j,  k,  l  =  1,  2,  3.  

—  For  example:  

1.  The  coordinate  axes  x1  ,  x2  ,  x3  can  be  represented  by  xi  
2.  Similarly            eˆ  1      ,      e  ˆ  2      ,      eˆ    3  can  be  represented  by   ê j
Indicial  Nota9on  
—  Rules  of  Interpretation  
1.  A  repeated  index  /  subscript  indicates  summation  unless  
otherwise  specified.  
aii = a11 + a22 + a33
Also  known  as  a  dummy  index  because   aii = a jj = akk
Also,  any  vector  say  
! ! Simplified  
a = a1 eˆ1 + a2 eˆ2 + a3 eˆ3 a = ai eˆi expression  for  
vector    a  

2.  An  index  or  indices  preceded  by  a  comma  denote      

 differentiation.  
∂f ∂f ∂f ∂f
f i ,i = i = 1 + 2 + 3
∂xi ∂x1 ∂x2 ∂x3
Indicial  Nota9on  
—  Indicial  Operators:  
1.  Kronecker  Delta  
⎧1 , i= j
δ ij = ⎨
⎩0 , i≠ j
Example:    a)   a pqδ pq = ?
a pqδ pq = a11δ11 + a12δ12 + a13δ13
+ a21δ 21 + a22δ 22 + a23δ 23
+ a31δ 31 + a32δ 32 + a33δ 33
= a11 + a22 + a33 = a pp
a pqδ pq = a pp = aqq
Indicial  Nota9on  
—  Indicial  Operators:  
1.  Kronecker  Delta  
⎧1 , i= j
δ ij = ⎨
⎩0 , i≠ j
Example:    b)   a pqδ qs = ?
a pqδ qs = a p1δ1s + a p 2δ 2 s + a p 3δ 3 s (for  q  =  1,  2,  3)  

a p1δ 11 a p 2δ 21 a p 3δ 31
+ + +
a p1δ 12 a p 2δ 22 a p 3δ 32 = a p1 + a p 2 + a p 3
+ + + = a ps
a p1δ 13 a p 2δ 23 a p 3δ 33
(for  s  =  1,  2,  3)  
Indicial  Nota9on  
—  Indicial  Operators:  
1.  Kronecker  Delta  
⎧1 , i= j
δ ij = ⎨
⎩0 , i≠ j
Example:    b)   a pqδ qs = a ps
The  expanded  form  of  above  is  
a pqδ qs = a ps = a11 + a12 + a13
+ a21 + a22 + a23
+ a31 + a32 + a33
Indicial  Nota9on  
—  Indicial  Operators:  
2.  Permutation  Symbol  
⎧1 , [i, j, k ] is even
⎪
ε ijk = ⎨− 1 , [i, j, k ] is odd
⎪0 , [i, j, k ] if any index is repeated
⎩
Note:    When  the  number  of  inversions  is  even  then  εijk  is  
even.  
1 2 3 Requires  2  
e.g.  EVEN   =   2 3 1
2 1 3 permutations  
1 2 3
2 3 1 1 2 3 =   Requires  2  
3 1 2 3 1 2
3 2 1 permutations  
Indicial  Nota9on  
—  Indicial  Operators:  
2.  Permutation  Symbol  
⎧1 , [i, j, k ] is even
⎪
ε ijk = ⎨− 1 , [i, j, k ] is odd
⎪0 , [i, j, k ] if any index is repeated
⎩
Note:    When  the  number  of  inversions  is  odd  then  εijk    is  
odd.  
1 2 3 =   2 1 3
e.g.  ODD  
2 1 3 All  requires  1  
1 2 3 =   3 2 1 permutation  
3 2 1
1 3 2
1 2 3 =   1 3 2
Indicial  Nota9on  
—  Indicial  Operators:  
2.  Permutation  Symbol  
Note:    A  convenient  way  of  remembering  is  by  using  the  
circle  below.  
1 Clockwise  Rotation  (CW)  is  even.  

3 2 Counter  Clockwise  Rotation  (CCW)  is  

odd.  

EVEN  (CW)   ODD  (CCW)  

1 2 3 2 1 3
2 3 1 3 2 1
3 1 2 1 3 2
Indicial  Nota9on  
—  Indicial  Operators:   EVEN  (CW)   ODD  (CCW)  
2.  Permutation  Symbol   1 2 3 2 1 3
2 3 1 3 2 1
Example  1:   3 1 2 1 3 2
a)   ε123 = ε 231 = ε312 = 1
b)   ε 213 = ε321 = ε132 = −1

c)   ε113 = ε322 = ε111 = ε313 = ε 211 = ε133 = 0

Indicial  Nota9on  
—  Indicial  Operators:   EVEN  (CW)   ODD  (CCW)  
2.  Permutation  Symbol   1 2 3 2 1 3
2 3 1 3 2 1
Example  2:   3 1 2 1 3 2
! ! !
Prove  that   A × B = C is  equal  to  any  of  the  ff:  
Ciêi = εijk A j Bk êi or  
Ck êk = εijk A i B j êk or  
C jê j = εijk A k Bi ê j
Indicial  Nota9on  
—  Indicial  Operators:   EVEN  (CW)   ODD  (CCW)  
2.  Permutation  Symbol   1 2 3 2 1 3
2 3 1 3 2 1
Example  2:   3 1 2 1 3 2
Consider  
Ciêi = εijk A j Bk êi
When  i  =  1,    j  =  1,  2,  3,    k  =  1,  2,  3  
C1ê1 = ε111 A1 B1 ê1 + ε112 A1 B2 ê1 + ε113 A1 B3 ê1
+ ε121 A 2 B1 ê1 + ε122 A 2 B2 ê1 + ε123 A 2 B3 ê1
+ ε131 A 3 B1 ê1 + ε132 A 3 B2 ê1 + ε133 A 3 B3 ê1
C1ê1 = ε123 A 2 B3 ê1 + ε132 A 3 B2 ê1
= (1) A 2 B3 ê1 + (−1) A 3 B2 ê1 = (A 2 B3 − A 3 B2 )ê1
Indicial  Nota9on  
—  Indicial  Operators:   EVEN  (CW)   ODD  (CCW)  
2.  Permutation  Symbol   1 2 3 2 1 3
2 3 1 3 2 1
Example  2:   3 1 2 1 3 2
Consider  
Other  terms  not  shown  
Ciêi = εijk A j Bk êi since  εijk  =  0  due  to  
repetition  of  values  of  
When  i  =  2,    j  =  1,  2,  3,    k  =  1,  2,  3  
subscripts  
C2ê2 = ε 231 A 3 B1 ê2 + ε 213 A1 B3 ê2
= (1) A 3 B1 ê2 + (−1) A1 B3 ê2 = (A 3 B1 − A1 B3 )ê2
When  i  =  3,    j  =  1,  2,  3,    k  =  1,  2,  3  
C3ê3 = ε312 A1 B2 ê3 + ε321 A 2 B1 ê3
= (1) A1 B2 ê3 + (−1) A 2 B1 ê3 = (A1 B2 − A 2 B1 )ê3
Indicial  Nota9on  
—  Indicial  Operators:  
2.  Permutation  Symbol  

Example  2:  
So,  
! ! !
A × B = C = Ciêi = C1ê1 + C2ê2 + C3ê3
= (A 2 B3 − A 3 B2 )ê1 + (A 3 B1 − A1 B3 )ê2
+ (A1 B2 − A 2 B1 )ê3
ê1 ê 2 ê3
= A1 A2 A3
B1 B2 B3
Indicial  Nota9on  
—  Indicial  Operators:  
2.  Permutation  Symbol  

Example  2:  
Therefore,  
! !
A × B = εijk A j Bk êi
= εijk êi A j Bk
Indicial  Nota9on  
—  ε  -­‐  δ  Identity  

εijk εist = δ js δkt − δ jt δks

This  identity  relating  the  permutation  symbol  to  the  Kronecker  delta  is  
useful  for  proving  many  vector  identities.    Later,  this  will  be  used  in  
proving  Triple  Vector  Product  identity.  
Indicial  Nota9on  
VECTOR  OPERATION   FORMULA  

! !  
1.    Addition  
( ) ( ) (
A + B = A1 + B1 ê1 + A 2 + B2 ê2 + A 3 + B3 ê3
 
)
(
= Ai + Bi êi)  
!  
kA = kA1 ê1 + kA 2 ê2 + kA 3 ê3
2.    Scalar  Multiplication    
= kAi êi  
! !  
A ⋅ B = A1 B1 + A 2 B2 + A 3 B3
3.    Dot  Product    
= Ai Bi  
! !
A × B = (A 2 B3 − A 3 B  2 )ê1 + (A 3 B1 − A1 B3 )ê2
 
4.    Cross  Product   + (A1 B2 − A B )ê
  2 1 3
= εijk êi A j Bk  
Indicial  Nota9on  
VECTOR  OPERATION   FORMULA  

! ! !  
5.    Triple  Scalar  Product   A × B ⋅ C = εijk A j Bk Ci  
 
! ! !  
6.    Triple  Vector  Product   ( )
A × B × C = εris εijk êr A  j Bk Cs
 
Indicial  Nota9on  
—  A.    Proof  of  Dot  Product  
! !
Prove  that   A ⋅ B = A i Bi
! !
A ⋅ B = (A i êi ) ⋅ (B j ê j ) = A i B j (êi ⋅ ê j )
but   êi ⋅ ê j = δij
•     If  i  =  j,  the  two  unit  basis  vectors  are  parallel  and  
 their  dot  product  is  equal  to  1.    Similarly,  
 δ  =  1  when  i  =  j.    
•     If  i  ≠  j,  the  two  unit  basis  vectors  are  perpendicular  
 and  their  dot  product  is  equal  to  zero.    
 Similarly,  δ  =  0  when  i  ≠  j.    
! !
( )
A ⋅ B = (A i êi ) ⋅ B j ê j = A i B j δij
! !
( )
A ⋅ B = A i Bi
Indicial  Nota9on  
—  B.    Proof  of  Triple  Scalar  Product  
! ! !
Prove  that   A × B ⋅ C = εijk A j Bk Ci
! ! !
Proof:   A × B = εijk êi A j Bk = D = Di êi
! ! ! ! !
( ) (
A × B ⋅ C = D ⋅ C = (Di êi ) ⋅ C j ê j = Di C j êi ⋅ ê j )
( )
= Di C j δij = DiCi
But  from  above   Di = εijk A jBk
! ! !
A × B ⋅ C = (εijk A jBk ) Ci
! ! !
A × B ⋅ C = εijk A j Bk Ci
! ! !
Similarly:   A ⋅ B × C = εijk A i B jCk
Indicial  Nota9on  
—  C.    Proof  of  Triple  Vector  Product  
! ! !
( )
Prove  that   A × B × C = εris εijk êr A j Bk Cs
! ! !
Proof:   A × B = εijk êi A j Bk = D = Di êi
! ! ! ! !
( )
A ×B ×C = D×C
! !
D × C = εrisêrDiCs But   Di = εijk A jBk
= εris êr (εijk A j Bk ) Cs = εris εijk êr A j Bk Cs
= εisr εijk êr A j Bk Cs
Using  the  ε-­‐δ  identity    
! !
D × C = (δsjδrk − δsk δrj ) A jBk Csêr
= (δ sjδrk A jBk Cs − δ sk δrj A jBk Cs ) êr
Indicial  Nota9on  
—  C.    Proof  of  Triple  Vector  Product  
! ! !
( )
Prove  that   A × B × C = εris εijk êr A j Bk Cs
! !
Proof:   D × C = (δsjδrk A jBk Cs − δsk δrjA jBk Cs ) êr
( ) (
= δsjA jCs (δrkBk )êr − (δskBk Cs ) δrjA j êr)
When  s  =  j:   (δsjA jCs )= A sCs
When  k  =  r:   (δrkBk )= Br
When  k  =  s:   (δskBkCs )= BsCs
When  j  =  r:   (δrj A j ) = A r
! !
D × C = (A sCs )(Br )êr − (BsCs )(Ar )êr
Indicial  Nota9on  
—  C.    Proof  of  Triple  Vector  Product  
! ! !
( )
Prove  that   A × B × C = εris εijk êr A j Bk Cs
! !
Proof:   D × C = (A sCs )(Br )êr − (BsCs )(Ar )êr
! ! ! ! ! !
( ) ( )
= A ⋅C B − B⋅C A
! ! !
( )
Which  is  exactly   A × B × C
Rota9onal  Transforma9on  
—  Consider  the  vector  as  shown  
x3   x2’  
x3’  
!
A
ê3 ê3ʹ′ ê2ʹ′
x2  
ê1ʹ′
ê1
ê2
x1  

x1’  
! !
A = A1 eˆ1 + A2 eˆ2 + A3 eˆ3 A = A1ʹ′ eˆ1ʹ′ + A2ʹ′ eˆ2ʹ′ + A3ʹ′ eˆ3ʹ′
(Vector  A  with  respect  to   (Vector  A  with  respect  to  the  
original  unrotated  axes)   rotated  axes)  
Rota9onal  Transforma9on  
—  Consider  the  vector  as  shown  
x3   x2’  
x3’  
!
A
ê3 ê3ʹ′ ê2ʹ′
x2  
ê1ʹ′
ê1
ê2
x1  

x1’  
! !
A = A1 eˆ1 + A2 eˆ2 + A3 eˆ3 A = A1ʹ′ eˆ1ʹ′ + A2ʹ′ eˆ2ʹ′ + A3ʹ′ eˆ3ʹ′
OBJECTIVE:    Derive  the  formula  for   Aiʹ′ in  terms  of   Ai and  vice  versa.  
 x3’   x2’  
x3   !
A
Rota9onal  Transforma9on   ê1
ê3
x2  
ê3ʹ′ ê2ʹ′

ê1ʹ′
—  Definition:   x1   ê2
x1’  
lij = eˆi ⋅ eˆʹ′j
=  the  component  of  basis  vector   êi in  the     xʹ′j direction  
=  direction  cosines  
! !
NOTE:   A ⋅ B = A B cosθ
! ! ! !
If   A &B are  unit  vectors  then   A ⋅ B = cos θ
where  θ  is  the  angle  between  unit  vectors  A  and  B  

EXAMPLES:   eˆ1 ⋅ eˆ1ʹ′ = l11 eˆ1 ⋅ eˆ2ʹ′ = l12 eˆ1 ⋅ eˆ3ʹ′ = l13
9  Direction   eˆ2 ⋅ eˆ1ʹ′ = l21 eˆ2 ⋅ eˆ2ʹ′ = l22 eˆ2 ⋅ eˆ3ʹ′ = l23
Cosines  
eˆ3 ⋅ eˆ1ʹ′ = l31 eˆ3 ⋅ eˆ2ʹ′ = l32 eˆ3 ⋅ eˆ3ʹ′ = l33
 x3’   x2’  
x3   !
A
Rota9onal  Transforma9on   ê1
ê3
x2  
ê3ʹ′ ê2ʹ′

ê1ʹ′
—  Definition:   x1   ê2
x1’  
lij = eˆi ⋅ eˆʹ′j
=  the  component  of  basis  vector   êi in  the     xʹ′j direction  
=  direction  cosines  
ILLUSTRATION:   x3   x2’  
x3’  
! l13
Consider   l13 A
ê3 ê3ʹ′ ê2ʹ′
x2   ê1 ê1ʹ′
ê1
ê2
x1   l13 = eˆ1 ⋅ eˆ3ʹ′
x1’  
Component  of        ê
   1     in  the      x
     3ʹ′   direction  
 x3’   x2’  
x3   !
A
Rota9onal  Transforma9on   ê1
ê3
x2  
ê3ʹ′ ê2ʹ′

ê1ʹ′
—  The  original  basis  unit  vectors  wrt   x1   ê2
x1’  
rotated  x’i  axes  
eˆ1 = l11 eˆ1ʹ′ + l12 eˆ2ʹ′ + l13 eˆ3ʹ′ = l1i eˆiʹ′ eˆ j = l ji eˆiʹ′
eˆ2 = l21 eˆ1ʹ′ + l22 eˆ2ʹ′ + l23 eˆ3ʹ′ = l2i eˆiʹ′ or  

eˆ3 = l31 eˆ1ʹ′ + l32 eˆ2ʹ′ + l33 eˆ3ʹ′ = l3i eˆiʹ′ eˆi = lij eˆʹ′j
!
—  Such  that,   A = A1 eˆ1 + A2 eˆ2 + A3 eˆ3 Vector  A  in  Original  Axes  
!
A = A1 (l11 eˆ1ʹ′ + l12 eˆ2ʹ′ + l13 eˆ3ʹ′ ) + A2 (l21 eˆ1ʹ′ + l22 eˆ2ʹ′ + l23 eˆ3ʹ′ )
+ A3 (l31 eˆ1ʹ′ + l32 eˆ2ʹ′ + l33 eˆ3ʹ′ )
 x3’   x2’  
x3   !
A
Rota9onal  Transforma9on   ê1
ê3
x2  
ê3ʹ′ ê2ʹ′

ê1ʹ′
x1   ê2
—  Rearranging,  
! x1’  
A = A1 (l11 eˆ1ʹ′ + l12 eˆ2ʹ′ + l13 eˆ3ʹ′ ) + A2 (l21 eˆ1ʹ′ + l22 eˆ2ʹ′ + l23 eˆ3ʹ′ )
+ A3 (l31 eˆ1ʹ′ + l32 eˆ2ʹ′ + l33 eˆ3ʹ′ )
!
A = (A1l11 + A2l21 + A3l31 )eˆ1ʹ′ + ( A1l12 + A2l22 + A3l32 )eˆ2ʹ′
+ ( A1l13 + A2l23 + A3l33 )ê3ʹ′
!
—  Therefore,   A = A1ʹ′ eˆ1ʹ′ + A2ʹ′ eˆ2ʹ′ + A3ʹ′ eˆ3ʹ′ Vector  A  in  Rotated  Axes  

A1ʹ′ = A1l11 + A2l21 + A3l31

Aʹ′j = Ai li j
A2ʹ′ = A1l12 + A2l22 + A3l32
A3ʹ′ = A1l13 + A2l23 + A3l33 original  /  unprimed  axes   new  /  primed  axes  
Rota9onal  Transforma9on  
—  Example:   l11 = cosθ l22 = cosθ
x2   l12 = cos(90° + θ ) = − sin θ
!
x2’   A l21 = cos(90° − θ ) = sin θ
x1’  
l33 = cos 0° = 1
θ
l13 = l31 = l23 = l32 = cos 90° = 0
θ x1  
x3  ,    x3’  
⎡ cosθ sin θ 0⎤
lij = ⎢⎢− sin θ cosθ 0⎥⎥
⎢⎣ 0 0 1⎥⎦
Aʹ′j = Ai li j
A1ʹ′ = A1 cosθ + A2 sin θ
original  /  unprimed  axes   new  /  primed  axes   A2ʹ′ = − A1 sin θ + A2 cosθ
A3ʹ′ = A3
 x3’   x2’  
x3   !
A
Rota9onal  Transforma9on   ê1
ê3
x2  
ê3ʹ′ ê2ʹ′

ê1ʹ′
—  From  rotated  to  unrotated   x1   ê2
x1’  
coordinate  axes  
eˆ1ʹ′ = (eˆ1ʹ′ ⋅ eˆ1 )eˆ1 + (eˆ1ʹ′ ⋅ eˆ2 )eˆ2 + (eˆ1ʹ′ ⋅ eˆ3 )eˆ3 = li1 eˆi
—  Therefore,   eˆʹ′j = lij eˆi
!
A = Aʹ′j eˆʹ′j = Aʹ′j lij eˆi Ai = Aʹ′j lij
—  Comparing  
Aiʹ′ = A j l ji or   Aʹ′j = Ai lij ​𝑙↓𝑗𝑚 ​𝑙↓𝑗𝑛 =​𝛿↓𝑚𝑛 

Ai = Aʹ′j lij or   A j = Aiʹ′ l ji ​𝑙↓𝑚𝑗 ​𝑙↓𝑛𝑗 =​𝛿↓𝑚𝑛 

 x3’   x2’  
x3   !
A
Rota9onal  Transforma9on   ê1
ê3
x2  
ê3ʹ′ ê2ʹ′

ê1ʹ′
—  Also,  solving  for  the  inverse  of  lij   x1   ê2
x1’  
⎡ cos θ sin θ 0 ⎤ ⎡cos θ − sin θ 0 ⎤
lij = ⎢⎢− sin θ cos θ 0 ⎥⎥ (lij ) −1 ⎢
= ⎢ sin θ cos θ 0 ⎥⎥
⎢⎣ 0 0 1⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 0 0 1⎥⎦

—  Therefore,   (lij ) −1= (lij ) T = l ji

—  Definition:    Orthogonal  matrix  –  a  matrix  that  satisfies  
the  condition  
(βij ) T = (βij ) −1
—  Therefore,   lij is  orthogonal!  
Rota9onal  Transforma9on  
—  (Prelude  to  Definition  of  a  Tensor)  
!
A = Aʹ′j êʹ′j
!
A = lij Ai êʹ′j = lij (δ ik Ak )êʹ′j = lij (êi ⋅ êk )Ak êʹ′j
= (lij êi êʹ′j )⋅ Ak êk
Clearly,  below  is  not  a  vector  
~ ! because  it  has  9  components  &  2  
L A basis  vectors  per  component.    This  
is  known  as  a  TENSOR.  
—  Consider,  
~
L = l11 ê1 ê1ʹ′ + l12 ê1 ê2ʹ′ + l13 ê1 ê3ʹ′
~
L = lij êi êʹ′j + l21 ê2 ê1ʹ′ + l22 ê2 ê2ʹ′ + l23 ê2 ê3ʹ′
+ l31 ê3 ê1ʹ′ + l32 ê3 ê2ʹ′ + l33 ê3 ê3ʹ′
TENSOR  
~
—  Definition:   A = Aijk ... pqr êi ê j êk ... ê p êq êr
Order  of  the  Tensor  

Second  Order   9  Components  

Tensor   Dyadic  
e.g.  stress,  strain  

First  Order   3  Components  

Tensor   Vector  
e.g.  velocity,  acceleration  

Zero  Order   1  Component  

Tensor   Scalar  
e.g.  temperature  

Therefore,  the  number  of  components  =  3n,  where  n  –  order  of  the  tensor  
STRESS  TENSOR  
—  Stress  tensor  is  a  second  order  tensor  and  therefore  
consists  of  9  components  
In  matrix  form  

⎡σ x τ xy τ xz ⎤ ⎡σ xx σ xy σ xz ⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢τ yx σ y τ yz ⎥ or   ⎢σ yx σ yy σ yz ⎥
⎢τ zx τ zy σ z ⎥⎦ ⎢σ zx σ zy σ zz ⎥⎦
⎣ ⎣