Human Resource

Management;
The Road to
Professionalization in the UK
and USA
Master’s thesis for Masters in Management, MA for Kingston University

Supervising Professor: Dr. Kerstin Alfes, Academic MCIPD, Senior Lecturer, Department
for Leadership, HRM and Organization

Date: 9th December 2011

Submission by:

Bridget A Fanning, FCIPD, FCMI, SPHR

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

“There’s never been a better time to be in HR” (Brockbank and Ulrich, 2003, Pp.iii)

Twenty five years ago I embarked on my Human Resource Management journey starting my
career in Personnel in the UK National Archive. I have been challenged, stretched and
learned more than I ever could have envisioned at the beginning. I look forward to the next
twenty five years with eager anticipation – I believe there has never been a better time to be
in HR.

I would like to thank Dr Kerstin Alfes for her unwavering support, encouragement and
enthusiasm for my project. Working with Kerstin was invaluable and I could not have
achieved this dissertation without her advice and guidance.

I would like to thank the Fanning family in Guildford, Chris, Mel and Gracie for letting me
stay with them for the classes at Kingston and for their encouragement.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGE

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS…………………………………………………………………. II

TABLE OF CONTENTS……………………………………………………………………. III

INDEX OF TABLES / ILLUSTRATIONS………………………………………………... VI

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS………………………………………………………………. VIII

LIST OF APPENDICES……………………………………………………………………. X

1. INTRODUCTION

1.1. Scope of Study………………………………………………………………………… 1

1.2. Structure of Dissertation………………………………………………………………. 4

2. HISTORY OF HUMAN RESOURCES MANAGEMENT 6

3. THE HR ENVIRONMENT

3.1. The HR Environment………………………………………………………………….. 8

3.2. The External Environment impacting HR as a Profession……………...…………….. 8
3.2.1 Technology……………………………………………………………… 8
3.2.2 Globalization……………………………………………………………. 8
3.2.3 Regulation, Ethical and Socially Responsible Organizations…………… 9
3.2.4 Workforce Demographics……………………………………………….. 9
3.2.5 Increased Shareholder Value……………………………………………. 10
3.3. Implications of Business Challenges for HR as a Profession…………………………. 10

4. LITERATURE REVIEW – WHAT IS A PROFESSION

4.1. What is a Profession?...................................................................................................... 12
4.2. The Early Professions………………………………………………………………….. 12
4.3. Definition of a Profession……………………………………………………………... 13
4.4. Characteristics of a Profession………………………………………………………… 14

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 4.4.1 Governing Body…………………………………………………………. 23
4.4.2 Code of Ethics & Discipline……………………………………………... 26
4.4.3 Independence…………………………………………………………….. 27
4.4.4 Certification & Education & Training…………………………………... 27
4.4.5 Legal Status……………………………………………………………… 29
4.4.6 Contribution to Society………………………………………………….. 29
4.4.7 Body of Knowledge……………………………………………………... 30
4.4.8 Research…………………………………………………………………. 31
4.4.9 Recognition……………………………………………………………… 32
4.5. Professionalization…………………………………………………………………….. 32

5. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 35

6. HR AS A PROFESSION IN THE UK AND USA

6.1. HR as a Profession…………………………………………………………………….. 39
6.2. HR as a Profession – Assessment of nine characteristics UK and USA………………. 44
6.2.1 HR Governing Bodies – UK and USA………………………………….. 44
6.2.2 HR Code of Ethics………………………………………………………. 50
6.2.3 HR Independence………………………………………………………... 51
6.2.4 HR Certification, Education & Training………………………………… 51
5.2.4.1 Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development - UK
5.2.4.2 Human Resource Certification Institute - USA
6.2.5 HR Legal Status…………………………………………………………. 58
6.2.6 HR Contribution to Society……………………………………………… 59
6.2.7 The HR Body of Knowledge…………………………………………….. 60
5.2.7.1 US HR Body of Knowledge
5.2.7.2 UK HR Body of Knowledge
6.2.8 HR Research……………………………………………………………... 63
6.2.9 HR Recognition………………………………………………………….. 63

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7. SUMMARY ASSESSMENT OF THE HR PROFESSION IN THE UK AND USA

7.1. The Road to Professionalization………………………………………………………. 65

8. CONCLUSIONS
8.1 Conclusions- Research Questions Addressed…………………………………………. 68
8.2 How is a profession defined?.......................................................................................... 68
8.3 What are its characteristics?............................................................................................ 69
8.4 What does a HR professionality continuum look like?................................................... 69
8.5 How do the UK and USA certify the attainment of professional standards?.................. 68
8.6 To what extent has HR developed as a profession in the UK and USA?....................... 71
8.7 Why being considered a profession is important to HR Professionals?......................... 71
8.8 The Implications of Professionalization for HR Practitioners………………………… 72

9. REFERENCES 74

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INDEX OF TABLES / ILLUSTRATIONS

Table No. Table Page

Table 1.1 Structure of Dissertation 4

Table 4.1 Authors Characteristics of a Profession 15

Table 4.2 Analysis of Nine Characteristics of a Profession 21

Table 4.3 The Nine Characteristics that identify a Profession 23

Table 5.1 The advantages and disadvantages of interviews and 38

questionnaires as a research methodology (Kumar, 2011)

Table 6.1 Is HR a Profession? – Summary of Literature Review 39

Table 6.2 Key Elements of HR Professional Associations Mission 46

Statements

Table 6.3 Governing Body Assessment of Geoffrey Millerson‘s Primary 49

and Secondary Characteristics

Table 6.4 Eligibility Requirements for the SHRM / HRCI Exams 55

Table 6.5 Weightings for both PHR and SPHR exams and Number of 56
Questions

Table 6.6 Pass Rate of PHR and SPHR Exams 56

Table 6.7 Characteristics of Training – Freidson, 2001 58

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Table 7.1 HR Professionality Continuum - The extent to which the HR can 65
be considered a profession in the UK and USA

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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

ABA American Bar Association

AMA American Medical Association
CCHRA Canadian Council of Human Resource Associations
CIPD Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development
Dr. Doctor
Ed. Edition
ERC Ethics Resource Center
Est‘d Established
et al et alii
EVA Economic Value Added
GPHR® Global Professional in Human Resources
HCI Human Capital Institute
HR Human Resource(s)
HRCI Human Resource Certification Institute
HRD Human Resource Development
HRM Human Resource(s) Management
HRPA Human Resource Policy Association
Http Hypertext transfer protocol
i.e. Is est
L&D Learning and Development
MVA Market Value Added
No. Number
PARN Professional Associations Research Network
PHR® Professional in Human Resources
Prof. Professor
QCF Qualifications and Credit Framework
SHRM Society for Human Resource Management
SPHR® Senior Professional in Human Resources
TQM Total Quality Management

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UK United Kingdom
USA United States of America
vs versus
www World wide web

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APPENDICES
Page
A. An Analysis of Elements Included in Various Definitions of Profession 83
(Millerson, 1964, Table 1.1)

B. History of Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development 84

C. History of the Society of Human Resource Management 85

D. Analysis of Assessment of Nine Characteristics from table 7.1 87

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1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 Scope of Study

The status of Human Resource Management (HRM) and its standing as a managerial
profession has been a recurring concern for practitioners over time. In recent years, a
normative discourse has developed which asserts that the path to improved status for HR
―professionals‖ involved reinvention of their role as ―business partners‖ and ―internal
consultants‖ promoting enterprise competiveness (Wright, 2008). Another view shared by
many authors is that HR professionals need to adopt the characteristics of the professions and
be more ―professional‖. This dissertation focuses on whether HR in the UK and USA can be
considered a profession. It has implications for the design and development of education for
HR practitioners and how they position themselves within their companies to support their
businesses. This dissertation will add to the debate as to whether HR can be considered a
profession and is grounded in the research of what a profession is. It will shift the debate
from whether HR is a profession or not to the debate of whether HR should be pursuing
professionalization and how it fits with the strategic business partner role. In addition it will
raise research questions for further exploration.

It does not explore whether the role of business partner / internal consultant serves to
undermine a cohesive occupational identity as a profession to ensure the dissertation stays
within a manageable length.

This dissertation explores HRM as a profession and is primarily concerned with the current
status of the HRM profession against a framework of an ideal type of professionalism in both
the UK and the USA. First the historical development of the profession is discussed, second
the implications of the environment on the HR profession is outlined, third the characteristics
of professional work are explained and finally the HRM profession is assessed against these
characteristics. The approach taken was to consider the professional standards in both
countries (UK and USA) and certification programs by means of a systematic literature
review and comprehensive review of the governing body websites.

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The UK and USA were taken for the analysis since the development of professional identities
is seen an Anglo-American phenomenon and much of the literature is focused on the UK and
USA (Friedson, 1994). In addition, the UK Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development
(CIPD) and the USA Society of Human Resource Management (SHRM) are the oldest
professional organizations for HR Professionals founded in 1913 and 1948 respectively and
are the largest professional organizations in the world. Canadian Council of Human
Resources Associations (CCHRA) is the next largest with 41,000 members established in
1994.

This dissertation aims to answer the following research questions:

How is a profession defined?

What are its characteristics?

What does a HR professionality continuum look like?

How do the UK and USA certify the attainment of professional standards?

To what extent has HR developed as a profession in the UK and USA?

Why being considered a profession is important to HR Professionals?

There have been reviews of human resources as a profession and in these reviews the authors
have taken only a few of the characteristics of a profession created by themselves or they
have used one of the published models on professions. Dave Ulrich (1997) and Michael
Losey (1999) used their own frameworks of what a profession is to review the HR profession.
Chris Brewster et al (2000) compared the HR profession using Geoffrey Millersons 1964
framework, Gold and Bratton (2003) compared the HR profession using Hodson and
Sullivans (2012) framework and also used Friedson‘s (2001) framework but compared the
UK HR profession only. This dissertation is comprehensive since a thorough review of what
constitutes a profession was conducted before assessing whether HR could be considered a
profession or not. The nine characteristics identified of what constitutes a profession were

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then compared to the UK and USA HR profession. Published articles have either covered the
UK or USA but not completed a comparison of both.

This dissertation sets out to address this gap in research by conducting a comprehensive
analysis of what a profession is and then compares both the profession in the UK and USA to
this ideal. Finally there are conclusions to what extent HR has developed as a profession in
the UK and USA.

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1.2 Structure of Dissertation

Table 1.1 Structure of Dissertation

Chapter 1: Introduction

Chapter 2: Chapter 4:
History of HRM Literature Review
What is a Profession?

Chapter 3: Chapter 5:
The HR Environment Research Methodology

Chapter 6:
HR as a Profession in the UK and USA

Chapter 7:
Summary Assessment of the HR Profession in the UK and USA

Chapter 8:
Conclusions

This dissertation is divided into eight chapters. The first chapter includes the description of
the scope of study, including the research questions to be answered. It continues with an
assessment of the gap in the research and literature addressing HR as a profession. In addition
it outlines the structure of the dissertation. Chapter two summarizes the history of HR.
Chapter three reviews the external environment impacting HR as a profession. Chapter four
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examines what is a profession and includes definitions and identifies the characteristics of a
profession. Finally it discusses the journey of professionalization. Chapter five outlines the
research methodology chosen and why it was chosen over other methods. Chapter six reviews
the literature to examine the progress of HR as a profession in the UK and USA. Chapter
seven summarizes the assessment of HR as a profession in the UK and USA. Finally chapter
eight outlines the conclusions including whether HR as a profession is more developed in the
UK or USA.

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2. HISTORY OF HUMAN RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

For over 50 years, personnel managers have sought to move beyond their roles as welfare
officers and employment administrators to a more central and strategic position in the
running of the business organization (Wright, 2008). Until the 1980s, most organizations
used the term personnel management; from then on Human Resources Management (HRM)
became popular (Rudman, 2010).

In the past, it is argued, the personnel function was about welfare and remuneration, but now
it is centered on organizational reaction to changing environments with increases in
globalization and the use of technology and knowledge-based workers. This is affecting the
technical competency requirements of personnel practitioners and it is also having an impact
on where the personnel function fits into the organization as a whole. The literature clearly
states that personnel should be taking a more strategic role within organizations, and there is
research evidence that this is actually taking place (Brewster et al, 2000).

Historical analysis of the rise of the personnel function during the 20th century highlights how
the function grew in popularity in response to changes in labor law, tight labor markets, and
employer and state concern over worker morale and productivity (Gospel 1992, Jacoby,
1985, Wright, 1995). During the 1970s and 1980s, the expansion of the services sector,
declining trade union density, and the growing importance of skilled technical employees
were also seen as contributing to the emergence of the personnel function (Kochan and
Cappelli, 1984, Kochan et al.1986). However, personnel management suffered in its status as
the ―poor cousin‖ of the managerial professions. As Legge (1978) has argued, personnel
managers were engaged in a ―vicious cycle‖ in which they were accorded a relatively low
status by senior and operational managers, failed to be involved in the firm‘s strategic
planning, and when personnel problems inevitably emerged, were hamstrung by the limited
resources they were accorded. The marginalization of the personnel function was also related
to its welfare work origins and concern with the ―human element‖, which conflicts with the
more hard-nosed approach of production and line managers (Legge 1978, Watson 1977).
Added to this, the difficulty of demonstrating personnel‘s contribution to the organizational
―bottom line‖ was a barrier to senior management acceptance (Legge 1978, Wright 1995).

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The low status of the personnel function was reflected in weak forms of professional
organization, which were incapable of controlling entry to personnel work or monopolizing
personnel expertise. Indeed, Watson (1977, 2002) notes the ambivalent attitudes of personnel
managers to the concept of professionalism, seeing themselves first and foremost as members
of the ―management team‖, although also willing to adopt a professional identity as an
additional means of advancement (Wright 2008).

As a domain of professional work, Human Resource Management (HRM) and its (UK)
professional association of the Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development have made
significant advances both in terms of the influence of some of the main ideas, the status of
HRM practitioners, and their professional organization, the CIPD. However, some doubts
remain as to the influence and status of HRM (Gold and Bratton, 2003).

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3. THE HR ENVIRONMENT

Every company operates in the context of external business realities. An effective HR

function has HR professionals who recognize external business realties and adapt HR
practices and allocate HR resources accordingly (Ulrich and Brockbank, 2005).

3.1 The HR Environment

Many human resource functions have been undergoing unprecedented changes in the last few
years; new HR visions are being formulated, innovative HR strategies implemented,
advanced HR information systems installed, HR structures redesigned, and HR processes
reengineered. To add higher value to their corporations, many HR functions are being driven
to lower HR costs, enhance the quality of HR services, and forge stronger linkages with
business needs (Schuler, 1990, Yeung, Brockbank, and Ulrich 1994, Yeung and Brockbank
1995).

3.2 The External Environment impacting HR as a Profession

3.2.1 Technology

Technology drives almost every aspect of the changing business environment. HR

professionals must be able to understand how people create new technologies that keep their
firms ahead of the competition and how technology is used within the HR function. To
contribute to management team discussions about technology, HR professionals need a
knowledge base about the current technological possibilities and a general vision about the
future role that technology might play in their firms (Ulrich and Brockbank, 2005).

The impact on technology on HR‘s work cannot be underestimated. The three most important
catalysts for change include 1) employee self-service through web-based portals, 2)
increasingly sophisticated call centers and 3) aggressive new entrants into the outsourcing
market (SHRM, 2002).

3.2.2 Globalization

Globalization occurs when goods and services, capital, information and people move across
national borders. Such movement is intensified and accelerated by technology. Competition

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from countries with lower labor costs may drive UK / USA businesses to develop a
competitive edge based on factors other than low price. Engineering products and services
that deliver more value to customers will require new knowledge, skills and tools for
employees and HR will assume responsibility for finding, developing, and retaining those
skilled employees (SHRM, 2011).

This globalization of industry structure and markets requires senior-level HR professionals to

further their competence-upgrading, so that they can understand the appropriate linkages
between global and country-specific business strategies and the strategic human resource
management practices that are most suitable in each country and/or regional operating
environment. Senior-level HR professionals require insight into the forces that share decision
making in the specific human resource practices needed in their organizations‘ various
country affiliates, as these practices will differ from local practices vis-à-vis parent HR
practices (Rosenzweig and Nohria, 1994).

As organizations become more global it can be argued that the need for standardization
within the profession is growing and arguably there is a shift towards convergence on what
an HR professional is and what is required to operate as a HR professional (Brewster et al
2000).

3.2.3 Regulation, Ethical and Socially Responsible Organizations

HR departments have traditionally been among the most regulated; they are heavily involved
in dozens of major legal issues that must be addressed if the company is to focus on issues
more germane to its competitiveness. In recent years, the highest profile discussion in the
area of regulation affecting HR and companies in general has revolved around the question of
ethics. The involvement of HR professionals relative to ethical issues is substantially
increasing (SHRM 2011). HR professionals as contributing members of the strategy team
must be aware of these forces (Ulrich and Brockbank, 2005).

3.2.4 Workforce Demographics

Workforce demographics that influence the pool of labor available to conceive, develop,
produce, distribute, and sell products and services are changing in turbulent ways.
Demographics likewise directly influence the demand for types and volumes of products and

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services. HR professionals need a grasp of basic global and domestic demographic trends –
and at the strategy table, they also need to have specific data to back up their assertions
regarding these trends. Five categories of demographic trends – declining workforce growth,
increasing age of the workforce, changing gender balance, increasing ethnic diversity, and
deteriorating family economic health – are most relevant for business discussions (SHRM,
2011).

Many of those born between 1977 and 1995 – Generation Y (the millennials) have entered
the workplace with different expectations that their parents (Rosethorn, 2009). Hirschman
(2006) states that the millennials are entering the workforce, bringing with them new
promises and challenges for HR, not to mention a whole new way of working. Given the
retiring baby boom generation an organization‘s future vitality is dependent on its ability to
attract, retain motivate and develop millennials (Espinoza, Ukleja, Rusch, 2010).

3.2.5 Increased Shareholder Value

The debate about whether corporations should serve only shareholders or whether they have a
responsibility to a wider group of stakeholders who are bound up in the structure and success
of corporations is a critical debate (Bing, Kehrhahn and Short, 2003). Measuring and
managing shareowner value creation has become one of the most important roles for
corporate management (Lawson and Limbrick, 1996).

Shareowner value creation has two key implications for competence building for senior-level
HR professionals. First, senior-level HR professionals need to be familiar with both measures
of value creation and what specific ―value drivers‖ within their respective businesses and
organization affect Economic Value Added (EVA) and Market Value Added (MVA).
Second, Senior Level HR professionals need to develop skills and perspectives as to how a
given or planned portfolio of HR initiatives (programs, practices, and processes) can enhance
the organization‘s economic value and, in turn, affect EVA and MVA (Tully, 1994).

3.3 Implications of Business Challenges for HR as a Profession

HR will have to learn to adapt to this environmental transformation. The new demands being
placed on HR staff are to develop leaders and more generally to recruit and retain a quality
workforce. Alongside this, there needs to be an increase in workforce productivity in the face
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of heightened competition, and so compensation then needs to be aligned with business
strategy. It then also becomes essential to develop employees in order to achieve the
organization‘s goals. Individual capabilities within the organization as a whole are becoming
more important than purely within a defined job, and hence, individuals are being recognized
as capable of influencing an organization‘s success (Brewster et al, 2000, Porter 1998).

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4. LITERATURE REVIEW – WHAT IS A PROFESSION?

Chapter two briefly discussed that historically the personnel function was about welfare and
remuneration, but now it is centered on organizational reaction to changing environments
(Brewster et al, 2000).Chapter three outlined this changing environment noting that an
effective HR function has HR professionals who recognize external business realties and
adapts HR practices and allocates HR resources accordingly (Ulrich and Brockbank, 2005).

Friedson has written extensively on the subject of professions. He states that (1994, P.15), ―in
order to think clearly and systematically about anything, one must define the subject matter to
be addressed by empirical and intellectual analysis. Theory cannot be developed if it is not
certain what is being talked about.‖ Therefore, before outlining the empirical analysis of the
literature on whether HR can be considered a profession or not, it is important to clarify
exactly what a profession is.

4.1 What is a Profession?

Experts are needed to provide services which the recipients are not adequately knowledgeable
to evaluate. How can clients be protected against incompetence, carelessness and
exploitation? If state control is unacceptable, as it was when the ideology of professionalism
first developed in nineteenth-century Britain and America, then control has to be vested in the
experts themselves. Hence the emphasis put by the professions on moral probity, service
orientation and codes of conduct (Eraut, 1994).

Professions are made up of particular categories of people that individuals seek advice and
services because they have knowledge and skills that they do not. A doctor for example can
recommend a course of treatment for an illness, a lawyer can advise on a course of legal
action. These judgments cannot be made by the individual being treated and often they
cannot judge the quality of the advice they received (Barker, 2010).

4.2 The Early Professions

The earliest professions are generally accepted to be the high status groups representing,
divinity, medicine and law (Elliott, 1972, Klass, 1961, Freidson, 1994, Eraut, 1994).

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The majority of authors on professions have been content to use medicine, law and theology
– the so-called ―learned professions‖ – as models or benchmarks. The learned professions
were the first ―true‖ professions to be widely recognized as such; they have continued to be
thought of as professions over a long period of time; they have identifiable characteristics of
a true profession (Nanda 2005).

The development and organization of the professions appear to be primarily an Anglo-

American phenomena having less significance to other developed countries. In Britain and
America occupations have mounted their own campaigns for recognition and protection,
whereas in Europe the state has been more active in the organization of training and
employment. It is no accident that the theoretical literature on the professions is almost
wholly Anglo-American (Friedson, 1994).

4.3 Definition of a Profession

Friedson (1994) states that much debate, going back at least as far as Flexner (1915), has
centered around how professions should be defined – which occupations should be called
professions, and by what institutional criteria. But while most definitions overlap in the
elements, traits or attributes they include, a number of tallies have demonstrated a persistent
lack of consensus about which traits are to be emphasized in theorizing (Millerson, 1964).

Terence Johnson (1972) defined a profession as a method of controlling work – one in which
an occupation rather than individual consumers or an agent or agency mediating between
occupation and consumers or an agent, exercises control over its work. And he emphasized
the role of power in establishing and maintaining such control (Freidson, 1994).

There is agreement on the general structure of a definition; namely, that a profession is an

occupation which has specified characteristics and no single characteristic can adequately
convey the idea of a definition. There is some disagreement as to what these characteristics
should be, and perhaps even more disagreement on the degree to which an occupation should
possess the specified characteristics (Horn, 1978).

Among those engaged in occupations which have not been widely accepted as professions
there is a strong drive to appear professional, if only because of their aspirations for status.

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The professional is believed to wear a badge of prestige, in effect, and this has inspired many
individuals and groups to seek the distinction (Horn, 1978). The members of occupational
groups self-consciously seek to elevate the status of their occupation by adopting the
characteristics of professionals (Hodson and Sullivan, 2012).

Summarizing the professionalism literature in 1964 Geoffrey Millerson defined a profession

as ―a profession involves a skill based on theoretical knowledge - The skill requires training
and knowledge - The professional must demonstrate competence by passing a test - Integrity
is maintained by adherence to a code of conduct - The service is for the public good - The
profession is organized.‖ (Millerson, 1964, P.4).

4.4 Characteristics of a Profession

Identifying professions by a set of characteristics is called the structural-functional approach,

the traits approach, or hallmarks approach. Not all sociologists agree that this approach is the
best way to understand the professions. Using a conflict approach, they contend that the
professions are merely the powerful occupations that are currently winning in the constant
struggle among occupations to control preferred types of work. Therefore the problem is not
which occupations are recognized as professions but, rather the process by which they gained
their recognition. Over time, people may come to change their perceptions about which
occupations are powerful (Hodson and Sullivan, 2012).

The majority of the literature focuses on the characteristics approach and so does this
dissertation. It identifies nine characteristics from the literature review and then the HR
profession is evaluated against them.

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Table 4.1 Authors Characteristics of a Profession
Table 4.1 presents a review of the literature in identifying the characteristics of a profession.
Alan A Klass, 1961, What is
a Profession
Geoffrey Millerson, 1964,
The Qualifying Associations
(Page 4)
Ronald C Horn, 1978, On
Professions, Professionals
and Professional Ethics
(Page 40)
Lord Benson, 1983, The
professions and community
© 2011
1) A profession inherits the ideas and ideals of a university;
scholarship and research with the single aim of excellence
2) A profession must acquire a statutory basis in the law of the
country.
3) The internal government of a profession must lie with its
own membership and it must be on the broadest possible
democratic basis.
4) Men and women of superior type with a common ideal of
service above gain, excellence above quality, self-expression
beyond pecuniary motive and loyalty to a professional code
about individual advantage.
1) A profession involves skill based on theoretical knowledge.
2) The skill requires training and education
3) The professional must demonstrate competence by passing a
test
4) Integrity is maintained by adherence to a code of conduct
5) The service is for the public good
6) The profession is organized
1) A commitment to high ethical standards
2) A prevailing attitude of altruism
3) Mandatory educational preparation and training
4) Mandatory continuing education
5) A formal association or society
6) Independence; and, with reservations
7) Public recognition as a profession
1) The primary function of a profession is to give advice and
service to the community in a specialized field of learning.
2) A profession must have a governing body which represents it
Page 15
 and has power of control and discipline over its members.
3) A professional persons first and particular responsibility is to
his client
4) The governing body must restrict entry to those with a
minimum standard of education.
5) The subsequent system of educating and training in both
theory and practice must be constantly updated and adapted.
6) A profession must impose on its members high standards of
conduct and performance.
7) The members must be, and be seen to be, in a position to be
independent – independent in mind and outlook.
Dave Ulrich 1997, Human Professionals in other functional areas – physicians, attorneys,
Resource Champions (Pages engineers, psychologists, controllers, and so on – share the following
17-19) characteristics:
1) Focus on defined outcomes (for example, physicians commit
themselves to the Hippocratic oath and to healing).
2) A shared body of knowledge (for example, attorneys learn
the canon of law).
3) Essential competencies (for example, engineers have the
skills to build bridges, design machinery, or create
computers).
4) Ethical standards maintained by collegial jurisdiction (for
example, licensed psychologists must adhere to an
established set of ethical standards).
5) Clear roles (for example, controllers help monitor the
economic performance of their firms).
6) Outcome definition, knowledge, competencies, standards and
role criteria enable these occupations to be recognized and
accepted as professions.
Michael R. Losey, 1999, The greatest human resource accomplishment, however, has been
Mastering the Competencies the worldwide recognition that human resource management indeed,

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of HR Management. Human is a profession;
Resource Management, Vol. 1) With a clearly defined body of knowledge, that means it can
38, No 2, Pages 99-102 be taught –
2) if it can be taught it can also be learned and tested.
3) Like other recognized professions, human resource
management has its own set of ethical standards.
Eliot Freidson, 2001, 1) Specialized work in the officially recognized economy that is
Professionalism, the Third believed to be grounded in a body of theoretically based,
Logic (Page 127) discretionary knowledge and skill and that it accordingly
given special status in the labor force;
2) Exclusive jurisdiction in a particular division of labor created
and controlled by occupational negotiation;
3) A sheltered position in both external and internal labor
markets that is based on qualifying credentials created by the
occupation;
4) A formal training program lying outside the labor market
that produces the qualifying credentials, which is controlled
by the occupation and associated with higher education; and
5) An ideology that asserts great commitment to doing good
work than to economic gain and to the quality rather than the
economic efficiency of work.
Ashish Nanda, 2004. Professionals follow norms of dignity, personal detachment,
Professional Associations altruism and client interest. To make the professional pledge
credible to clients, professionals organize in associations that ensure,
and thereby assure clients, that the professionals‘ conduct is
consonant with their pledge. Professional associations influence, and
often determine, the training that aspirants must undergo to qualify
as professionals. The education process does not end with the
aspirants becoming professionals. Professional associations ensure
that education and socialization are ongoing throughout the
professionals careers by requiring their members to take courses and

© 2011 Page 17

Cheetham, Graham. and
Chivers, Geoff. (2005).
Professions, Competence
and Informal Learning
(Page 7)
Rakesh Khurana and Nitin
Nohria, 2008. It’s Time to
Make Management a True
Profession
Robert Schultze, 2008, What Self-Governing professions exhibit three essential characteristics:
does it mean to be a self-
governing regulated
profession?
© 2011
classes regularly.
A synthesis drawn from a range of sources yield the following
composite list:
1) Confers status within Society
2) Organized (into some sort of professional body)
3) Learned i.e. requires prolonged and specialized training and
education.
4) Altruistic (orientated towards service, rather than profit)
5) Offers autonomy within job role
6) Is informed by an ethical code of some kind
7) Is non commercial
8) Collectively influential within society
9) Self-regulating
10) Collegial
11) Client focused
1) True professions have codes of conduct, and the meaning
and consequences of those codes are taught as part of the
formal education of their members
2) A governing body, composed of respected members of the
profession, overseas members compliance.
3) Require a formal education
4) A License to practice
1) A unique combination of knowledge and skills.
2) A commitment to duty above self-interest or personal gain
3) Self-governance free from external interference.
Self regulating status is a privilege granted to a profession in order
to serve the public interest and comprises two essential aspects; the
authority to license and the ability to discipline licensees. It is the
role and responsibility of the self-governing profession to ensure
that admittance into the profession is guarded by strict standards of
Page 18

Richard Barker, 2010, No,
Management is Not a
Profession
CIPD 2011
SHRM. 2011, SHRM
Learning System, Society of
Human Resource
Management. (Pages 1-9
and 1-10)
© 2011
qualification and that members, once admitted, are governed by high
standards of competence and conduct. It is also the responsibility of
the self-governing profession to establish a program of continuing
professional development to ensure that members maintain a high
level of technical competence and professional conduct.
1) A discrete body of knowledge for that field must be defined
and the fields boundaries must be established
2) Certification signals competence to consumers who would
benefit from it.
3) Professional bodies hold a trusted position, they have in
effect a contract with society at large. They control
membership in the professions through examination and
certification.
4) Maintain the quality of certified members through ongoing
training and the enforcement of ethical standards
Membership of the CIPD is the recognized benchmark of
professionalism in HR. The CIPD sets standards of entry and
requires a commitment to continuous professional development.
Members are required to adhere to the code of professional conduct
to ensure that standards are maintained and to safeguard the
reputation of the profession. The code was drawn up with the
profession for the profession.
In the mid 1960s, the American Society for Personnel
Administration (ASPA – now SHRM), along with a group from
Cornell University, asked the United States Department of Labor,
―What constitutes a profession?‖. Subsequent discussion among
scholars and regulators isolated five characteristics that separate a
profession from an occupation:
1) National Organization – To qualify as a profession, an
occupation must have a national organization as a recognized
common voice that can speak for its members and foster
Page 19

Randy Hodson, Teresa A
Sullivan, 2012, The Social
Organization of Work (Page
260)
development of the field.
2) Code of ethics – A profession‘s code of ethics identifies
standards of behavior relating to fairness, justice,
truthfulness, and social responsibility.
1) Research – A profession has developed the practice of
applied research and encourages it use to develop the field.
2) Body of Knowledge – a discrete body of knowledge for that
field must be defined, and the field‘s boundaries must be
established. There must also be a reasonable consensus
within the field as to what the knowledge should consist of.
3) Credentialing – A profession must have a credentialing
organization that sets professional standards in the field.
In addition to the five characteristics of a profession noted here,
global competence has also assumed importance. As an increasing
number of enterprises become global in character, the differentiation
of a profession from an occupation is often characterized by a set of
consistent, recognizable global practices and global impact.
Hallmarks of a Profession
1) abstract, specialized knowledge,
2) autonomy,
3) authority over clients and subordinate occupational groups,
and
4) a certain degree of altruism.

Millerson in 1964 created a table of all the literature to date and presented an analysis of
characteristics put forward by a number of different commentators. He used this table to
inform his thinking of what characteristics compose a profession. This table is in the
Appendices – table A. Millerson‘s definition is missing independence, legal status, research
and recognition which were agreed by only a few authors at the time. It is Horn‘s (1978)
definition that most closely matches the total nine characteristics; however, it is missing the
key factors of legal status and research.

© 2011 Page 20
Table 4.2 Analysis of Nine Characteristics of a Profession
Table 4.2 presents an analysis of all the characteristics put forward by the authors in table 4.1
on the subject of professions.
Governing Code of Independence Certification, Legal Contribution Body of Research Recognition
Body Ethics & Education & Status to Society Knowledge
Discipline Training
Alan A Klass,    
1961
Geoffrey     
Millerson, 1964
Ronald C Horn,       
1978
Lord Benson,     
1983
Dave Ulrich,    
1998
Michael Losey  
1999
Eliot Freidson,    
2001
Ashish Nanda,     
2004
Graham       
Cheetham and
Geoff Chivers,
2005
Rakesh     
Khurana, Nitin
Nohria, 2008
Robert     
Schultze, 2008
Richard Barker,     
2010
CIPD, 2011      
SHRM, 2011      

Randy Hodson,     
Teresa Sullivan,
2012

The above table shows that there is some agreement with authors about what a profession
should be. There is some consistency that a profession requires a governing body, a code of
ethics and disciplinary procedure, certification, education and training system and a body of
knowledge. There is less agreement about the requirement of independence and contribution

© 2011 Page 21
to society. The characteristics of legal status, contribution to research and recognition are
agreed by two or three authors. However, where these characteristics are referred to they are
considered to be of paramount importance as to whether an occupation can be considered a
profession or not. For example, Klass (1961) argues that for an occupation to be considered a
profession it must have legal status and Ulrich (1998) argues that it must have a rich research
base.

© 2011 Page 22
Table 4.3 The Nine Characteristics that identify a Profession

The literature review identified nine characteristics that define a profession:

Governing Body Certification, Education & Body of Knowledge

Training

Code of Ethics & Discipline Legal Status Research

Independence Contribution to Society Recognition

These are desirable characteristics of a profession. They are not absolute prerequisites,
because a) no established profession meets all the criteria perfectly, b) some unrecognized
occupations meet some or all of the criteria fairly well and c) there are considerable
differences in the degrees to which each criterion is met among the established professions
(Horn, 1978).

4.4.1 Governing Body

The role of the professional body may be instrumental in defining the body of knowledge and
enhancing the legitimacy of a field (Lounsbury, 2002, Tyson, 1999, Wiley, 2000).
Professional communities such as medicine, law and accounting, are highly organized as
communities – and practitioners are regulated by their governing professional body. ‗The
regulation of practitioners for the protection of the public is one of the most important
functions professional associations claim to provide‘ (Van Hoy 1993). In these cases,
‗association membership may be mandatory, association participation is extensive, and
formal interaction and communication are highly developed‘ (Greenwood et al, 2002),
(Farndale and Brewster, 2005).

A profession must have a governing body which represents it and has power of control and
discipline over its members (Benson, 1983).

© 2011 Page 23
The professional association is intensely interested in the organization, curriculum, and
graduates of the professional schools. The American Bar Association (ABA), for example,
accredits law schools. In some states law graduates are eligible to become lawyers only if
they received a law degree from an ABA-accredited school. By accrediting, the professional
association seeks to ensure that the school teaches a core body of knowledge and skills and
that only qualified faculty conduct the training. Professional associations are often reluctant
to accredit new schools or to permit schools to enlarge their student bodies, usually citing
concerns over maintaining the quality of graduates (Hodson and Sullivan, 2012).

Millerson (1964, Pp. 28-29) argued that the four overarching goals of what he terms
―qualifying associations‖ are: a means of ensuring professional standards; an organized voice
of the profession; a means of extending educational, industrial and other facilities; and
making a contribution to wider society.

Professional associations have a legitimizing role to play in establishing a specialist body of

knowledge, regulating practice and providing a source of internal and external identity for
practitioners (Farndale and Brewster, 2005).

Geoffrey Millerson (1964) stated that there were primary and secondary characteristics of
governing organizations;
Primary Responsibilities:
1) To organize – this is the most fundamental aim of an association. Their
immediate aim is to gather together all those within a particular occupation, or all
persons with a particular interest. The organizing function extends beyond the
period of foundation. It is a continuous process, making members conscious of
being organized and receiving benefits. There needs to be a two way exchange
between organizers and membership. The association organizes to carry out other
aims: to qualify, to study, to protect.
2) To qualify – Tests of competence are necessary to build professional status, as
well as professional standards. Even then, examinations are not enough; the
qualification must be accepted inside the occupation, as good evidence of
knowledge and experience.

© 2011 Page 24
 3) To further study of a subject and communicate information obtained (research)–
In any organization, study facilities depend on many factors; available finance,
subject-matter, members‘ needs, alternative sources of information. Facilities can
involve; lectures and discussion meetings, study groups, conferences, conventions,
visits, library, museum, publication of a journal, books, pamphlets, etc.
4) To register competent professionals – Associations, which qualify members,
often maintain a register or publish a membership list, serving as a register of
those considered competent. The list of corporate members provides a useful
guide, for anyone wishing to employ specific professional services.
5) To promote and preserve a high standard of professional conduct – A real need
for a code of ethics depends on the nature of the professional task.

Secondary Responsibilities:
1) To raise professional status – Elevation of professional status might be mistaken
for the central object of many professional organizations. However, improvement
in status can only result from primary aims, viz. promotion of examinations,
enforcement of an ethical code.
2) To control entry into the profession – Unless there are legal restrictions on
practice, a professional association can seldom completely control entrance to the
profession.
3) To protect the profession and the public – Through insisting upon a qualified
membership, adhering to a common practice, controlled by an elected body drawn
from members, an association can present some guarantee of fair competition and
maintained concern over professional matters for the professional, and a possible
source of redress against unreasonable charges, or abuse of trust, for the lay
public. Limitations occur if the association is not connected with a closed
profession, or if disqualification from membership does not prevent further
practice.
4) To act as an interest or pressure group, on behalf of members – All
professional organizations can be assumed to act as the concerted voice of a
professional group.

© 2011 Page 25
 5) To encourage social activity and co-operation between professionals – Formal
and informal social contacts are important, if just to remind individual members,
without seeming to indoctrinate, that they belong to a corporate body which exists
for their benefit and well-being.
6) To provide welfare benefits – Some associations, especially those which qualify,
manage a benevolent fund, established by donations, to help necessitous members
or dependants of deceased members.

4.4.2 Code of Ethics & Discipline

In order to protect its clients and provide a service of the necessary quality, a profession must
impose on its members high standards of conduct and performance, above those required by
general law. The governing body must ensure that these standards are observed by applying
disciplinary sanctions if they are not (Benson, 1983).

Rules of conduct or practice and restrictions imposed by a profession should be designed not
to protect the interests of the members but should stand or fall on their capacity to protect the
interests of, or to enhance the level of service to, the public (Benson, 1983).

True professions have codes of conduct, and the meaning and consequences of those codes
are taught as part of the formal education of their members. A governing body, composed of
respected members of the profession, oversees members‘ compliance. Through these codes,
professional institutions forge an implicit social contract with other members of society: Trust
us to exercise control and exercise jurisdiction over this important occupational category. In
return, the profession promises, we will ensure that our members are worthy of your trust –
that they will not only be competent to perform the tasks they have been entrusted with, but
they will conduct themselves with high standards and integrity (Khurana and Nohria, 2008).

© 2011 Page 26
4.4.3 Independence

A professional person‘s first and particular responsibility is to his client. The client should
receive from the adviser the same level of care and attention as the client would himself exert
if he had the knowledge and means (Benson, 1983).

The members must be, and be seen to be, in a position to be independent – independent in
mind and outlook and not under the dominance of persons or circumstances which would
interfere with their judgment. In exercise of this independence they must speak their minds
to, and on behalf of, their clients forthrightly without fear or favor when the occasion
demands (Benson, 1983).

Autonomy means that professionals rely on their own judgment in selecting the relevant
knowledge or the appropriate technique for dealing with the problem at hand. Professionals
justify their autonomy by their mastery of the knowledge base. Laypeople often accept this
autonomy because they assume that professional training is necessary to make decisions.
Professional standards limit autonomy to some degree. For example, a physician can use
experimental drugs or treatments only within certain well-defined limits but is free to choose
among accepted therapies (Dingwall, 2008).

4.4.4 Certification & Education & Training

The governing body must restrict entry to those with a minimum standard of education. The
subsequent system of education and training must be constantly updated and adapted so that
members can speak with knowledge and authority on the subjects within their field of
learning (Benson, 1983).

The occupations claiming to be professions have employed several modes of training and
preparation, often in combination. These include:
 a period of pupilage or internship during which students spend a significant
amount of time (up to five years) learning their ―craft‖ from an expert;
 enrolment in a ―professional college‖ outside the higher-education system;

© 2011 Page 27
  a qualifying examination, normally set by a qualifying association for the
occupation;
 a period of relevant study at a college, polytechnic or university leading to a
recognized academic qualification; and
 the collection of evidence of practical competence in the form of a logbook or
portfolio (Eraut,1994)

Hoyle (1975) wanted to differentiate between the status-related elements of (teachers‘)

professional work which he termed ―professionalism‖ and the knowledge, skills and
procedures used – for which he developed the term ―professionality‖. Hoyle‘s work led him
to develop a continuum which reflected his view of the range of professionality – a
continuum ranging from ―restricted‖ (at the lower end) to ―extended‖ professionality.
Professionality seems to be concerned with the knowledge, skills and procedures involved in
the practice of the occupation but what this definition does is identify the perspectives
involved and openly links these to professional practice (Bailey, 2011).

The labor market shelter characteristic of professionalism protects professionals from

competition by other occupations. In order to be truly effective, however, it must also protect
its members from each other – that is, protect itself from unrestrained competition among
members that would seriously threaten its cohesion as an occupation. Severe internal
competition can occur when there is considerable excess of practitioners over consumer
demand. This is likely to result in both a low average income for the profession as a whole,
and divisiveness created by significant differences between the lowest and highest income of
colleagues. A major source of protection from this possibility lies in restricting the supply of
practitioners, for when supply is not out of line with demand, virtually all practitioners can be
expected to gain a satisfactory, if not fully equal, income (Freidson, 2001).

An essential characteristic of professionalism lies in controlling the number of practitioners

entering the labor market by imposing stringent standards on admission to professional
school and requiring candidates to pass some sort of examination in order to obtain their
qualifying credential. Such control cannot be too stringent, however, because of the need for
students (Freidson, 2001).

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4.4.5 Legal Status

Klass (1961) argues that an essential element of a profession is legal status. A profession
must acquire a statutory basis in the laws of the country. For the profession to exist as a
recognizable group it is mandatory that the public grant to the professional body, by
legislative statute self-governing privileges.

Nearly all professions require licensing by the state, and only those who qualify with
educational credentials and by passing an examination can receive a license. There may be
additional requirements for periodically updating the license or for completing further
training. Most professions are protected by laws that make it illegal to practice without a state
license (Lawrence, 2004). Other professionals – such as scientists – although unlicensed, are
essentially unemployable without formal schooling credentials because employers will not
hire them. Either through licensing or through convincing employers to hire only trained
graduates, the profession can act collectively to restrict access to its knowledge base (Hodson
and Sullivan, 2012).

4.4.6 Contribution to Society

Professional bodies hold a trusted position. They have, in effect, a contract with society at
large: They control membership in the professionals through examination and certification,
maintain the quality of certified members through ongoing training and the enforcement of
ethical standards, and may exclude anyone who fails to meet those standards. Society is
rewarded for its trust with a professional quality that it would otherwise be unable to ensure
(Barker, 2010).

Altruism means concern for others. No one doubts that professionals seek an income from
their practice, but the characteristic of altruism implies that they officially see themselves as
having additional objectives. Most professions have codes of ethics that express the ideal
relationship among the professional, the client and the community. Altruism implies that the
professional will incur some self sacrifice to help the client. Altruism also involves the
profession‘s duty to use its knowledge for the public good. On the one hand, because the

© 2011 Page 29
knowledge is important and is monopolized, the profession has the duty and responsibility to
preserve, enhance, and transmit it and to use it in the public interest. On the other hand, the
confidential knowledge gained about an individual client must not become public. The
second aspect of the profession‘s altruism is its advocacy of community service – called pro
bono public work among lawyers. This is professional work volunteered or performed for a
lower fee than is usually charged. Local professional associations often arrange for volunteer
services to be provided by their members. A local legal society may provide a legal aid clinic
or a local medical society may offer free health screenings or vaccinations to low-income
people. Professional associations may also sponsor hotlines, tape-recorded educational
messages, and informational materials with professional advice. The association encourages
individual professionals to donate their services to the poor or to nonprofit organizations
(Hodson and Sullivan, 2012).

4.4.7 Body of Knowledge

For a professional body in any given field to function, a discrete body of knowledge for that
field must be defined, and the field‘s boundaries must be established. There must also be a
reasonable consensus within the field as to what the knowledge should consist of. The
boundaries and consensus for any profession will evolve over time but at any given moment
they can be defined – which is what enables formal training and certification. Certification
signals competence to consumers who would benefit from it (Barker 2010).

Every occupation has its body of knowledge that its members master. What distinguishes the
professions is the type of knowledge that its members master – esoteric knowledge (known
only by a few). Not all esoteric knowledge is equally valuable, and people and societies vary
in the value accorded different knowledge. In general, the esoteric knowledge commanded by
professionals is considered important – even a matter of life or death – for the well-being of
individuals or groups (Hodson and Sullivan, 2012).

The knowledge base of a profession consists of three parts. The first part is theoretical
knowledge. This knowledge is often acquired in college. The second part of the knowledge
base is detailed, practical information that can be applied in serving a client. The professional

© 2011 Page 30
must stay abreast of these developments to provide the best service to clients. Bar
associations, medical associations and other professional organizations frequently require
their members to update their practical information in annual continuing education. The third
part of the knowledge base – technique (or process) is the application of the knowledge base.
Knowing that something must be done is not enough – one must know how to do it.
Techniques are learned in an applied or clinical portion of a professional training program.
Technique can be learned or perfected during an apprenticeship to a more experienced
professional. The internship or residency after basic medical training is devoted to learning
techniques specific to an area of specialization (Hodson and Sullivan, 2012).

The advantages of having a framework of knowledge and skills (competency model) include
encouraging and supporting the development of professional knowledge and competence and
high standards of performance among personnel practitioners, and hence improving HR
credibility and professionalism. A framework can also provide guidance to professional
associations and other educational bodies for the development of people involved in the fields
of personnel management and development. It can act as a basis against which the
development needs of association members can be assessed, and can provide a basis for
syllabuses for education and training programs and publications. The framework can also act
as benchmark for HR professionals to compare their knowledge, skills and abilities with
those that their peers consider appropriate. And importantly, it is a means of providing a
focus within the increasingly complex field of personnel management (Brewster et al, 2000).

4.4.8 Research

Both the professional associations and the professional schools seek to expand and refine the
professionals knowledge base (Volti, 2008). The associations may lobby for public funding
of research to be conducted by the faculty of the professional schools. The results of the
research – new knowledge and techniques – reach the members through professional
journals. Professional associations or professional schools publish these journals – available
to members through subscriptions and specialized libraries. Formal continuing education is
provided through conferences, videos and audiocassettes, compact discs, web-based systems
and electronic mail (Hodson and Sullivan, 2012).

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4.4.9 Recognition

Horn (1978) states that public recognition is an element of a profession, although recognizes
it‘s limitations as with regard to how it is defined and measured and truly whether the ―public
at large‖ should decide whether it is a profession or not.

4.5 Professionalization

The professionalization process has been described as fundamental to increasing occupational

identity, status, standards and control (Lounsbury, 2002, Millerson 1964, Timperley and
Osbaldeston, 1975). At the same time, professionalization of an occupation entails the
prescription of acceptable standards of performance, controlling the body of knowledge from
which the professional practitioner will draw (Millerson, 1964). There is thus a clear role for
professional associations in this process (Farndale and Brewster, 2005).

Professionalization is the process by which an occupation undergoes transformation to

become a profession (Millerson, 1964).

Occupations can be ordered along a continuum from more professional to less professional
(Hodson and Sullivan, 2012) and this dissertation explores the characteristics of professions
and how Human Resource Management in the UK and USA compares against this
continuum.

However, even if one defines the traits constituting the end-point toward which the process is
assumed to be headed, how many of those traits and in what degree, must an occupation
display before it makes sense to talk of it as involved in a process of professionalization
rather than in a process of merely improving its economic or status position? (Friedson,
2001).

Hickson and Thomas (1969) argue that ―What is a profession‖ is sterile; the question should
be ―How professionalized in identifiable respects is a particular occupation‖. Indeed,
differentiation along a continuum is implicit in the assumed process of professionalization
over time. Professionalization is very likely to be a long drawn out process in which the early
starters hold an advantage over latecomers in the number of professional characteristics they

© 2011 Page 32
can boast. Hickson and Thomas found a positive correlation with the age of the association
and the number of characteristics of the association (Hickson and Thomas, 1969).

Hodson and Sullivan (2012) state that professionalization can be understood as the effort by
an occupational group to raise its collective standing by taking on the characteristics of a
profession. It often takes the form of seeking to adopt the four hallmarks (Abstract -
specialized knowledge, Autonomy, Authority, Altruism) of the professions to a greater or
lesser extent, and it is usually initiated and maintained by the leaders of the occupation. The
first step in professionalizing is forming an organization or strengthening an existing one. The
professional association seeks to convince the general public, the state legislature, and
perhaps other professions that its claims to professional status are legitimate. Some
occupational groups are divided over the best way to achieve greater status, and they may
have several competing organizations, not all of which adopt professionalization as a
strategy. A second step is standardizing the body of knowledge that the members of the
occupation should have. This step requires developing courses of training and most
professionalizing groups seek to locate the training in universities. A professionalizing
occupation usually develops its own research program, journals and continuing education.
Developing the body of knowledge is not sufficient (Abbott 2001). The professionalizing
group must convince the public that the knowledge is important and that only those graduates
who complete the certification process should be assumed to possess the knowledge. The
association must develop a certification process or specify a credential required to be in good
standing. This credential might be a degree from an accredited school, passage of an
examination, or a state issued license (Friedson, 2001). Ideally, the professionalizing
association would like to convince a legislative body to mandate that workers in the
occupation be licensed or certified. Most occupational groups must negotiate their status with
the public and legal authorities for many years. Professionalizing occupations often adopt
codes of ethics and internal disciplinary procedures, but employers may not defer to these
procedures when an issue arises. Professionalizing associations may encourage their
members to be publicly visible and to donate their time and talent – both because that is
something that many professionals do and because it again brings their occupational group
before the public eye. Most professionalizing groups achieve autonomy and authority slowly
– if at all (Abbott, 2001).

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Perhaps the most significant obstacle to professionalization is the opposition of existing
professions, especially if the ―newcomer‖ occupation potentially threatens the control of a
well-established profession. Established professional associations often oppose efforts by
new professions to achieve a measure of autonomy or authority (Abbott 2001). A second
obstacle is the fact that most would-be professionals do not practice independently but work
for large organizations. The employing organization is especially likely to resist claims of
professional expertise that disrupt its operating procedures. A third obstacle to
professionalization is public skepticism. At a time when many occupational groups argue that
the public needs more experts to provide advice on more subjects, some consumers have
come to resent the professions (Hodson and Sullivan, 2012).

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5. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Research is a way of thinking; examining critically the various aspects of professional work,
understanding and formulating guiding principles that govern a particular procedure and
developing and testing new theories that contribute to the advancement of the profession.
Research is a process for collecting, analyzing and interpreting information to answer
questions. However, to qualify as research, the process must have certain characteristics; it
must be controlled, rigorous, systematic, valid and verifiable, empirical and critical (Kumar,
2011).

Controlled - In the social sciences external factors cannot be controlled so their impact is
attempted to be quantified.
Rigorous - The procedures followed to find answers must be relevant, appropriate and
justified.
Systematic - The procedures adopted follow a certain logical sequence. The different steps
cannot be taken in a haphazard way.
Valid and verifiable - The findings can be verified by others.
Empirical - Any conclusions drawn are based upon hard evidence gathered from information
collected.
Critical - The process adopted and the procedures used must be able to withstand critical
scrutiny. (Kumar, 2011).

This dissertation meets all the criteria above and is both a literature study and a qualitative
content analysis that summarizes research evidence from previous HR management related
publications and the HR governing body websites and literature in the UK and USA.
Literature research was performed by a computer-based search in databases as well as manual
searches. Books and journals on HR Management, HR as a profession and professionalism in
general were reviewed. An extensive search of the publications and websites of the CIPD,
SHRM, HCI and HRPA was undertaken and an analysis of the information was conducted.

A systematic literature review was undertaken. It is a means of evaluating and interpreting all
available research relevant to the research questions outlined in chapter one – Introduction.

© 2011 Page 35
Systematic reviews aim to present a fair evaluation of a research topic by using a trustworthy,
rigorous, and auditable methodology. There are three phases of a systematic literature review:
planning the review, conducting the review and reporting the review. A systematic review
aims to provide an exhaustive summary of literature relevant to the research questions. The
first step of a systematic review is a thorough search of the literature for relevant papers. The
CIPD EBSCO website and Kingston University Icat search engine was used extensively to
search for books and journals on the topic of HR as a profession and also professionalism in
general. There is a comprehensive list of references in chapter nine. The titles and the
abstracts of the identified articles were checked against pre-determined criteria – HR as a
profession mentioned or professionalism in general - for eligibility and relevance.

Hemingway and Brereton (2009) state that a systematic review uses an objective and
transparent approach for research synthesis, with the aim of minimizing bias. While many
systematic reviews are based on an explicit quantitative meta-analysis of available data, there
are also qualitative reviews which adhere to the standards for gathering, analyzing and
reporting evidence. This dissertation is a qualitative content analysis since the articles were
qualitative in nature. This systematic review brings the same level of rigor to reviewing
research evidence as was used in producing that research evidence in the first place.
Systematic reviews seek to:

 Identify all relevant published and unpublished evidence

 Select studies or reports for inclusion
 Assess the quality of each study or report
 Synthesize the findings from individual studies or reports in an unbiased way
 Interpret the findings and present a balanced and impartial summary of the findings
with due consideration of any flaws in the evidence.

Step one was defining the appropriate research questions. This required a clear statement of
the objectives of the review, the types of evidence or studies that will help answer the
question, as well as appropriate outcomes. These details were rigorously used to select
studies for inclusion in the review. (Hemingway and Brereton, 2009)

© 2011 Page 36
Step two was searching the literature. The published and unpublished literature was carefully
searched for the required studies - institutional or technical reports, working papers,
conference proceedings, or other documents not normally subject to editorial control or peer
review were searched using EBSCO, Icat, search engines, databases and websites.
(Hemingway and Brereton, 2009)

Step three was assessing the studies. Once all possible studies were identified, they were
assessed for eligibility against inclusion criteria and full text papers were retrieved for those
that met the inclusion criteria. Following a full-text selection stage, the remaining studies
were assessed for methodological quality using a critical appraisal framework. Poor quality
studies were excluded. Of the remaining studies, reported findings were extracted into a table.
A list of included studies was then created. (Hemingway and Brereton, 2009)

Step four was combining the results. The findings from the individual studies were then
aggregated to produce a table. This aggregation of findings is called evidence synthesis. The
type of evidence synthesis is chosen to fit the types(s) of data within the review. (Hemingway
and Brereton, 2009)

Finally step five was placing the findings in context. The findings from this aggregation of an
unbiased selection of studies then need to be discussed to put them into context. (Hemingway
and Brereton, 2009)

Other research methods were also considered, however, the number of research studies that
had already been completed by others together with a search of the governing body websites
provided all the required information. The downside of this approach is that many of the
authors were biased in their findings on whether HR was a profession or not.

Interviews and questionnaires were also considered, however, the research questions could be
answered by research of the databases and websites. Table 5.1 outlines the advantages and
disadvantages that were considered when selecting a systematic literature review as the
research methodology. The dissertation was shared with many of the key authors from the

© 2011 Page 37
literature review and they have engaged in the debate as to whether HR should be pursuing
professionalization.
Table 5.1 The advantages and disadvantages of interviews and questionnaires as a
research methodology (Kumar, 2011)
Advantages
Interview  It is more appropriate
for complex situations
 It is useful for collecting
in-depth information
 Information can be
supplemented
 Questions can be
explained
 Interviewing has a wider
application
Questionnaire  It is less expensive
 It offers greater
anonymity
© 2011
Disadvantages
 It is time consuming and expensive
 The quality of the data depends upon
the quality of the interaction
 The quality of data depends upon the
quality of the interviewer
 The quality of data may vary when
many interviewers are used
 The researcher may introduce his /
her bias.
 Application is limited
 Response rate is low
 There is a self-selecting bias
 Opportunity to clarify issues is
lacking
 Spontaneous responses are not
allowed for
 The response to a question may be
influenced by the response to other
questions
 It is possible to consult others
 A response cannot be supplemented
with other information
Page 38
6. HR AS A PROFESSION IN THE UK AND USA

6.1 HR as a Profession

An extensive review of the literature on Human Resource Management was undertaken and
in particular views of whether HR could be considered a profession. Table 6.1 is a summary
of this review and where appropriate includes what profession framework was used.

Table 6.1 Is HR a Profession? – Summary of Literature Review

Author and Article Year Summary of view of HR as Profession

a Profession Framework Used
Gibb, S. A big step forward 1994 HR is not a profession – a Not evaluated
or a giant leap back? An profession needs to be
evaluation of the personnel qualified in order to practice
standards lead body (PSLB)
model of personnel
management. Occasional
paper no.6 ed. Department
of HRM, University of
Strathclyde.
Yeung, Arthur K. 1996 HR practitioners have been Not evaluated
Competencies for HR trying to create a sense of a
Professionals: An Interview being a profession since the
with Richard E. Boyatzis. 1960s – a damaging process.
Human Resource
Management, Vol. 35, No.
1. Pp. 119-131.
Ulrich, Dave, Eichinger, 1998 HR is not a profession – Dave Ulrich‘s own
Robert W. Delivering HR needs to become more model
with an attitude. HR professional.
Magazine.

© 2011 Page 39
Losey, Michael R. 1999
Mastering the
Competencies of HR
Management. Human
Resource Management,
Vol. 38, No 2, Pp. 99-102.
Brockbank, Wayne, Ulrich, 1999
Dave, Beatty, Richard. HR
Professional Development:
Creating the Future
Creators at the University
of Michigan Business
School. Human Resource
Management. Vol.38. No.2.
Pp.111-118.
Armstrong, Michael. The 2000
name has changed but has
the game remained the
same? Employee Relations.
Vol. 22. No. 6. Pp. 576-
593.
Brewster, Professor Chris, 2000
Farndale, Elaine, van
Ommeren, Dr Jos. HR
Competencies and
Professional Standards.
World Federation of
Personnel Management
Associations.
Becker, Brian E., Huselid, 2001
Mark A, Ulrich, Dave. The
© 2011
HR is a profession.
Being a profession will not
come easily or quickly to
HR. The profession remains
haphazard and
indiscriminate.
HR continues to enhance its
standing as a profession.
Increasing professionalism
of HR advocated by CIPD
and he also advocates that
HR is a profession.
Assess the extent of HR
professionalism by looking
at evidence of HR
practitioners career paths.
To serve as valuable
business partners and be
Michael Losey‘s own
model
Dave Ulrich‘s own
model
Not evaluated
Applied Geoffrey
Millerson‘s (1964)
framework of what a
profession is.
Dave Ulrich‘s own
model
Page 40
HR Scorecard. Linking
People, Strategy and
Performance. Harvard
Business School Press.
Bing, John W. Kehrhahan,
Marijke, Short, Darren C.
Challenges to the Field of
Human Resources
Development. Advances in
Developing Human
Resources. Vol. 5, No.3,
Pp. 342-351.
Gold, Jeff, Bratton, John.
The dynamics of
professionalization; whither
the HRM profession,
Conference Paper, Critical
Management Studies 2003
Stream 8 Human Resource
Management Phenomean –
HRM and beyond,
Lancaster University,
Lancaster 7-9 July.
Farndale, Elaine, Brewster,
Chris. In search of
legitimacy: personnel
management associations
worldwide. Human
Resource Management
Journal. Vol. 15. No. 3 Pp.
33-48.
© 2011
more professional – need to
define and measure
competencies.
2003 Little evidence that HRD‘s Authors own model
attempt to professionalize
have had an impact on the
key factor of
professionalization – the
degree to which HRD is
perceived as a legitimate
profession by others.
2003 Might be considered to Applied Hodson and
possess specialized Sullivan‘s (2012) four
knowledge, however, any hallmarks. Also applied
claim of autonomy, authority Friedson‘s (2001)
and altruism is tenuous. HR model of
Practitioners have some way professionalism to the
to go to match the UK HR profession.
professional status of
finance.
2005 HRM professionalism across Applied Geoffrey
the globe evidence of a Millerson‘s (1964)
search for legitimacy within framework of what a
the profession. However, profession is.
there is no mandatory
requirement for specialists to
be certified (implying that
HR is not a profession).
Page 41
Losey, Michael, Meisinger, 2005 HR is a profession Authors own model
Susan R, Ulrich, Dave.
Conclusion: Reality, Impact
and Professionalism.
Human Resource
Management. Vol.44. No 2.
Pp.201-206.
Harrison, Patricia. 2006 HR fairly new profession Not evaluated
Becoming a professional recognized as such and
human resource manager. established.
Conference paper – QMOD
Conference August,
Liverpool John Moores
University, Liverpool,
Pp.11-13.
Dave Ulrich, Wayne 2008 HR is becoming a true Dave Ulrich‘s own
Brockbank, Dani Johnson, profession. model
Kurt Sandholtz, Jon
Younger. HR
Competencies. Mastery at
the Intersection of People
and Business.The RBL
Institute and the Society for
Human Resource
Management.
Pilenzo, Ronald C. A New 2009 No profession can exist Ronald Pilenzo‘s own
Paradigm for HR. without the standardization model
Organization Development of its body of knowledge.
Journal, Vol. 27. No. 3. Therefore, until HR evolves
to the point where it can
develop similar standards

© 2011 Page 42
 and practices, its claims of
being a profession are
unfounded and of little merit.

Cappelli, Peter. Is HR 2010 Career paths of HR Not evaluated

Becoming a Profession?.
Human Resources
Executive Magazine. April
26, 2010.
Bailey, Moira. Policy,
professionalism,
professionality and the
development of HR
practitioners in the UK.
Journal of European
Industrial Training. Vol.35.
No.5 Pp. 487-501.
Hodson, Randy & Sullivan
Teresa A. The Social
Organization of Work.
Wasworth, Cengage
Learning.
professionals becoming
more specialized implying
that HR is becoming more of
a profession.
2011 Considerable debate about Refers to Gold and
whether or not HR really is a Bratton‘s (2003) work
profession, but, it appears, and discusses Hoyles
on balance, there is enough professionality
evidence for HR to be a continuum.
contender as one of the ―new
professions‖. HR practitioner
deemed a ―professional‖
only tenuously.
2012 HR is a semi-profession – Applied Hodson and
has achieved some Sullivan‘s (2012) four
characteristics of a hallmarks of a
profession in a limited way. profession.

In summary there is much debate about the extent that HR is seen as a profession and the
literature review examines the issue of ―professionalism‖ and this debate. However, even the
most adamant of detractors admit that there has been much progress over the last decade.

© 2011 Page 43
6.2 HR as a Profession – Assessment of nine characteristics UK and USA

In reviewing the development of HR as a profession the definition that will be used are all
nine characteristics:

 Governing Body  Certification,  Body of Knowledge

Education & Training

 Code of Ethics &  Legal Status  Research

Discipline

 Independent  Contribution to  Recognition

Society

6.2.1 HR Governing Bodies – UK and USA

The HR profession is growing dramatically in numbers, global reach and scientific

sophistication. In the UK the Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development is an
internationally recognized brand with over 135,000 members across 120 countries. (CIPD,
2011, website) The USA Society for Human Resource Management (SHRM) is the world‘s
largest association devoted to human resource management. Representing more than 250,000
members in over 140 countries, the Society serves the needs of HR professionals and
advances the interests of the HR profession (SHRM, 2011, website). These are the two
leading Human Resource professional organizations in the world and the leading professional
body‘s for the UK and USA respectively. The history and development of the CIPD is
included in the Appendices, Table B and the history and development of SHRM is included
in the Appendices, Table C. In addition it is worth noting two further organizations in the
USA - the Human Capital Institute (HCI) - The Global Association for Strategic Talent
Management and the Human Resources Policy Association – the Association for Chief HR
Officers (HRPA).

HCI has over 190,000 members worldwide, and 2,000 new members join each month. Their
members are Strategic Human Resources, Recruitment and Staffing, OD/Learning and
Business Line executives who share the conviction that human capital is the only sustainable
competitive advantage in a global economy. HCI Members represent business, government,
the non-profit community and academia, and extend across recruitment, strategic human

© 2011 Page 44
resources, organizational development, learning and development, and line management.
Member organizations include over 90% of the Fortune 500, as well every major federal
agency, and branch of the military (HCI, 2011, website). HCI is a for profit organization that
markets their members for various educational and consulting services.

The HR Policy Association is the lead public policy organization of Chief Human Resource
Officers from large employers. The Association brings together HR professionals at the
highest level of corporations not simply to discuss changes in public policy, but to lay out a
vision and advocate for competitive workplace initiatives that promote job growth and
employment security.

 Membership: The HR Policy Association consists of over 325 of the largest

corporations doing business in the United States and globally. Collectively their
members employ more than 20 million employees worldwide and have a market
capitalization of more than $7.5 trillion.
 Impact: Senior corporate officers participate in the Association because of their strong
interest in impacting the direction of HR policy and practices. Their objective is to
work together to use the combined power of the membership to act as a positive
influence to improve public policy, the HR marketplace, and the human resource
profession.
 Uniqueness: There are literally hundreds of organizations representing various
segments of the human resource function. HR Policy Association focuses primarily on
the concerns of the most senior HR executive in Fortune 500 companies, and it is
these Chief Human Resource Officers who participate in the Association's activities
and drive its agenda.
 History: HR Policy Association has been operating for more than four decades,
coming together in 1968 to address the tumultuous labor and civil rights issues that
were sweeping the workplace at that time. It has remained together ever since,
continuing to tackle new problems and emerging issues affecting senior human
resource executives.

The HR Policy Association is a non-profit organization formed under 501(c) (6) of the
Internal Revenue Code in the USA. Key practice areas include (but are not limited to): talent

© 2011 Page 45
and workforce development, healthcare, executive compensation, labor law and labor
relations, wage and hour issues, employment discrimination, immigration, mandated leave
and retirement security. (HRPA, 2011, website)

The goal of chartered status of the CIPD was achieved in 2000. Gaining chartered status was
seen as a way of recognizing the professionalism, body of knowledge and practical
competence of HR Practitioners, increasing the requirement for people to be part of the
association in order to be able to practice, and increasing legitimacy among policy-makers in
government and elsewhere for consultation on the whole range of people issues and work
(Farndale and Brewster, 2005).

Table 6.2 Key Elements of HR Professional Associations Mission Statements

Chartered Institute of The mission of the Chartered Institute of Personnel and

Personnel and Development,
UK, Est‘d 1913 (CIPD, 2011,
website)
Society for Human Resource
Management, USA – Est‘d
1948 (SHRM, 2011, website)
Development is:
 to lead in the development and promotion of good
practice in the field of the management and
development of people, for application both by
professional members and by their organizational
colleagues
 to serve the professional interests of members
 to uphold the highest ideals in the management and
development of people.
SHRM is the global HR professional organization that
exists to:
 Build and sustain partnerships with human resource
professionals, media, governments, non-
governmental organizations, businesses and
academic institutions to address people management
challenges that influence the effectiveness and
sustainability of their organizations and
communities.

© 2011 Page 46

Human Capital Institute USA,
(HCI, 2011, website)
© 2011
 Provide a community for human resource
professionals, media, governments, non-
governmental organizations, businesses and
academic institutions to share expertise and create
innovative solutions on people management issues.
 Proactively provide thought leadership, education
and research to human resource professionals,
media, governments, non-governmental
organizations, businesses and academic institutions.
 Serve as an advocate to ensure that policy makers,
law makers and regulators are aware of key people
concerns facing organizations and the human
resource profession.
HCI is the global association for talent management and
new economy leadership, and a clearinghouse for best
practices and new ideas.
 HCI Online Talent Communities offer a deep
reservoir of information, and a powerful platform
for informal learning, research and peer-to-peer
collaboration.
 HCI provides rigorous, insightful analysis and
actionable reporting that helps decision-makers
move the needle and drive results. Their research
agenda focuses on the most critical and rapidly
evolving talent management practices and systems.
 HCI Education is the only comprehensive
curriculum for strategic talent management and
leadership. HCI's certification and designation
programs are recognized worldwide for defining
excellence, and set the bar for strategic and practical
expertise.
Page 47

Human Resources Policy
Association, USA, Est‘d 1968
(HRPA, 2011, website)
© 2011
 HCI Summits, Conferences, Executive Workgroups
and Private Events deliver thought leadership,
practical case studies, and opportunities to
collaborate with progressive colleagues and peers.
HR Policy Association has been bringing together the Chief
Human Resource Officers of large corporations for more
than 40 years. There are hundreds if not thousands of HR
organizations, but what sets HR Policy Association apart
are the following:
 An organization that brings together the top HR
executives from primarily Fortune 500 companies.
 The primary attendees at HR Policy's main
membership meetings are the most senior human
resource executives of the Association's member
corporations. The number of senior corporate
executives who attend our membership meetings
typically exceeds 200 per meeting.
 The Association's culture is one that goes beyond
simply networking and benchmarking; what brings
HR executives to our organization is an interest in
working collaboratively with their peers to develop
positive solutions to the most difficult problems
facing senior corporate human resource officers.
 The Association routinely provides the most
comprehensive and timely analytical materials of
HR public policy trends. These insights provide
senior corporate decision makers with the tools
needed to assess the potential impact of the public
policy process and build effective strategies.
 A desire to have the unique perspective of chief
Page 48
 human resource officers properly represented in the
policy debates in Congress, the media, and the
public at large.
 A strong interest in going beyond simply reacting to
change. The Association seeks to lay out a vision for
competitive workplace policies that promote job
growth and employment security.

Addressing issues of common concern and bringing the

collective weight of the membership to bear on the pressing
problems of the day have been hallmarks of the Association
since its formation in 1968.

A recent worldwide survey of personnel management associations found that, although

associations are active in establishing a specialist body of knowledge, regulating practice and
providing a source of internal and external identity for practitioners, there is a lack of
mandatory control and regulation across the profession, diluting the legitimacy accorded by
such activities (Farndale and Brewster, 2005).

As outlined earlier Millerson (1964) stated that there were primary and secondary
characteristics of professional governing bodies. Table 6.3 assesses the HR governing bodies
in the UK and USA against these primary and secondary characteristics.

Table 6.3 Governing Body Assessment of Geoffrey Millerson’s Primary and Secondary
Characteristics

Primary Secondary
organize qualify research register code of raise control protect pressure socialize welfare
ethics status entry group benefits
CIPD         
SHRM         
/ HRCI
HCI     
HRPA       

The CIPD and SHRM cover every primary criteria of what a governing body should be
according to Millerson‘s criteria and most of the secondary criteria. However, protect the
© 2011 Page 49
profession and the public is not governed by these bodies nor is the provision of welfare
benefits. Neither the HCI or HRPA provide any further coverage of the criteria and are
missing elements of the primary characteristics.

6.2.2 HR Code of Ethics

The CIPD Code of Professional Conduct (CIPD, 2011, website) is particularly relevant to an
HR practitioner. The CIPD requires that all members commit to the code (CIPD, 2011,
website). The Code covers professional standards and behavior and as such affects the day to
day activities of the HR Practitioner. The code of conduct has been produced by the
professional body (CIPD) for HR Practitioners. It came about as a result of the institute
gaining the Royal Charter in 2000 (CIPD, 2003). This charter is the governing document of
the institute and together with the bye laws, sets out the powers of the institute. There are
clear guidelines for how a complaint can be brought as well as the procedure for hearings and
appeals and the power of the disciplinary panel (Bailey 2011).

SHRM believes as the world‘s largest human resource management association, they have a
responsibility to set and support ethical standards for the human resource profession. Their
bye laws (Section 3) state that, "The purposes of the Society shall be to promote the use of
sound and ethical human resource management practices in the profession…to be the voice
of the profession on human resource management issues …to facilitate the development and
guide the direction of the human resource profession …and to establish, monitor and update
standards for the profession." The original Code of Ethics was first developed in 1972 and
was last modified in 1989 to reflect their name change from the American Society for
Personnel Administration to Society for Human Resource Management. The Code was
written entirely by SHRM members and volunteer leaders with the assistance of the Ethics
Resource Center (ERC) and SHRM staff. Hundreds of members and leaders shared in the
process through focus groups and individual interviews representing a cross-section of their
membership, participation on code development teams, and by providing feedback on code
drafts. (SHRM, 2011, website).

Neither HCI or HRPA in the USA have a code of ethics program or policy that they require
their members to adhere to.

© 2011 Page 50
6.2.3 HR Independence

Since the HR department paradoxically has to support both employee and management
needs, it faces a dilemma between emphasizing its specialist expertise in HRM theories and
practices and its ability to help an organization achieve its goals. These two principles may
sometimes be in conflict (Millerson, 1964).

There is also a risk of ―de-professionalization‖, which comes from the rising education level
of the clients the profession serves – in the case of HR, largely line management. Improving
levels of management education increasingly mean that the principles of HRM are widely
known outside the personnel department (Friedson, 1986, Sisson, 1993). Indeed, trends
towards HR rather than traditional personnel management encourage devolution of HRM
responsibilities to the line (Armstrong, 1995). Information technology is also facilitating the
process of information standardization, opening up access and removing some sources of
control while potentially building others (Sisson, 1993).

Corporate values are often stronger than professional values in influencing the values of HR
practitioners (Timerley and Osbaldeston, 1975, Wiley 2000). Because line managers are
involved in HRM and have their own theories on how best to manage, it is also difficult to
see the level of exclusivity required for HRM to be a true profession (Purcell and Ahlstrand,
1989), (Legge and Exley, 1975), (Farndale and Brewster, 2005).

6.2.4 HR Certification, Education & Training

Personnel practitioners recognized that to succeed in an increasingly competitive world they

had to become more professional and they were encouraged to do so by the Institute of
Personnel Management. They took account of new ideas and implemented new practices
because they were persuaded that they were appropriate (Armstrong, 2000).

In the development and training of HR practitioners, the assessment and certification of

learning plays an important role in the recognition of the professional experience, skills and
knowledge of individuals. Certification can form the criteria of association membership, and
can demonstrate an individual‘s adherence to standards and a commitment to staying abreast

© 2011 Page 51
of new developments in the HR field. It is also a visual statement of professional status and as
such is a useful tool in career advancement (Brewster et al, 2000).

In devising a scheme of certification it is important that the scheme allows individuals to

demonstrate that their knowledge, skills and experience in a generalist or specialist role in
HRM and / or HRD are sufficient to meet the criteria for professional competence. This can
entail the demonstration of professional experience and / or the passing of a written
comprehensive examination to meet pre-set requirements (Brewster et al, 2000).

Both the CIPD and SHRM through HRCI run their own certified courses of study or
recognize courses run by other institutions. Such courses are different to the training
programs offered, as they often involve a number of modules, and have an assessment
process that can result in the award of a certificate.

6.2.4.1 Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development (CIPD) – UK

In the UK, the CIPD is the professional association as well as the certifying and awarding
body. The CIPD has its own professional standards that have been developed through
multiple stakeholders, and which have been mapped against the UK national standards. The
certified courses of study run by the CIPD have been in place for 40 years.

Certification is awarded based on either experience and / or examination. CIPD qualifications

are available at Advanced, Intermediate and Foundation level, and students can study awards,
certificates and diplomas at each of these levels. Most CIPD qualifications provide the
underpinning knowledge towards CIPD professional membership (Associate, Chartered
Member or Chartered Fellow).

CIPD's Foundation level qualifications are for those who want to acquire a wide range of
relevant practical skills in HR and development. They can choose to follow a HR or learning
and development (L&D) pathway and they also have the opportunity to study individual
foundation level awards to either start or top up their HR and L&D knowledge.

Set at level 3 UK Qualifications and Credit framework (QCF), CIPD Foundation certificates
and diplomas also give a professionally recognized qualification and the knowledge towards

© 2011 Page 52
CIPD Associate professional membership. CIPD's Intermediate level qualifications are
designed for those who:

 aspire to work in HR and want to study a recognized undergraduate level qualification

 work in a HR support role and want to progress their career by developing their
knowledge and skills at a higher level.

Set at undergraduate level, Intermediate qualifications will develop the students ability to
evaluate the effectiveness of different HR models and practices, and increase the
understanding of the external factors that impact upon HR activities and organizations.
Whilst building expertise in their chosen HR specialist subjects, they will also develop their
planning, analytical and problem solving skills.

CIPD Intermediate certificates and diplomas provide a professionally recognized

qualification and the knowledge towards CIPD Associate professional membership. CIPD's
Advanced level qualifications are for those aspiring to become effective HR practitioners -
whether working as managers or consultants in generalist or specialist roles.

The concept of continuing professional development (CPD) has existed for some
considerable time, but has enjoyed a recent increase in profile due mainly to the current and
fast changing and competitive occupational climate (Friedman and Woodhead, 2008). This
increase in profile has been promoted by the Professional Associations Research Network
(PARN) which is a body with members from the UK, Ireland, Canada, Australia and Kenya
representing a wide range of professions and has a mission to ―increase the profile of issues
relating to professionals, professionalism and professional bodies, through research and
networking with the aim of determining and promoting professional good practice‖ (PARN,
2011).

© 2011 Page 53
6.2.4.2 Human Resource Certification Institute (HRCI) USA

In the USA, the HR credentialing body (HRCI) is separate from the HR association – SHRM.
This means that the HRCI runs a voluntary program, and it is not accredited by anyone, nor
does it accredit any programs that use its body of knowledge content outline. Equally there is
no membership scheme and it does not run any courses: it purely assesses and certifies the
knowledge of HR practitioners. This certification scheme has been in place since 1976
(Brewster et al 2000).

Complementary to the work of the HRCI, SHRM provides certification preparation courses
of study, and these have been running since 1988. These courses are available in different
modes of study, primarily on a part-time or in-company basis.

The certification scheme is intended for those currently working in the HR field. There are
three possible designations: Professional in HR (PHR®), Global Professional in HR (GPHR®)
and Senior Professional in HR (SPHR®). The assessment structure is based on having
achieved the prerequisite HR experience – table 6.3 and passing a multiple-choice exam. This
examination is based on the technical and operational aspects of HR at the Professional level,
and on strategic and policy issues in HR at the Senior Professional level. The examinations
themselves are based on 225 multiple-choice questions tested over a period of four hours. For
the certificate to be awarded, candidates must agree to abide by the SHRM code of ethics and
the HRCI Model of Professional Excellence (Brewster et al, 2000).

HRCI has been certifying HR professionals for more than 33 years and more than 108,000
certified HR professionals in more than 70 countries and territories have received and
successfully maintained their HR credentials from HRCI. Their exams test both knowledge
gained from HR experience, as well as HR business practices, policies and procedures that
professionals are expected to know.

In addition, they offer a California-based certification that augments the PHR and SPHR
certifications. This certification focuses on HR knowledge specific to California HR laws and
practices (HRCI, 2011, website).

© 2011 Page 54
The learning system materials and the HR Certification Institute exam are based on a body of
knowledge that reflects the HR Certification Institute‘s most recent study of the HR
profession. The body of knowledge lists the responsibilities typically held by PHRs and
SPHRs and the knowledge required to fulfill these responsibilities. The knowledge is specific
to certain topic areas but may also be core knowledge – knowledge that applies to many
aspects of the practice of HR. (The SHRM learning system, 2011).

The eligibility requirements varies for the exams, and the focus of the certification levels is
quite different; the Institute therefore recommends two to four years of experience for the
PHR exam and six to eight years for the SPHR exam.

Table 6.4 Eligibility Requirements for the SHRM / HRCI Exams (SHRM Learning
System, 2011)

PHR® SPHR®

1 year of demonstrated exempt-level (not 4 years of demonstrated exempt-level HR

hourly employment) HR experience with a experience with a master‘s degree or higher
master‘s degree or higher

2 years of demonstrated exempt-level (not 5 years of demonstrated exempt-level HR

hourly employment) HR experience with a experience with a bachelor‘s degree
bachelor‘s degree

4 years of demonstrated exempt-level (not 7 years of demonstrated exempt-level HR

hourly employment) HR experience with less experience with less than a bachelor‘s degree
than a bachelor‘s degree

Table 6.5 illustrates the differences in the weightings for each exam and shows the number of
questions that are in each of the functional areas.

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Table 6.5 Weightings for both PHR and SPHR exams and Number of Questions.
(SHRM Learning System, 2011)

Functional Area PHR® PHR® SPHR® SPHR®

Weighting Questions Weighting Questions

Strategic Business Management 12% 27 29% 65

Workforce Planning and Employment 26% 59 17% 38

Human Resource Development 17% 38 17% 38

Total Rewards 16% 36 12% 27

Employee and Labor Relations 22% 49 18% 41

Risk Management 7% 16 7% 16

Table 6.6 shows the pass rates of the PHR® and SPHR® exams.

Table 6.6 Pass Rate of PHR® and SPHR® Exams (SHRM Learning System, 2011)

Exam Date PHR Pass Rate SPHR Pass Rate

May /June 2010 56% 50%

December 2008 / January 2009 59% 54%

May / June 2008 60% 54%

December 2007 / January 2008 63% 57%

May / June 2007 61% 58%

December 2006 / January 2007 63% 55%

The pass rates show that nearly half of all test takers fail the tests and this is one way that
SHRM and HRCI control the numbers of certified professionals and maintain standards.
© 2011 Page 56
There are a wide variety of definitions of Continuing Professional Development CPD but,
according to the UK CIPD - those involved in the ―management and development of people‖
(CIPD, 2009), CPD is ―the conscious updating of professional knowledge and the
improvement of personal competence through an individual‘s working life‖ (CIPD, 2007). In
other words CPD is about continuously updating professional knowledge, personal and
professional skills and competencies. (Bailey 2011). However, CPD participation by
professionals, including HR professionals appears to be erratic (Friedman and Phillips, 2001),
(Farmer and Campbell, 1997). CPD is broader than conventional training courses – it should
include formal and informal experiences (Eraut, 1994).

Table 6.7 Freidson (2001) states that in ideal-typical professionalism, the training of recruits,
like the other elements of the ideal type, are fully under the control of the occupation. It
largely takes place outside of the labor market and takes place in a school and the school is
attached to institutions of higher education. Training is controlled and conducted by members
of the occupation and those who do the training are more or less full-time teachers. The
faculty of the ideal-typical profession school is expected not only to teach but also to active in
the codification, refinement and explains of the occupations body of knowledge. Both the UK
and USA are the same with regards to this assessment of the characteristics of training. It
shows that in comparison to the ideal type there is a medium proportion of training in school,
teachers are usually members of the occupation and there is medium training on the job.
Teachers are sometimes full-time, however in both research and university affiliation they are
consistent with the ideal type for professions.

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Table 6.7 The assessment of the UK and USA Characteristics of Training according to
Freidsons,(2001) ideal type

Characteristics of training Profession UK USA

Proportion of training in school High Medium Medium
Teachers members of the occupation Always Usually Usually
Primary training on the job Seldom Medium Medium
Full-time teachers Usually Sometimes Sometimes
Teachers do research Yes Yes Yes
University affiliation Yes Yes Yes

6.2.5 HR Legal Status

Both the CIPD (UK) and SHRM (USA) produce clear guidelines relating to how complaints
should be made, and it is apparent that the process is formal. Interestingly, although the CIPD
and SHRM can expel any individual from membership of the institute, they do identify that
they have no power to ―stop a practitioner practicing‖ (CIPD) and SHRM imply this by
stating that ―Discipline may include any or all of the following: requirement to take education
courses, written reprimand, requirement of written apology, suspension or expulsion from
SHRM membership, ban from holding office in, or speaking at events of, SHRM or its
chapters and state councils.‖ (SHRM, 2011). It does not state that they can stop a practitioner
practicing. This is a factor which could, arguably, undermine calls to view HR as a
profession. As Freidson (2001) highlights if codes of ethics are to be used in claims for
professionalism, such codes must be vigorously enforced. All this begs the question
―realistically, how much influence then does the code exert on the HR practitioner‘s
professional practice?‖ As a result of the ultimate sanction of expulsion having little or no
effect in terms of stopping an individual practicing the impact (if any) could be perceived as
negative. Is it a case of ―it doesn‘t matter what I do anyway‖? This is another important
difference from the more traditional professional relationship when entry to a profession was
often restricted (Marquand, 2004) necessitating a ―license to practice‖ (Bailey 2011).

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6.2.6 HR Contribution to Society

Both UK (CIPD) and the USA (SHRM and HRPA) have extensive lobbying capabilities as
part of their governing bodies and actively advocate for their members to get involved in the
legislative process.

The CIPD website states ―Public policy at the CIPD exists to inform and shape debate,
government policy and legislation in order to enable higher performance at work and better
pathways into work for those seeking employment. ―The CIPD is the leading UK
independent voice on workplace performance and skills. Their views are informed by
evidence from 135,000 members responsible for the recruitment, management and
development of a large proportion of the UK workforce. They draw on their extensive
research and the expertise and experience of their members on the front-line to highlight and
promote new and best practice and produce practical guidance for the benefit of employers,
employees and policy makers. On a macro-economic scale, their expertise and the data they
gather from their membership gives them an unrivalled capacity to accurately forecast labor
market trends and to consider the impact of employment legislation across all sectors and
sizes of organization.

The CIPD website encourages their members to get involved and they publish articles about
parliamentary activity relevant to the HR profession and news about CIPD policy
publications and engagement.

SHRM understands how vital member participation is to advancing the views of the
profession on Capitol Hill or in state legislatures. The SHRM Advocacy Team initiative is
designed for HR professionals to participate and influence federal/state public policy and
regulatory efforts.

The SHRM website states ―As an advocate for the HR community, it is important that you
keep your elected officials informed on how public policy issues can affect employees,
employers, and the HR profession as a whole.‖ (SHRM, 2011, website).

SHRM‘s website has a comprehensive section that highlights the public policy issues
SHRM‘s Government Affairs team advocate for on Capitol Hill and in certain state

© 2011 Page 59
legislatures. They provide resources to read about the HR issues SHRM is advancing in the
states and in Washington.

HR Policy Association is the lead public policy organization of Chief Human Resource
Officers from large employers. The Association brings together HR professionals at the
highest level of corporations not simply to discuss changes in public policy, but to lay out a
vision and advocate for competitive workplace initiatives that promote job growth and
employment security. The purpose of the HR Policy Association is to lobby Washington for
changes in public policy and legislation. (HRPA, 2011,website).

6.2.7 The HR Body of Knowledge

Another important part of the process of professionalization is standardizing the body of

professional human resource management knowledge and competencies that members of the
profession should know and possess. Developing national standards help to increase the
HRM professional‘s status and authority with line managers in the organization (Gold and
Bratton, 2003).

Gold and Bratton (2003), using Hodson and Sullivan‘s view on body of knowledge as
outlined earlier – theoretical knowledge, practical knowledge and processes – state HRM
professionals normally have a foundation of theoretical knowledge in industrial psychology,
sociology and employment law. The second dimension of the HRM‘s professional knowledge
base is detailed occupation related information or know-how applied in the work setting. This
part of the knowledge base includes specific information related to the key HRM functions of
HRM, including HR planning, recruitment and selection, appraisal, rewards management and
training and development. The third dimension of the knowledge base, processes, is how
HRM professionals accomplish what they do. (Squires 2001). These can involve problem
solving, negotiating, communicating and training processes. HRM processes are learned in
post-graduate applied courses or informally in the workplace. The knowledge base of the
HRM profession is constantly expanding and the professional must stay abreast of current
developments (Gold and Bratton, 2003).

Pilenzo (2009) in his article ―the New Paradigm for HR‖ states that English-speaking
countries are some of the only countries that award college degrees in human resources.

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In general, HR professionals, especially in the USA, tend to have a narrow and functional
view of the use of human capital and how it can be leveraged in the context of a business
enterprise. This view also influences the determination of competencies and qualifications for
those who work in this field. Thus, it would appear this if HR professionals are to fulfill their
role (as viewed by C-suite executives) all the more reason why the design of HR career paths
should be broadened, and even include a rotation through line operations. While some
companies are actually doing this, most are not and rely on colleges and universities and
professional societies to produce the kind of HR executives they need. The HR body of
knowledge should be expanded to include operational expertise and performance standards
(Pilenzo, 2009).

6.2.7.1 US HR Body of Knowledge (Weinberg, 2009)

What should an HR practitioner know – and be able to apply – to be considered a competent

HR generalist? This is the fundamental question the HR Certification Institute seeks to
answer through its practice analysis study, an extensive research program specifically
designed to define and update the US HR body of knowledge.

The HR field is dynamic and constantly changing. Consequently, the knowledge

requirements must reflect these changes. The practice analysis process keeps HR knowledge
requirements both relevant and contemporary.

To set standards for the credentialing of a profession, the relevant body of knowledge must
first be defined. The US HR body of knowledge is the foundation upon which the PHR and
SPHR program is built. From this body of knowledge, test specifications are developed. In
turn, these specifications are used as a blueprint for the PHR® and SPHR® exams. Exam
items are developed to measure the knowledge requirements that reflect the topics in the test
specifications.

The end result of this research is a set of assurances that PHR® and SPHR® certifications are:

 Based on a set of well-defined knowledge requirements

 Current and able to respond to rapid changes in the field
 Based on ―real-life‖ human resource management practices

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 Focused on important knowledge and not trivial matters

The US HR body of Knowledge is constantly changing. Consequently, the HR certification

Institute‘s research ensures that the test specifications and exams reflect current HR
knowledge and practices.

6.2.7.2 UK HR Body of Knowledge (CIPD website 2011)

CIPD is an awarding body for HR qualifications. Over 13,000 students join their programs
each year to enhance their knowledge on the latest theory, case studies and insights into best
practice HR. Most CIPD qualifications provide the underpinning knowledge towards CIPD
professional membership (Associate, Chartered Member or Chartered Fellow).

In 2010 the CIPD launched the CIPD HR Profession Map which is a comprehensive view of
how HR adds the greatest sustained value to the organizations it operates in, now and in the
future. It combines the highest standards of professional competence with the closest
alignment to organizational goals, to deliver sustained performance.

It captures what HR people do and deliver across every aspect and specialism of the
profession and it looks at the underpinning skills, behavior and knowledge that they need to
be most successful. It also creates a clear and flexible framework for career progression,
recognizing that both HR roles and career progression vary. The CIPD Profession Map paints
a comprehensive multi-dimensional picture of the profession across 10 professional areas, at
four different levels. Transition points between the four levels have been mapped,
highlighting the eight key behaviors needed to operate as effective HR professionals. The
work is based on extensive research and consultation with senior HR professionals in all
sectors, with Chief Executives and academics. (CIPD, 2009). Jackie Orme, CEO of the CIPD
stated ―the map gives the rigor to ensure HR professionals and employers alike can be
confident that a CIPD qualification delivers not just the capabilities needed for today, but the
capacity to adapt to the growing demands that will be placed on the profession in the future.‖

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6.2.8 HR Research

Often, the HR profession is influenced by fads and clever ideas that are not grounded in
research. As the HR Profession becomes more of a discipline and science, fads will be
replaced by decision rules grounded in research. These decision rules will guide the
profession to have the impact it desires (Ulrich et al, 2008).

All four governing bodies in both the UK and USA - CIPD, SHRM, HCI and HRPA - invest
substantially in research. They partner with thought leaders on key HR topics and make the
research available to their members.

6.2.9 HR Recognition

Both the CIPD and SHRM have considered it necessary to launch wide ranging public
relations campaigns about the status of the profession, implying that there are a number of
misconceptions about HR and its reputation – explicitly stated by the representatives of the
governing bodies explaining why the campaign is necessary. The CIPD states that the CIPD
is a recognized benchmark of professionalism within the field of HR.

The Society for Human Resource Management (SHRM) conducted a public relations
campaign in July 2004 to increase visibility of the HR Profession. The campaign aimed to
increase the profession‘s visibility with non-HR business leaders, thought leaders and public
policy-makers (HR Magazine, July 2004). In 2010 SHRM extended this campaign and called
it ―We Know Next‖. (SHRM, 2011, website).

(SHRM, 2010) ―We Know Next‖ is a resource for business executives, policy-makers and
thought leaders interested in finding out more about the trends shaping the future of work—
and about HR‘s vital role in anticipating and managing these changes.

The effort to demonstrate that HR knows ―what‘s next‖ is a natural outgrowth of a previous
SHRM campaign to advance the HR profession, says William Maroni, SHRM‘s chief global
communication and external relations officer. ―The HR profession hasn‘t received the
recognition it deserves, especially as the profession has evolved and expanded to address
more business and strategic issues,‖ he said. ―There‘s a general lack of understanding about
HR and the value that HR brings to any organization.‖

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The ―We Know Next‖ public awareness campaign has two main target audiences:

 Executive-level business leaders, including the C-suite and other top business leaders.
 Policy-makers, including officials in Washington and thought leaders around the
country.

SHRM wants these groups to take a fresh look at the increasingly strategic profession and
what it can offer to business leaders. (SHRM, 2010, website).

The UK‘s CIPD has launched a campaign ―the Truth about HR‖ to educate and attract people
to the HR profession. The Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development (CIPD) has
launched a new drive to challenge misconceptions about HR and attract new talent to the
profession. "Think HR. Think Again" aims to raise the profile of the profession and attract
graduates from all disciplines, including those who would not previously have considered a
career in HR. The campaign is supported by a new careers website featuring profiles of real
people in HR, day-in-the-life case studies, videos and advice on careers. Visitors can
download a free guide, "The truth about HR", which offers advice on pursuing a career in the
profession, as well as brochures and posters.

Georgina Kvassay, HR strategy adviser at the CIPD, says: "We conducted research into
graduate perceptions of HR in late 2009 and it highlighted that the three words most
associated with HR were 'dull', 'bureaucratic' and 'repetitive'. "There's a real lack of
understanding of what HR is, and of what the value of a career in HR is and where it can take
you. There's also a lack of clarity around the skills needed to be successful in HR, and a need
to attract a more diverse range of people into the profession. The website, guide and brochure
will help inform and tackle negative perceptions head on, representing an important first step
in a long campaign to shift perceptions." (CIPD, 2010).

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7. SUMMARY ASSESSMENT OF THE HR PROFESSION IN THE UK AND USA

7.1 The Road to Professionalization

Table 7.1 HR Professionality Continuum - The extent to which the HR can be

considered a profession in the UK and USA

Whether an occupation can be classed as a profession or not is not a yes or no answer but a
continuum. The road to professionalization is a journey that takes time, the traditional
professions would rate highly on all nine dimensions of a profession and have been granted
legal status i.e. they require the permission of the governing body to practice and without that
permission they can‘t practice, for example, lawyers, doctors.

The human resources profession is semi professional in so far as it scores highly on many of
the nine dimensions of what constitutes a profession but not highly on everything, in
particular they do not require a license to practice and expulsion from the governing body
would not prohibit the individual practicing. There is a comprehensive outline of the Analysis
of Assessment of Nine Characteristics from table 7.1 in the Appendices – Table D.

© 2011 Page 65
The UK has a cohesive governing body that covers all levels of HR from the most senior
executives to students and speaks with one voice to the community at large. The award of
Chartered status in the UK in 2000 has put the governing body on the same path as
accountants and other professions. However, in the USA the governing bodies‘ are
fragmented, SHRM clearly being the largest in terms of membership but they cannot argue
that they speak with one voice for the whole profession. As well as SHRM, there is the
Human Resource Policy Association, for the most senior HR executives, Human Capital
Institute for Strategic HR Executives, the Human Resource Planning Society and many more.
In summary the UK is rated highly for its governing body but the USA is rated low since
their governing bodies are fragmented and there is not one professional association that has
the credibility to represent the Human Resources profession in its entirety.

Both the USA and UK rate relatively highly on a code of ethics. Both countries main HR
governing bodies have a code of ethics and a discipline process for failure to meet the code.
How vigorously these are enforced however is a matter of debate and would need further
research. In addition expulsion from either governing body would not inhibit the individuals
capability to practice – this is covered under legal status.

The code of ethics in both the USA and UK gives the HR profession some independence but
the majority of HR professionals work in industry in house rather than private practice such
as lawyers and work for their employer master. It is therefore difficult for the HR profession
to remain independent. In addition since the code of ethics and legal status is linked to the
ability to be independent, i.e. failure to follow the code would result in career ending
expulsion then this also impacts that independence.

There are extensive certification and training programs in both the US and UK, however, in
the UK these programs lead to the chartered designated status and take a number of years of
study and are post graduate qualifications. In the USA while many HR Professionals have
masters degrees these are separate to the SHRM qualifications that are awarded through
HRCI and give the designated letters. These exams take just a few days of study and months
preparation and require no undergraduate qualifications, just exempt (professional) level HR
experience.

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As noted earlier in both the UK and USA it is not a requirement to be a member of the
governing body to practice unlike with more traditional professions such as doctors and
lawyers.

The USA lobbies extensively in government on employment legislation and in particular the
HR Policy Association represents employers in lobbying in Washington. SHRM also has an
active voice and represents the HR profession rather than the voice of employers, as the
HRPA. The CIPD takes part in the government process and speaks regularly on behalf of its
members to Society at large but it is not as extensive as that in the USA.

Both the USA and UK have a clear body of knowledge. In the UK this is represented by both
the professional route to qualification exams and the CIPD HR Profession Competency
Model. The USA has the HRCI body of knowledge that awards the SHRM qualifications but
it does not have one comprehensive competency model that the profession would recognize
as its competency model. SHRM has adopted the Dave Ulrich model but it is not widespread
in use in companies with many choosing to have their own competency models. However,
SHRM has been making an investment over the past few years to develop a competency
model, separate and apart from the Ulrich model.

Both the USA and UK provide extensive research to their field through their governing
bodies and published academic papers. However, this research doesn‘t necessarily lead to
further credibility of the profession with it continued to be criticized for not being business
enough or analytical.

Finally both the UK and USA have held substantial public relations campaigns about the
profession and what it entails, however, in doing so the governing bodies admitted that the
reputation and understanding of HR as a profession was lacking.

In summary the HR Profession is on the road to professionalization but is not there yet. There
needs to be one governing body speaking with one voice that has professional credibility in
the USA and in both the UK and the USA there needs to be further exploration and need for
the profession to have legal status and a license to practice.

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8. CONCLUSIONS

8.1 Conclusions- Research Questions Addressed

The Human Resource Management – The Road to Professionalization in the UK and USA
dissertation set out to answer the following questions:

How is a profession defined?

What are its characteristics?

What does a HR professionality continuum look like?

How do the UK and USA certify the attainment of professional standards?

To what extent has HR developed as a profession in the UK and USA?

Why being considered a profession is important to HR Professionals?

The answers to these questions have been articulated in the main body text and what follows
here is a summary response to each question.

8.2 How is a profession defined?

There is a broad sociological debate on what is a profession and how it can be defined. The
high status ―true‖ professions are law, medicine and divinity and they have the identifiable
characteristics of a true profession. It is against these that the others can be judged. There is
agreement on the general structure of a definition; namely, that a profession is an occupation
which has specified characteristics and no single characteristic can adequately convey the
idea of a definition. Identifying professions by a set of characteristics is called the structural-
functional approach, the traits approach, or hallmarks approach, however, not all sociologists
agree that this approach is the best way to understand the professions. The majority of the
literature focuses on the characteristics approach and this dissertation has taken the structural-
functional approach.

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8.3 What are its characteristics?

There is some disagreement as to what these characteristics should be, and perhaps even
more disagreement on the degree to which an occupation should possess the specified
characteristics. However, there is some consistency that a profession requires a governing
body, a code of ethics and disciplinary procedure, certification, education and training system
and a body of knowledge. There is less agreement about the requirement of independence and
contribution to society. The characteristics of legal status, contribution to research and
recognition are only agreed by a couple of authors.

This dissertation took nine characteristics to review HR as a profession:

 Governing Body  Certification,  Body of Knowledge

Education & Training

 Code of Ethics &  Legal Status  Research

Discipline

 Independence  Contribution to  Recognition

Society

These are desirable characteristics of a profession. They are not absolute prerequisites,
because a) no established profession meets all the criteria perfectly, b) some unrecognized
occupations meet some or all of the criteria fairly well and c) there are considerable
differences in the degrees to which each criterion is met among the established professions
(Horn, 1978).

8.4 What does a HR professionality continuum look like?

Table 6.1 HR Professionality Continuum - The extent to which the HR can be considered a
profession in the UK and USA was developed following the research for this dissertation. It
shows those factors in HR that are low professional indicators, semi-professional indicators
and high professional indicators in both the UK and USA. There is a comprehensive outline
of the Analysis of Assessment of Nine Characteristics from table 6.1 in the Appendices –
Table D.

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8.5 How do the UK and USA certify the attainment of professional standards?

In the UK, the CIPD is the professional association as well as the certifying and awarding
body. Certification is awarded based on either experience and / or examination. CIPD
qualifications are available at Advanced, Intermediate and Foundation level, and students
can study awards, certificates and diplomas at each of these levels. Most CIPD qualifications
provide the underpinning knowledge towards CIPD professional membership (Associate,
Chartered Member or Chartered Fellow).

In 2010 the CIPD launched the CIPD HR Profession Map. The CIPD Profession Map paints a
comprehensive multi-dimensional picture of the profession across 10 professional areas, at
four different levels. Transition points between the four levels have been mapped,
highlighting the eight key behaviors needed to operate as effective HR professionals. It
captures what HR people do and deliver across every aspect and specialism of the profession
and it looks at the underpinning skills, behavior and knowledge that they need to be most
successful. The work is based on extensive research and consultation with senior HR
professionals in all sectors.

In the USA, the HR credentialing body (HRCI) is separate from the HR association – the
Society for Human Resource Management – SHRM. This means that the HRCI runs a
voluntary program, and it is not accredited by anyone, nor does it accredit any programs that
use its body of knowledge content outline. Equally there is no membership scheme and it
does not run any courses: it purely assesses and certifies the knowledge of HR practitioners.
Complementary to the work of the HRCI, SHRM provides certification preparation courses
of study, available in different modes of study, primarily on a part-time or in-company basis.

The certification scheme is intended for those currently working in the HR field. There are
three possible designations: Professional in HR (PHR®), Global Professional in HR (GPHR®)
and Senior Professional in HR (SPHR®). The assessment structure is based on having
achieved the prerequisite HR experience and passing a multiple-choice exam.

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8.6 To what extent has HR developed as a profession in the UK and USA?

One of the most important factors in defining a profession is the governing body. The UK has
one cohesive governing body for the HR Profession – the CIPD, however, in the USA this is
fragmented and therefore less representative and less powerful than if it was one governing
body operating together. It is for this reason that HR as a profession is more advanced in the
UK than in the USA. The main governing body, SHRM is not influential or powerful enough
as the body that represents the HR profession with its most senior incumbents being
represented by the HRPA.

HR in both the UK and USA is an occupation undergoing professionalization. It is on the

road to professionalizing, however, much needs to be done to gain recognition of HR to
practice either by legal statute or through employers only hiring those who have the
designated letters representing their qualifications.

8.7 Why being considered a profession is important to HR Professionals?

There is much debate in the literature about the status of HR professionals and their
contribution to the business. There are two avenues advocated for improving the status of HR
professionals – one is the much written about HR business partner role and the other is
achieving professional status for those in HR occupations. There has been much progress in
the status of HR professionals over the last few years. Professional identity for HR
practitioners is perceived as a route into organizational status and prestige, enhancing an
individual‘s own sense of self-worth (Ribeiro and Cabral-Cardoso, 2003, Legge, 2005,
Brockbank and Ulrich, 2002). Professional status is clearly desired by HR practitioners, as
evidenced through the formation and activities of professional bodies in the field (Farndale
and Brewster, 2005). Among those engaged in occupations which have not been widely
accepted as professions there is a strong drive to appear professional, if only because of their
aspirations for status. The professional is believed to wear a badge of prestige, in effect, and
this has inspired many individuals and groups to seek the distinction (Horn, 1978). The
members of occupational groups self-consciously seek to elevate the status of their
occupation by adopting the characteristics of professionals (Hodson and Sullivan, 2012).
Both the CIPD and SHRM have been undergoing campaigns to have HRM recognized as a

© 2011 Page 71
profession. Other authors have seen the process of professionalization of HR as a harmful
process that detracts from their role as business partners (Yeung, 1996).

8.8 The Implications of Professionalization for HR Practitioners

The implications of professionalization for HR practitioners are significant for the design and
education of HR professionals and how they position themselves within their companies to
support their businesses.

Are they similar to other professions within the organization that serve the company but also
are held to the standards of practice of their profession such as lawyers and accountants? or
are they general managers who should follow the needs of the business without regard to
their professions code of ethics? Is HR education more about a process of discovery that is
learned rather than taught? or is it about mastering a set body of knowledge?.

Barker (2010) states that business education is more about acquiring the skill of integration
and decision making across various functional areas, groups of people and circumstances
than about mastering a set body of knowledge. It takes place in the minds of the students
rather than in the content of program modules. Professional education enables an individual
to master the body of knowledge deemed requisite for practice. It is about taking an
individual with little or no knowledge to becoming qualified. But business education is
typically post-experience, meaning that participants are not novices. An MBA program offers
them an opportunity to share, conceptualize, and better understand workplace experiences; to
build on the skill of working with others; to open up new career opportunities. To admit only
students with little or no work experience, as the professions normally do, would be to
misunderstand the nature and purpose of the learning experience. A second difference is that
although professional education is concerned exclusively with the individual, a quality
business education depends in a distinctive way on the peer group. Thus no given candidate
can be effectively evaluated independent of all the other candidates. Because a student at
business school has a direct impact on the learning of others, the strongest class is likely to be
the strongest combination of individuals. This is because business education is not about
mastering a body of knowledge (Barker, 2010).

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There are those commentators who argue that HR as a profession should have its own
standards, qualifications and ethics. This would presumably allow HR professionals to refuse
to do things that the senior management team of the organization asked them to, if they went
beyond accepted HR standards (in the same way that legal or financial experts might). There
are those who argue that the effective HR specialist should have the skills to be able to act in
the HR arena as necessary to enable the senior management team to fulfill whatever strategic
direction they have chosen (Brewster et al, 2000). Are these two roles compatible or are they
mutually exclusive?

The purpose of this dissertation was to explore the extent that HR in the UK and USA has
developed as a profession. It did not set out to identify whether the pursuit of
professionalization was desirable for HR practitioners and how this pursuit aligns with the
role of strategic business partner. Further research is needed to explore whether HR should be
pursuing professionalization and how it fits with the business partner role. Suggested research
questions are;

Should HR be pursuing professionalization and be held to the standards of practice of their

profession?

Is HR similar to general management and should follow the needs of the business without
regard to their professions code of ethics?

Is HR education more about a process of discovery that is learned rather than taught? or is it
about mastering a set body of knowledge?.

Are the roles of HR business partner and HR professionalism compatible or are they mutually
exclusive?

The road to professionalization for HR practitioners is a journey that takes time. This
dissertation has shown that HR is on this journey. The question that remains is should it be?

© 2011 Page 73
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© 2011 Page 82
 Ross
Kaye
Crew

Leigh

Milne
Cogan

Simon
Howitt

Webbs
Maude
Bowen

Flexner
Drinker

Parsons
Christie

Tawney

© 2011
Lewis &

Marshall
& Wilson

Wickenden
Greenwood
Carr-Saunders
Skill Based on Theoretical












Knowledge

Required Education and










Training
(Millerson, 1964, Table 1.1)

Competence Tested









Organized














Adheres to Code of














Conduct

Altruistic Service









Applied to Affairs of






Others

Indispensable Public



Service

Licensed Community



Sanction

Definite Professional



Client Relationship

Fiduciary Client




Relationship

Best Impartial Service



Table A An Analysis of Elements Included in Various Definitions of Profession

Given

Loyalty to Colleagues


Definite Compensation




(fee or fixed charges)

Page 83
Table B History of Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development

Founded 1913, 34 Welfare Workers‘ Association – 50 attendees participated in the

members conference ―an association of employers interested in industrial
betterment and of welfare workers engaged by them‖ (Millerson, 1964.
P.76)

1917 Central Association for Welfare Workers (Industrial) – seven

independent associations united together. (Millerson, 1964. P.76)

1919, 700 Welfare Workers Institute – amalgamated with associations for men.
members (Millerson, 1964. P.76)

1924 Institute of Welfare Workers. (Millerson, 1964. P.76)

1931 Institute of Labor Management. (Millerson, 1964. P.76)

1939 Institute of Personnel Management. (CIPD factsheet, 2011).

1955 Introduced restricted entry into full membership by examination and

introduced an education scheme which could be run externally by
colleges in preparation for the national exam. (CIPD factsheet, 2011)

1994 The Institute of Personnel and Development was formed through the
merger of the institute of Personnel Management with the Institute of
Training and Development. (CIPD factsheet, 2011)

2000 Granted the Royal Charter – Chartered Institute of Personnel and

Development

2011 135,000 members, across 120 countries, including 50,000 chartered

members

© 2011 Page 84
Table C History of the Society of Human Resource Management (A History of Human
Resources, SHRM’s 60 year Journey)

Founded 1948, 28 American Society for Personnel Administration (SHRM website, 2011).
members A national organization to represent the personnel profession. The goal
was to provide continued professional development opportunities,
promote national networking, and to generally advance the interests of
the profession.

1964 Was a volunteer organization until 1964 when the first Executive
Director was hired.

1969 6,696 members

1975 ASPA Accreditation Institute was formed and offered the certification
examination.

1979 28,471 members

1989 Society for Human Resource Management. 48,388 members.

1990 Accreditation Institute renamed to Human Resource Certification

Institute.

1992 The Institute for International Human Resources (IIHR) is created as a

division of SHRM.

1994 60,000 members

1997 The North American Human Resource Management Association

(NAHRMA) is established.

1999 131,571 members

2002 The board adopts a new dual mission to ―Serve the Professional‖ and
―Advance the Profession‖.

© 2011 Page 85
2005 The US Chamber of Commerce recognizes SHRM as one of 25 largest
US associations and one of the 100 fastest growing.

2011 250,000 members in 140 countries.

© 2011 Page 86
Table D Analysis of Assessment of Nine Characteristics from Table 6.1
GOVERNING BODY
UK
Positive Professional Indicators
 CIPD Growth from 120,000
members to 135,000 members from
2004 to 2011.
 Cohesive organization that
represents all HR professionals
 Founded in 1913
 Annual membership required and
includes subscription to Personnel
Management Magazine – enables
two way ongoing communication
with members
 The CIPD manages the HR
qualification process
 Membership of the CIPD requires a
minimum level of education.
Capability exists for student
membership.
 Has research capability and makes
research available to members.
 Designated letters for those who
pass qualification and experience
© 2011
USA
Positive Professional Indicators
 SHRM Growth from 180,000 members
to 250,000 members from 2004 to
2011.
 Founded in 1948
 SHRM - Annual membership required
and includes subscription to Human
Resource Magazine – enables two way
ongoing communication with members
 SHRM in association with the Human
Capital Institute award the HR
professional qualification.
 SHRM manages the HR qualification
process.
 Designated letters for those who pass
qualification and experience
requirements.
 Membership list published.
 Manages the Code of Conduct, first
draft published in 1972.
 Actively involved in promoting the HR
profession through many mechanisms
Page 87
 requirements. – conferences, publicity campaigns,
qualifications, ethical codes etc..
 Membership list published.
 Elected body of representatives drawn
 Manages the Code of Conduct –
from members.
CIPD redrafted May 2011.
 Examinations have only a 50% pass
 Actively involved in promoting the
rate – a way of controlling entrants into
HR profession through many
the profession and maintaining
mechanisms – conferences, publicity
standards.
campaigns, qualifications, ethical
codes etc..  SHRM and HRPA act as an interest
and pressure group on behalf of
 Elected body of representatives
members. HRCI do not.
drawn from members.
 Encourages social activity and co-
 Acts as an interest and pressure
operation between professionals
group on behalf of members.

 Encourages social activity and co-

operation between professionals.

Low Professional Indicators Low Professional Indicators

 Limited control of entry into the  Fragmented professional associations –

profession – does limit accredited SHRM, HCI, HRPA and others
centers only for sitting
 Membership of SHRM does not
examinations.
require any HR professional
 Does not provide welfare benefits. qualification. Does not insist on
qualification.

 Limited control of entry into the

profession – does limit accredited
centers only for sitting examinations.

 Fragmented membership does not

© 2011 Page 88
 speak with one voice.

 Does not provide welfare benefits.

CODE OF ETHICS

UK USA

Positive Professional Indicators Positive Professional Indicators

 CIPD has a published Code of  SHRM comprehensive Code of Ethics

Ethics.
 Formal education on code through
 Formal education on code through professional examinations.
professional examinations.
 Has a published disciplinary process
 Has a published disciplinary process and sanctions.
and sanctions.
 Code of Conduct written to protect the
 Code of Conduct written to protect interests of the public.
the interests of the public.
 Annual certification of Code of
 Annual certification of Code of Conduct through annual membership.
Conduct through annual
membership.

Low Professional Indicators Low Professional Indicators

 CIPD Code of Conduct difficult to  HRPA and HRC no published code of

enforce- does not prevent practice. ethics for members.

 SHRM Code of Conduct difficult to

enforce - does not prevent practice.

 Professional training on code not

required to become a member.
Acknowledgement of code is required.

© 2011 Page 89
 INDEPENDENCE
UK
Positive Professional Indicators
 Can rely on own judgment in
selecting the relevant knowledge
and or appropriate technique for
dealing with the problem at hand.
Low Professional Indicators
 Not always clear who the client is –
employer or employee.
 Works for the employer and is
associated with their values and
codes of ethics – loyalty to employer
– does not have ―protected
independent status‖.
CERTIFICATION, EDUCATION, TRAINING
UK
 High Professional Indicators
 CIPD restricts entry to those with a
minimum standard of education.
 CIPD requires experience as well as
qualifications.
 University link to professional
qualifications.
 Qualifications certified by CIPD and
© 2011
USA
Positive Professional Indicators
 Can rely on own judgment in selecting
the relevant knowledge and or
appropriate technique for dealing with
the problem at hand.
Low Professional Indicators
 Not always clear who the client is –
employer or employee.
 Works for the employer and is
associated with their values and codes
of ethics – loyalty to employer – does
not have ―protected independent
status‖.
USA
High Professional Indicators
 Qualifications certified by HCI and
sometimes taught at Universities.
 SHRM requires experience as well as
qualifications.
 Qualifications certified by HCI and
sometimes taught at Universities.
 Formalized continuing professional
Page 90
 taught at Universities.
 Requires a continuing professional
education log as part of professional
membership and upgrades.
 Does have a recognized competency
framework of knowledge, skills and
abilities. Implemented in 2010.
 CIPD a recognized academic degree
level qualification.
 Does restrict entry to those with a
minimum standard of education.
Low Professional Indicators
 Does not have mandatory continuing
professional development – strongly
encouraged and expected as part of
the code of ethics.
 Does not require a log book of
experience, or collection of evidence
of practical competence in the form
of a logbook or portfolio.
© 2011
development is part of the certification
process every three years.
Low Professional Indicators
 Does not require a log book of
experience, or collection of evidence of
practical competence in the form of a
logbook or portfolio.
 Does not have a recognized framework
of competencies in which to assess
knowledge, skills and abilities against
at all levels – leverages Dave Ulrichs
model 2007.
 The professional HR academic
qualifications are not under the control
of SHRM but individual universities.
 SHRM not a recognized academic
qualification.
Page 91
  Minimal education and experience
level required for entrance to
examinations.

LEGAL STATUS

UK USA

High Professional Indicators High Professional Indicators

 none  none

Low Professional Indicators Low Professional Indicators

 HR profession does not have a  HR profession does not have a

statutory basis in the laws of the statutory basis in the laws of the
country. country.

 Requires no licensing to practice by  Requires no licensing to practice by the

the State. State.

 Expulsion from the Institute does  Expulsion from the Institute does not
not prevent practice. prevent practice.

CONTRIBUTION TO SOCIETY

UK USA

High Professional Indicators High Professional Indicators

 Active in legislative matters with one  Active in legislative matters through

voice through CIPD. SHRM and HRPA.

Low Professional Indicators Low Professional Indicators

 Limited charity or pro-bono work.  Active in legislative matters through

SHRM and HRPA.

© 2011 Page 92
 BODY OF KNOWLEDGE
UK
High Professional Indicators
 CIPD launched a comprehensive HR
competency model in 2010 – a
national standard of what knowledge
and behaviors a HR Professional
should possess.
 There is a standardized curriculum
through the CIPD that can be
training and tested for.
 Both classroom courses and
professional experience is required to
achieve professional status.
 Masters degrees are available in HR
through universities.
 Associate, Chartered member and
Chartered Fellow certification
Low Professional Indicators
 HR does not monopolize the
knowledge – line managers are also
trained on management techniques
and many responsibilities are
devolved to the line.
 College degree in HR not required to
practice – HR practitioners come
© 2011
USA
High Professional Indicators
 SHRM requires continuing
professional education to maintain
their designated letters every three
years. Evidence is required or
alternatively members have to site the
HRCI test again.
 There is a body of knowledge that can
be trained and tested through HRCI.
 Both classroom courses and
professional experience is required to
achieve professional status.
 Masters degrees are available in HR
through universities.
 PHR® GPHR® and SPHR®
designations for certification.
Low Professional Indicators
 HR does not monopolize the
knowledge – line managers are also
trained on management techniques and
many responsibilities are devolved to
the line.
 College degree in HR not required to
practice – HR practitioners come from
Page 93
 from a wide variety of disciplines. a wide variety of disciplines.

 Continuing professional education is  Does not have a HR competency

mandated by the CIPD in the code of model – leverages Dave Ulrich‘s
conduct but there is no mechanism to (2008) model, but it is not adopted
enforce it. nationally.

 Fragmented governing bodies leads to

fragmented body of knowledge – it is
not standardized.

RESEARCH

UK USA

High Professional Indicators High Professional Indicators

 Extensive academic journals,  Extensive academic journals,

magazines, conferences available. magazines, conferences available.

Low Professional Indicators Low Professional Indicators

 Criticism of the profession of not  Criticism of the profession of not

being analytical enough being analytical enough

 HR is practiced on an interpretive  HR is practiced on an interpretive

basis – ―whatever works for you or basis – ―whatever works for you or
your organization‖ your organization‖

RECOGNITION

UK USA

High Professional Indicators High Professional Indicators

 Public relations campaign 2010 –  Public Relations campaign in 2004 and

―Ask HR‖ again in 2010 – ―We Know Next‖.

© 2011 Page 94
Low Professional Indicators Low Professional Indicators

 Need felt to publicize the advantages  Need felt to publicize the advantages
of HR as a profession because of of HR as a profession because of
general misconceptions of what HR general misconceptions of what HR is.
is.

© 2011 Page 95