failure, the time it takes a link to recover from Data communications are the exchange of data a failure, and the network's robustness in a between two devices via some form of transmission catastrophe. medium such as a wire cable. 3. Security - protects data from unauthorized access, protects data from damage and Effectiveness of a data communications system development, and implements policies and 1. Delivery - The system must deliver data to the procedures for recovery from breaches and correct destination. data losses. 2. Accuracy - The system must deliver the data accurately. Physical Structures 3. Timeliness - The system must deliver data in a Type of Connection timely manner. A network is two or more devices connected 4. Jitter – It refers to the variation in the packet through links. A link is a communications arrival time. It is the uneven delay in the pathway that transfers data from one device delivery of audio or video packets. to another. 1. Point-to-Point - provides a dedicated link Five components: between two devices. 1. Message - The entire capacity of the link is reserved 2. Sender for transmission between those two 3. Receiver devices. 4. Transmission medium 2. Multipoint/Multidrop - connection is one 5. Protocol - a set of rules that govern data in which more than two specific devices communications. It represents an agreement share a single link. between the communicating devices. - If several devices can use the link simultaneously, it is a spatially shared Data Flow connection. Simplex - communication is unidirectional - If users must take turns, it is a timeshared - only one of the two devices on a link can connection. transmit, the other can only receive - Examples: Keyboards and traditional Physical Topology - the way in which a monitor network is laid out physically. Two or more Half-Duplex - each station can both transmit devices connect to a link; two or more links and receive, but not at the same time. When form a topology. The topology of a network one device is sending, the other can only is the geometric representation of the receive, and vice versa relationship of all the links and linking devices - Examples: Walkie-talkies and CB (citizens to one another. band) radios 1. Mesh - every device has a dedicated Full-Duplex - both stations can transmit and point-to-point link to every other device. receive simultaneously - Advantages: - Example: telephone network The use of dedicated links guarantees that each A network is a set of devices (often referred to as connection can carry its own nodes) connected by communication links. data load Distributed Processing - a task is divided among Robust - If one link becomes multiple computers. unusable, it does not incapacitate the entire Network Criteria system. 1. Performance - depends on the number of Security - When every users, the type of transmission medium, the message travels along a capabilities of the connected hardware, dedicated line, only the and the efficiency of the software. intended recipient sees it. - Transit time - amount of time required for Point-to-point links make fault a message to travel from one device to identification and fault another. isolation easy. - Response time - the elapsed time - Disadvantages: between an inquiry and a response. Because every device must be connected to every other device, installation and repeater regenerates the bits and passes reconnection are difficult. them along. The sheer bulk of the wiring - Advantages: can be greater than the easy to install and reconfigure available space can - Disadvantage: accommodate. unidirectional traffic The hardware required to connect each link (I/O ports Categories of Networks and cable) can be Local Area Network (LAN) - covers an area prohibitively expensive. less than 2 mi - Example: connection of telephone - usually privately owned and links the regional offices devices in a single office, building, or campus 2. Star - each device has a dedicated Wide Area Network (WAN) - provides long- point-to-point link only to a central distance transmission controller, usually called a hub. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) - a - The controller acts as an exchange: If network with a size between a LAN and a one device wants to send data to WAN. another, it sends the data to the controller, which then relays the data to Internetwork/Internet - when two or more networks the other connected device. are connected - Advantages: International Internet Service Providers – at less cabling – less expensive than the top of the hierarchy that connect nations a mesh topology together. easy to install and reconfigure National Internet Service Providers - Robust – If one link fails, only that backbone networks created and link is affected. maintained by specialized companies. easy fault identification and fault Regional Internet Service Providers - are isolation smaller ISPs that are connected to one or - Disadvantage: more national ISPs. Dependency of the whole Local Internet Service Providers - provide topology on one single point, the direct service to the end users. hub - Application: local-area networks (LANs) Protocols - a set of rules that govern data communications. 3. Bus – a multipoint. One long cable acts - Key Elements: as a backbone to link all the devices in a Syntax - structure or format of the network. data, meaning the order in which - Nodes are connected to the bus cable they are presented by drop lines and taps. Semantics - meaning of each - A tap is a connector that either splices section of bits into the main cable or punctures the Timing - when data should be sheathing of a cable to create a contact sent and how fast they can be with the metallic core. sent - Advantages: Ease of installation Standards - provide guidelines to manufacturers, Less cabling than mesh or star vendors, government agencies, and other service topologies providers to ensure the kind of interconnectivity - Disadvantages: necessary in today's marketplace and in difficult reconnection and fault international communications. isolation De facto ("by fact" or "by convention") - Standards that have not been approved by 4. Ring - each device has a dedicated an organized body but have been adopted point-to-point connection with only the as standards through widespread use two devices on either side of it. Each De jure ("by law" or "by regulation") device in the ring incorporates a - Standards that have been legislated by repeater. When a device receives a an officially recognized body signal intended for another device, its Standards Organizations - Is responsible for movements of individual Standards Creation Committees bits from one hop (node) to the next. 1. International Organization for - Concerns: Standardization (ISO) - a multinational body Physical characteristics of whose membership is drawn mainly from the interfaces and transmission standards creation committees of various medium governments throughout the world Representation of bits - defines 2. International Telecommunication Union- the type of encoding Telecommunication Standards Sector (ITU-T) Data rate - the number of bits sent - was devoted to the research and each second establishment of standards for Synchronization of bits telecommunications in general and for Line configuration - connection of phone and data systems in particular devices to the media: point-to- 3. American National Standards Institute (ANSI) point or multipoint - a completely private, nonprofit corporation Physical topology not affiliated with the U.S. federal Transmission mode - direction of government transmission between two 4. Institute of Electrical and Electronics devices: simplex, half-duplex, or Engineers (IEEE) - the largest professional full-duplex engineering society in the world. 2. Data Link Layer - Is responsible for moving 5. Electronic Industries Association (EIA) - a frames from one hop (node) to the next. nonprofit organization devoted to the - organizes bits into frames; to provide hop- promotion of electronics manufacturing to-hop delivery concerns - Responsibilities: Forums - work with universities and users to Divides the stream of bits test, evaluate, and standardize new received from the network layer technologies. into manageable data units Regulatory Agencies (Federal called frames. Communications Commission (FCC)) - Physical addressing protect the public interest by regulating Flow control - If the rate at which radio, television, and wire/cable the data are absorbed by the communications. receiver is less than the rate at which data are produced in the Internet Standard - a thoroughly tested specification sender that is useful to and adhered to by those who work Error control - adds reliability to with the Internet. the physical layer by adding Internet draft - a working document with no official mechanisms to detect and status and a 6-month lifetime retransmit damaged or lost Upon recommendation from the Internet authorities, frames a draft may be published as a Request for Comment Access control (RFC). 3. Network Layer - is responsible for the source- to-destination delivery of a packet, possibly across multiple networks (links) CHAPTER 2 - is responsible for the delivery of individual packets from the source host to the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) MODEL destination host - A seven- layer framework for the design - Responsibilities: of network systems that allows Logical addressing communication between all types of Routing computer systems. 4. Transport Layer - is responsible for process-to- Peer-to-Peer Process - Communication between process delivery of the entire message machines using the protocols appropriate to a given - Responsibilities: layer. Service-point addressing Segmentation and reassembly Layers in the OSI Model Connection control 1. Physical Layer - transmits bits over a medium; Flow control - is performed end to to provide mechanical and electrical end rather than across a single specification link Error control - is performed - transports data in packets called process-to-process rather than datagrams across a single link Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) - 5. Session Layer - is responsible for dialog used to associate a logical address control and synchronization with a physical address - establish, manage, and terminate Reverse Address Resolution Protocol sessions (RARP) - allows a host to discover its - Responsibilities: Inter- net address when it knows only Dialog control – allows two its physical address systems to enter into a dialog Internet Control Message Protocol Synchronization (ICMP) - sends notification of 6. Presentation Layer - is concerned with the datagram problems back to the syntax and semantics of the information sender exchanged between two systems Internet Group Message Protocol - Responsibilities: (IGMP) - used to facilitate the Translation simultaneous transmission of a Encryption - the sender transforms message to a group of recipients the original information to 3. Transport Layer another form and sends the User Datagram Protocol (UDP) - a resulting message out over the process-to-process protocol that network adds only port addresses, checksum Compression - reduces the error control, and length information number of bits contained in the to the data from the upper layer information Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) - 7. Application Layer - enables the user, whether provides full transport-layer services human or software, to access the network to applications. - Responsibilities: - a reliable stream transport protocol Network virtual terminal - a Stream Control Transmission Protocol software version of a physical (SCTP) - provides support for newer terminal, and it allows a user to applications such as voice over the log on to a remote host Internet File transfer, access, and 4. Application Layer - equivalent to the management - allows a user to combined session, presentation, and access files in a remote host (to application layers in the OSI model make changes or read data), to retrieve files from a remote Addressing computer for use in the local 1. Physical Address/Link Address - the address computer, and to manage or of a node as defined by its LAN or WAN control files in a remote computer - lowest-level address locally - a host on the Internet Mail services - provides the basis 2. Logical address - necessary for universal for e-mail forwarding and storage communications that are independent of Directory services - provides underlying physical networks distributed database sources and access for global information NOTE: The physical addresses will change from hop about various objects and to hop, but the logical addresses usually remain the services same.
TCP/IP Protocol Suite 3. Port Address - identifies a process on a host
1. Physical and Data Link Layers – supports all 4. Specific Address - a user-friendly address the standard and proprietary protocols 2. Network Layer - supports the Internetworking Protocol Internetworking Protocol (IP) - a host- to-host protocol that it can deliver a packet from one physical device to another