S.K. Gupta 4 __ Engineering Physics -|Krithna's Engineering Physics Vol. | Q First Edition : 2001 ‘Third Thoroughly Revised and Enlarged Edition : 2001 Seventh Thoroughly Revised and Enlarged Edition : 2004 ‘Thirteenth Thoroughly Revised and Enlarged Edition : 2007 Sixteenth Thoroughly Revised and New Edition : 2008 Seventeenth Thoroughly Revised and Enlarged Edition : 2009 Highteenth Edition : 2010 Name, style or any part of this book thereof may not be reproduced in any form without the permission ofthe publisher and author. Edited by : Dr. Madhu Bala 1.8. B. N, ; 81-8283-098-2 Book Code No. : 319-18 Price : Rs. 180.00 only Published by : ‘Satyendra Rastogi "Mitra" ‘for KRISHNA Prakashan Media (P) Ltd. 11, Shivaji Road, Meerut - 250 001 (UP), India. Phone: 91,121.2644766, 2642946 Fax: 91.121.2645855, Website : wwwkrishnaprakashan.com E-mail : info@krishnaprakashan.com Ex. Sugam Rastogi Tpesetting Krishna Graphic Arts, Meerut (Surender Kumar) Printed at : ‘Vimal Offset Printers, MeerutContents UNIT-I Relativistic Mechanics.. Introduction .. Frame of Reference Inertial Frames of Reference of Inertial Frames Non- inertial frames ae Michelson-Morley Experiment and its Outcome... Explanation and Interpretation of the Negative Results Significance of Negative Results... Solved Numerical Examples sssesvesee Einstein’s Postulates of Special Theory of Relativity Galilean Transformation Equations or Galilean Transformation for the Position, Velocity and Acceleration ofa Particle Failure of Galilean Relativity . Lorentz Transformation Equation: Inverse Lorentz Transformation Equation Solved Numerical Examples .. (Lorentz-Fitegerald) Length Contraction Solved Numerical Exampl ‘Time Dilation (or Apparent Retardation of Clocks) Experimental Verification of Time Dilation: An Example of Real Effect. Concept of Simultaneity : Relative Character of Time SolvedNumerical Exampl (Relativistic) Addition of Velocities or Velocity Addition Theorem. Consistency of Einstein Second Postulate Solved Numerical Examples .. Variation of Mass with Velocity Relativistic Momentum and Force Solved Numerical Examples .. Mass-Energy Equivalence (Einstein's Mass -Energy Relation) Relativistic Relation between Energy and Momentum .. Relativistic Relation between Kinetic Energy and Momentum .. Massless Particles SolvedNumerical Examples .. Exercises .. 1 Objective Type Questions I Short Answer Type Questions.. L_ Question Bank .. 1_Unsotved Numerical Problems L_answers to Exercises ...UNIT-IT Optics Introduction Interference of Light. Young's Experiment .. Analytical Treatment of Interference. Intensity Distribution Curve and Law of Conservation of Energy . Solved Numerical Examples Coherent Sources, No Interference by Tw \dependent light sources .. ‘Theory of Interference Fringes (Young's double slit experiment) Shape of Interference Fringes Solved Numerical Examples Essential Conditions of Interference (Conditions for Sustained Interference). ‘Types of Interference (Formation of Coherent Sources) . (Division of Wavefront (if) Division of Amplitude Methods of Obiaining Coherent Sources . Fresnel's Biprism Determination of Wavelength of Light White Light Fringes and Location of Zero order Fringe in Biprism Experiment .... The Effect of Separation between the Two Sources on the Fringe System The Effect of increasing the Slit-Width as Displacement of Fringes (Determination of Thickness of a Thin Sheet of Transparent Material Displacement of Fringes with White Light Experimental Determination of Thickness ofa Thin Glass Plate Solved Numerical Examples Change of Phase on Reflection: Stoke's Treatment Interference in Thin Films Interference Ducto Reflected Light . Interference Dueto Transmitted Light. Colours in Thin Films Colours in Thick Film and Blackness of an Excessively Thin Film in Reflected White Light Interference Colour Pattemon the Surface ofa Soap Bubble. Solved Numerical Examples Wedge-Shapped Film ... Necessity of an Extended Source .. Newton's Rings .. ‘Newton's Rings by Transmitted light Determination of Wavelength of Sodium Light Using Newton's Ring Determination of Refractive Index ofa (ii)Determination of Optical Flatness .. Newton's Rings Formed by two Curved Surfaces .. Effect of Introduction of Liquid between the Plateand Lens on Newton's Rings ‘Newton's Rings with Bright Centre due to Reflected Ligh ‘Newton's Ring with White Light ‘Solved Numerical Examples Section B : Diffraction Introduction (Diffraction of Light) Distinction between Fresnel and Fraunhofer Diffractions Resultant of m Simple Harmonic Motions of Equal Amplitude and Period, and Phases Increasing in Arithmetic Progression... Fraunhofer Diffraction at a Single Slit(Single Slit Diffraction) Spread of Central Diffraction Maximum Distinction between Single-slit Diffraction Patter and Double slit Interference Pattern ...........00 ws Solved Numerical Examples ... Fraunhofer's Diffraction at a Double Slit (Double Slit Diffra Missing Orders in Double Slit Fraunhofer Diffraction Pattem Solved Numerical Examples A Plane Transmission Diffraction Grating (N-Slits Diffraction) Angular Half-Width or Width of the Principal Maximum Formation of Multiple Spectra with Grating . Condition for Missing Order or Absent Spectra with a Diffraction Grating Maximum Number of Orders with a Diffraction Grating .. Determination of Wavelength of Light with a Plane Transmission Diffraction Grating, Solved Numerical Example .. Dispersive Power of a Plane Diffraction Grating .. Linear Dispersive Power of A Grating Chief Characteristics of Grating Spectra Solved Numerical Examples .. Difference between Interference and Diffraction Resolving Power of an Optical Instrument The Rayleigh Criterion of Resolution Resolving Power ofa Diffraction Grating solved Numerical Examples Difference between Dispersive Power and Resolving Power ofa Grating .. Solved Numerical Examples Exercises Objective Type Questions. Short Answer Type Questions Question Bank Unsolved Numerical Problems Answers to Exercises 139 140 141 142 142 13 152-200 152 153 153 155 (ix)UNIT-IIT _Experimental Verification of Fresnel's Theory of Optical Rotation . Polarisation and Laser. Section A : Polarisation Introduction .. Polarisation of Light ‘Transverse Nature of light waves Unpolarised and Plane or Linearly Pol Doubly Refracting Crystals .. ‘Geometry of Calcite Crystals Ordinary and Extra-Ordinary Rays .. Phenomenon of Double Refraction (Ina Polarisation by Double Refraction Nicol Prism .... Huygen’s theory of Double Refraction Mathematical Treatment for the Production of Plane, El Circularly Polarised Lights . a Superposition of two Linearly Polarised Waves with Their Optical Vectors Parallel ... 256 Superpostion of two linearly polarised waves with their optical vectors mutually perpendicular Solved Numerical Examples Phase Retardation Plates. (@ Quarter Wave Plate (ii) Half Wave Plate Distinction Between Quarter Wave Plate and Half Wave Plate Solved Numerical Examples Production of Plane, Circularly and Elliptically Polarised Lights . Detection of Plane, Circularly and Elliptically Polarised Lights ‘Conversion of Elliptically Polarised Light into Circulation Polarised Light Analysis of Polarisation in agiven Beam of ‘Scherhe of Analysis of a given Beam of Light. Solved Numerical Examples Activity Experimental Demonstration of Rotatory Polarisation Biot's Laws for Rotatory Polarisation or Optical Rotation Fresnel's Theory of Optical Rotation of Rotatory Polarisat ically and Specific Rotation .. Polarimeters .. Laurent's Half Shade Polarimeter Biquartz Polarimeter Strength of Sugar Solution .. Solved Numerical Examples Section B : Laser Introduction .. Coherences (Temporal and Spatial) ‘Temporal coherence (x)UNIT-IV | Step index single mode or monomode fibres (SMF Purity of a spectral line Spatial coherence Non-tealization of strictly monochromatic light in practice Interference by Two independent Laser Beams .. Solved Numericat Examples ‘Spontaneous and Stimulated (Induced) Emission ofa jiation ., Difference between Spontaneous and Stimulated Emissions Spontaneous Emission and Einstein's Coefficient of Spontaneous Emission Stimulated emission and Einstein's Coefficient of Stimulated emission Transition Probabilities Einstein's Relation between Spontaneous and Stimulated Emissions or ‘Transition Probabilities Conditions Necessary to Achieve Laser Action « Various Pumping Methods Metastable States . Principle of Laser Action (Active System, Popul Types of Lasers .... Production of Laser Construction and Working Principle of Ruby Laser Construction and Working of Helium-Neon Laser (Gas Laser) Characteristics (or Properties) of Laser Beam. Difference between Ordinary Lightand Laser Radiation Applications or Uses of Laser Radiations Solved Numerical Examples Exercises .... 1 Objective Type Questions I Short Answer Type Questions 1 Question Bank 1 Unsolved Numerical Problems 1 Answers to Exercises Fibre Optics & Holography Section A : Fibre Optics Introduction .. Fundamental Ideas About Optical Fibre Optical Fibre .... Fibre Fabrication Propagation Mechanism in Optical Fibres Principle of Operation of a Fibre ‘Types of Fibres Step index multimode fibres (MMF) Graded index multimode fibres (GRIN) . ‘Communication in Optical Fibre Acceptance Angle and Acceptance Cone ofa Fibre ...... (xi)Numerical Aperture .. Numerical Aperture for Graded Index Fibres ... ‘Number of Modes and Cut-off Parameters of Fibres .. Comparison of Single Mode Index and Multimode Index ‘Comparison of Step Index and Graded Index Fibres SolvedNumerical Examples Attenuation and Signal Losses in Optical Fibres... Absorption losses .. Rayleigh Scattering Losses. Waveguide Scattering Losses . Bending Losses Solved Numerical Examples Signal Dispersion . Modal Dispersion or Intermodal Dispersion Dispersion in Graded Index Fibre Intramodal or Chromatic Dispersion (@_ Material Dispersion Gi) Waveguide Dispersion seca T13 Solved Numerical Examples Optical Cables ... Advantages of Optical Fibre Over a Coaxial Cable Disadvantages of Optical Fibres Applications of Optical Fibres ...... ; Section B : Holography Introduction Basic Principle of Holography ........ i a Construction and Reconstruction of image on Hologram... Mathematical Treatment of Holography Requirements in Making Hologram... Main Characteristics or Features of a Hologram . Orthoscopic and Pscudoscopic Images... Typesof Holograms .. Applications of Holography ....... Exercises ... U Objective Type Questions 1 Short Answer Type Questions 1 Question Bank .. i L Unsolved Numerical Problems ....... Answers to Exercises .. Appendices UPTU Examination Papers (sii)Relativistic Mechanics Relativistic Mechanics ... Inertial and Non-inertial Frames Michelson-Morley experiment Einstein's Postulates Lorentz transformation equations Length contraction Time dilation Addition of velocities Variation of mass with velocity Mags-energy equivalence Exercises .... | Objective Type Questions * Multiple Choice Questions © True or False © Fill in the Blanks I Short Answer Type Questions I Question Bank I Unsolved Numerical Problems I Answers to ExercisesRelativistic Mechanics Introduction ‘The age old classical mechanics is entirely based on Newton's laws of motion and gravitation. Initially it was thought that Newton's second aw of motion is universally applicable at all speeds. But new experimental evidences in the beginning of twentieth century re- vetled that Newton's second laws valid only for the objects moving at low speeds and fails when applied to the objects moving with high velocities comparable with the velocity of light. ‘The failure of classical theory to explain many new experimen. tal facts led to the development of remarkable special theory of| relativity by Albert Kinstein in 1905. The new concept of relativity revolutionized the age old concepts of absolute mass, space andtime | « Introduction that gaverisetheconsideratioaofabsolute motion. Einsteinproposed | « Fame cf Relerence | the idea that the motion through an ether filling empty space is a| * feren meaningless concept; only motion relative to material bodies has| ° Noninertaframeso! Reterence ae ; + Michelson-Morley Experiment phYsical significance. According to new concept, everything in the | | Einsteins Postustes of Special universe is relative, nothing is absolute, all rest and motions are| " Theory of Relativity relative, position is relative, length is relative, time is relative etc, | - Galilean Transformation Einstein, in his new theory, extended and generalized Newtonian | Equations mechanics as weil. He correctly predicted that the old classical | * Fallure of Galliean Relativity mechanics is the limiting case of the new theory of relativity, | * Lorentz Transformation Thenewtheory, spevialtheory ofrelativity,touchesallbranches | | FAUSNONS cof modern physics and can be applied to certain areas, such as higk | " Eavetione energy physics, quantum theory, atomic theory and many other! . Length Contraction branches of science and technology. + Time Dilation ‘Theory ofrelativity deals with the way in which observers who | » Concept of Simuttanety are in motion relative to one another describe physical phenomena, | - Addition of Velocities ‘The theory of relativity is studied in two parts - special theory and | - Relativistic momentumandForce general theory, The special theory of relativity deals with observers | * a of Mass with Velocity which are either in relative motion in a straight line at constant speed | M000 Energy Eaulvalence cor are at rest, The general theory of relativity applies to the cases of | Onjective Type Questions arbitrary relative motion or accelerated systems with respect to one | 4 Short Answer Type Questions another and is still under developed stage. In this chapter, we shall | 1 Question Bank limit ourselves to the special theory of relativity. Unsolved Numerical Problems Answers to Exercises4 Engineering Physics-I (U. Frame of Reference Inorder to specify the location ofa point object oran eveatin space, we requirea coordinate syste: ‘We choosea pointoforigin and directions for three axes. Therefore, the location of a pointobject oraneve is expressed in terms of three real numbers, called coordinates of that point object with respect to t origin. For complete information about an event, we must not only know about its true location or positio. bralsoits correct time of occurrence. Thus, weneed another coordinate axisthat oftime. Such a coordina system with respect to which we measure the position of a point object of an event is called a fran of reference, The motion of point is completely described if we express the three point coordinates function of time. A point is at rest relatively to our frame of reference ifthese three functions are constar ‘The frames of reference are of two types : 1, Inertial or unaccelerated frames of reference. 2. Non-inertial or accelerated frames of reference 1. Inertial Frames of Reference or Inertial Frames ‘The frames of reference in which Newton's law of inertia and other laws of Newtonian mechani hold good are called inertial frames of reference or simply inertial frames. It is also defined as the fram with respectio which an unaccelerated body appears unaccelerated, that is, isat rest or moving with consta linear velocity. Hence, unaccelerated frames are inertial frames. Incrtial frame is also defined as t| frame in which abody atrest ormoving with uniform velocity and not under the influence ofany fors remains at rest or moving with the same uniform velocity. All other frames of reference moving wi a. constant velocity with respect to it are also referred to as inertial frames of reference. It is experimental proved that all inertial reference frames are equivalent for the measurement of physical phenomer Observers in different frames of reference may get different numerical values for measured physic quantities but the relation among the measured quantities, that is, the law of physics will be the same f all observers. For our ordinary purposes, the earth serves well enough as an inertial frame ofreferen and hence, also the interior ofa vehicle, suchas train, caretc. moving smoothly and witha constant veloci on its surface. 2. Non-inertial frames ‘The frames ofrreference with respect to which an unaccelerated body appears accelerated are call: non-inertial frames or in other words the accelerated frames are called non-inertial. In non-inerti frames Newton'staw does nothold, Thesimplest exemple of ¢non-inertial frameis provided by arotath merry-go-round, The fictitious force can only be experienced by the observer in the inertial frame. To study the motion of a body we should always prefer inertial frames because all the mechanic Jaws stated with reference to inertial frames preserve the same form whatever may be the relative motit between the observers. We neverchoose non-inertial frames because these involve different forces and tht is very complicated to formulate the laws, common to all observers, Michelson-Morley Experiment and Its Outcome Background (The ether hypothesis) Previous experience regarding the necessity of a medium for the propagation of mechanical way forced the nineteenth century physicists to think that the existence of a medium that fills all space at penetrates all matter is essential for the propegation of light and other electromagnetic wave in free spac Therefore, they assumed that the emtire space of the universe including vacuum is filled by a hypothetic light transmitting medium, called ether which is rigid, invisible, massless, perfectly transparent, perfectrelativistic Mechanics 5 non-resistive, continuous and stationary solid like steel having a very highelasticity and negligible deasity. All bodies (tight or heavy) including earth move freely through this hypothetical medium (ether) without disturbing it, Thus, ether provides.a fixed frame of reference which was called ether frame or rest frame or absolute frame of reference. Upto the end of the nineteenth century the ether hypothesis, was considered as the most promising and even necessary hypothesis, asit was very successfulin the explanation ofthe phenomenaofinterference and diffraction. At thaf time, no one seemed to object to the existence of a medium. Onthe necessity of the medium scientists were ofthe view that ifthe ether hypothesis is correct then it should be possible to determine the absolute velocity of the earth with respect to stationary ether frame. Many experiments with sophisticated instruments were performed in this direction. The most famous among them was performed by Michelson and Moricy using Michelson interferometer which is as follows : Experiment The main objective of conducting the Michelson-Morley experiment was to confirm the existence ‘of astationary ether (frame). Michelson and Morley in 1887 performed an extremely sensitive experiment, for measuring the absolute velocity of the earth with respect to stationary ether. This experiment has long been regarded as one ofthe greatest experiment in physics and one ofthe main experimental pillars of special theory of relativity, Theessential features ofthis apparatus, universally known asMichelscn interferometer, are shown in fig. (1). The two plane mirrors M4, and M, used in the apparatus are highly silvered on their front surfaces to avoid multiple internal reflections. A beam of light from an extended source S's incident on a semi-silvered glass plate, P inclined at an angle 45° to the beam. This plate splits the light into two parts. One part of the beam travels through the plate Pand falls normally on the misror M; which reflects it back to the point P. The other part of the bean. efter reflection fiom the plate P falls normally on the mirror’, which also reflectsitback to P. The Ibwo parts of the beam returned to P are directed towards telescope 7: During their journey toward the telescope the two beams interfere and form ‘interferance fringes that can be observed by the telescope T. Source of Let the two mirrors M, and M, be at the — laht, lequal distance / from the plate P. Ifthe apparatus is at rest in ether then the two rays (reflected and Iransmitted) would take equal time to return to P. ut, in fact the earth, and hence, the whole 54 apparatus is moving with earth through the ether , With a velocity, say, v. Suppose the direction of motion of the earth is along the direction of incident light, thatis, from Pto M;, Ifthe incident beam strikes the glass plate P in the position shown in fig. 1, then the paths of thetwo rays and Fig. the positions of their reflections from the mirrors M, and M, will be shown by the dotted lines in the figure, Due to the motion of apparatus with earth, the lime taken by two rays in their journeys would not be the same, This time difference may be measured as follows:Engineering Physics-I (UP.) Letcbe the velocity of light through ether. According to Galilean transformations, the velocity of light with respectto the apparatus along thepath P¥, is (cv) in the forward trip andi (c+ »)in the backward trip. If 1, be the time taken by this ray to travel from P to M, and back, that is, PM,P then pL de 21 ety om ¢ \-v/et sesso) The part of the beam moving towards the mirror M, with respect to the apparatus retains its velocity ¢. If be the time taken by the beam in going from the point P to M;, then the distance travelled by it is cf’. In the same time 1’, the mirror M, shifted to Mj after covering a horizontal distance vt’. Therefore, in the right angled triangle PM\24) Mi} = Oe + Odd! Here PM, =v and PM; =ct! ee Pe a i re = * ar eyt- (ey? Therefore, the total time taken by the beamia travelling from Pio Mf} and then from/to P’ would be 1 eye oe 2) Hence, the time difference, At between the times of travel of the two beams is, given by Are, -y-—4_, - — aT) oir =Zfa-vieyt-a-vriey"] Using binonmal expansion [1+ 2) = 1+ ns+..] and neglecting higher tems, we get aly, vw 1vt antl (iot n.}-(oo4zheJ] he wf) We know that if the path difference between the two interfering rays changes by 2, the shitting of one fringe in the field of view of the telescope is observed. Therefore, if n be the number of fringes that shift when interferometer is suddenly brought to rest (that is, vis made zero), then , from eqn. (4), we haveRelativistic Mechanics 7 In the actual experiment, the whole apparatus, which was placed on « block of stone floated on mercury, was tumed through 90° so that the path PM, became longer than the path PM, by an amount (H/@2), Thus, the rotation of apparatus through 90° introduces a path difference of the same amount in opposite direction so that the total path difference between the two rays became 2/\#/c2. Hence, a shift of 2iv? Soy was expected. To get accurate results, the distance / was effectively increased to a value upto 11 meters by Michelson and Morley by the method of multiple reflections by using a system of mirrors, Taking earth's velocity through ether equal to its orbital velocity, that is, v= 3 * 10* nv/sec, the expected fringe shift for visible light (A= 5.5 10”? m) is 2ivt 1_2xUXGxioye “2-7 axe SKI orashiftoffour-tenthsa fringe, A shift ofthis magnitudecan be casily measured with the help ofMichelson- Morley set up. Michelson and Morley were extremely surprised to see that no shift in the fringe was observed when the interferometer was rotated through 90°, Michelson and Morley repeated the experiment at different places, different times ofthe year, and at different heights, butthey always found no shift. Thatis, they could not detect the relative velocity of the earth with respect to stationary ether. Trouton and Noble, in the year 1902, performed an electromagnetic experiment for the same purpose but failed to achieve positive result. It means that the relative velocity between the earth and the ether is zero. Thus, the motion of the earth through the ether could not be detected experimentally, Hence, the hypothesis of the existence of stationary medium was disapproved. Explanation and Interpretation of the Negative Result A number of explanations were offered to interpret the negative results of Michelson-Morley experiment and to preserve the concept of stationary ether. Nevertheless all of them failed. Here, we are siving-a summary of three main explanations. 4. Ether-Drag Hypothesis ‘This hypothesis assumed thatthere is an ether mediumwhich is centered on the earth andmoves with the earth in its motion through space. Therefore, there should be no relative motion between the earth and ether and hence, the question of shift does not arise. But this explanation was discarded due to following ‘two arguments : (4) Ether-drag hypothesis goes against the observed aberration of light from stars, that i, it is against the pheaomenon of stellar aberration. (ii) Fizeau's experimental conclusion revealed that a moving body could drag the light waves only partially. This partial dragging of light waves was explained on the basis of electromagnetic theory, without using the ether-irag hypothesis, 2. Fitzgerald-Lorentz Contraction Hypothesis Fitzgerald proposed a hypothesis to explain the negative results of Michelson-Moriey's experiment and to retain the concept of preferred ether frame. Accordig to this hypothesis, all material bodies are contracted in the direction of motion relative to stationary ether by a factor (1 ~ vi/c*). It can be easily ‘observed that such a contraction in the interferometer arm would equalize the two times f, and f, taken by the ray in travelling towards the mirrors M, and M,, and thus no fringe-shift would be expected. This explanation also could not gain acceptance because contraction hypothesis was purely mathematical without any logic behind it and without any experimental confirmation, An= =048 Engineering Physics-I (UP) 3. Constancy of Speed of Light Hypothesis Itwas proposed that light travels with a constant velocity not with respect to the stationary ether but with respect to the source. Thus, the light froma moving source has a velocity which is the vector sum of its natural velocity and the velocity of source. This explains the negative results, but it was in conflict with the wave theory of light and there is an astronomical evidence concerning double stars which goes against this hypothesis. Hence, this explanation was also rejected. Einstein Novel and Revolutionary Idea ‘True explanation of negative results or failure of Michelson-Morley and other like experiments was offered by Einstein. He proposed, in the year 1905, a radically new profound idea that represented a vast revolution in physical thought. Einstein put forward that the motion through stationary ether is a meaningless concept; only motion relative to material bodes has physical significance. Hcannounced to the world his fascinating spacial theory of relativity. Significance of Negative Results Following important conclusions can be drawn from the negative results of Michelson-Morley experiment. 1. The velocity of light is constant in all directions, 2, Theeffects ofpresence of etherin the entirespace of theuniverscarc undetectable, Thereforc,all efforts to make ether a universal frame of reference are meaningless. 3. A new theory with different concepts of space, time and mass is needed. Thus, we must think of different set of transformations in contrast to Galilean transformation which failed to give correct results, Example 1: What will be the fringe-shift according to the ether theory in the Michelson-Morley experiment, if the effective path length of each path is? meters and light has 7000 A wavelength ? The velocity of earth is 3 * 10‘ m/sec. Solution : The expected fringe shift On, according to the ether theory in Michelson-Morley experiment, is given by “ae eh Here /=7 m, v= 3 x 10‘ m/sec, c= 3 x 10° m/sec and 4=7000A=7* 107m 2x7xGx104)? An or An=0,2 3x 108)? x (7x Example 2 ; Jn Michelson-Morley experiment the length of the paths of the two beam is 11 meter each. The wavelength of the light used is 6000 A. Ifthe expected fring -shiftis 0.4 fringe, Calculate thevelociy of earth relative to ether. . Solution :The expected fring shift is given by: An= a or Here [= 11 m,2=6000 A=6 x 10-7 mand An=0.4 v=@0 x10, Ce at or v=3.13 x 10¢m/see Example3 : Calculate the expected fringeshifiin a Michelson-Morley experimentif ihe distance ofeach ath is AL metre and the wavelength of light ts 5.6 * 10-? m. The experimental set up was not rotated ‘through 90°. The linear velocity of earth may be taken as 30 kms,Relativistic Mechanics 9 Solution : When the set up was not sotated through 90°. Thea expected fringe shift is given as, L ears Here | = L1m, v = 30 * 10° mis, c = 3.0 x 10° m/s and A= 5.6 10-7 m 11x (30 x 103)? An= = 0.196 6 X10-7 x (3.0 x 108)? Einstein’s Postulates of Special Theory of Relativity ‘The consequences of the absence of stationary ether (or universal frame of reference) led to the development of the special theory of relativity by Albert Einstein in 1905, The formulation of the special theory of relativity is based upon two basic postulates which are as follows : Postulate | : The Principle of Equivalence (or Relativity) ‘The principle of equivalence states that the laws of physics are same in all inertial frames of reference moving with a constant velocity (without any acceleration} with respect to one another, Postulate I! : The Principle of Constancy of the speed of light ‘The second postulate states that the speed of light in free space (vacuum) is always same in all Inertial frames of reference and is equal to ¢, that is, it is Independent of the relative motion of the inertial frames, the source and the observer, ‘The first postulate is the extension of the consequence drawn from Newtonian mechanics; since velocity is not absolute but relative. It i isa direct consequence of the absence of an absolute frame of reference. ‘The second postulate states an experimental fact and is responsible for differentiating the classical and Einstein's theories of relativity, The theory based on these two postulates is called special theory of relativity, Galilean Transformation Equations Or Galilean Trasformation for the Position, Velocity and Acceleration of a Particle If an event be observed by two observers simultaneously in two different inertial frames of reference, itwill naturally have a set of observations (coordinates such as the three mutually perpendicular X, Yand Zaxes) in one, different from thatin the other. The equations relating the two sets of observations of an event in two different frames of reference are called transformations equations. Inclassical or Newtonian mechanics wire the speed of the observer or object is very small compared to the speed of light these relevant transformation equations are called Galilean transformation equations or Galilean transformation, Case @): $' frame is moving with constant velocity v along positive direction of X-axis : Inorderto find the Galilean transformation equations, let us consider two inertial frames of reference 5 and 5’ as shown in fig, 2. Suppose 5" is moving along the positive x direction with a constant velocity v relative to S which is at10 Engineering Physics-I (U.P.) rest. Let (x,y, 2,0) be the space and time coordinates of an event occurring at P for an obscrvcr on the frame ‘S. Letthe space and time coordinates of the same event P for an observer on the frame S' be (x',",2',!"). For simplicity, let us choose our axes such thatthe X and X’ axes are parallel to v, and ¥" and Z’ axes are parallel to Vand Zexes respectively. Lot the time be counted from the instant when the origins O and 0! of the two frames momentarily coincide. Then after a time f, the frame S” is separated from S'by a distance vt in the direction of X-axis as shown in fig.2, Therefore, the coordinates of O" in frame S are x= vt, y=0,2=0, Att=0 let Both observers in the frames S and S" record the coordinates of an event at Pin space, ‘then the coordinates recorded by both arex, yandzat ¢=0. Aftertime?, letthey again record the coordinates of the event at P. Suppose the coordinates recorded by an observer in frame Sis x, y,z and f, and that by aan observer in frame 5” is x’, y',2 and r’. As there is no relativemnotion aiong Yand Zaxes, the coordinates in the two frames of reference along Yand Z-axes are same, that is, y = y’ and z=2', From fig.2, we have x =x-—vt yinyi aw=2 ond tht and similarly, xex'tyt oysy, mez’ and tet! ‘The equations (1) and (2) are known as Galilean transformation equations for space and time or for position ofa particle. For velocity transformation, we have fromeqn. (1) = dx—vde, dy'"= dy, de'=dz and dt! =at (+ vis constant) walt yl ‘Thus, Od dt de a at Hence, Galilean transformation equations for velocity of particles are VE" VE-¥, Wy yy and vy yy For acceleration transformation equations, differentiating eqn, (3) with respect (o time, we get . dy dy, dus dv, because vis constant, “ aj=a,, asa, and a/=a, wenn) ‘These are Galilean acceleration transformation equations. Case (i): The frame S' is moving along a straight line relative to S along any direction : Let us consider another situation in which frame S’ is 5 moving with respect to the frame S with constant velocity » YI Yi —> along any direction (as showa in fig. 3) such that i ei 20 ~ ity jt vk weve(3) at where v, vy and v, are the components of velocity ¥ along X, Yand Z axes respectively. Let at?=0, the origin Oof frame S concides with the origin O° of fame 5’. Suppose the two observers situated at O and Q’ observing simultaneously an event occurred at P, Let the coordinates of P relative to the observers at O.and O! be (x, y, 2, 1) and (x, y', 2’, 1") respectively. After a time f, the frame 5" is separated from Sby adistance v,t, vytand v,t along X, Yand Z-axes respectively. Then the measurements of event at P taken by the observers Fig.3 may be related (Fig. 3) as,Relativistic Mechanics u Wexowyt, yey-wh gerevt ad fet un 4 ‘The equations (4) are the Galilean transformation equations relating the observations of two observers when one of the two frames is moving along any direction. Now let us consider the Galilean transformations of the velocity of the particle. For this differentiating equations (4), we get =de-vydi, dy’ =dy-vydt, dz! =dz—vedi and dt" at snneS) where v, v, and v, are constant velocity components. Equation (5) may be rewritten as, 5 ‘ a a oe But di= de é Uy! = Uy — Ves uy suy-vy and us =u Vy 6) where try zie uzare the componeats of velocity of the particle in the frame Sand u,',uy and uj that in the frame S’ along X, Yand Z axes respectively, Ta tems of unit vectors 4, and & te cquation (6) canbe represented as wet? (2 jug jug + hu) snwn(T) Equation (7) represents the Galilean transformation equations for velocity of the particle, Obviously the Inverse transformation gives u~ u! + v. This clearly indicates that the velocity ts not invariant under Galilean transformation, Galllean transformation equations for the acceleration of the particle may be obtained by differenti- ating equation (7) with respect to 4, that is, dt _ iu du! ede Geta F-H (dt =a) a= where o~ dufds the acceleration ofthe partici ia ame Sand o” = dd’ that ia fam Thus, the acceleration observed by the observers in different inertial frames of reference is same, Itmeansthat Newton's sccond law is valid in every inertial frame of reference oritis invariant under Galilean transformations, From the above discussions it is proved that the basic laws of physics do not change under Galilean transformations. Failure of Galilean Relativity Galiean relativity not only fails to explain the actual results of Michelson-Morley experiment but also violate both the postulates of special theory of relativity. According to first postulate, the laws of physics are same in all inertial frames of reference. But the fundamental equations of electromagactism assume very different forms when these equations areused to convert quantities measured in one framewith the equivalent quantities in the other. Again, if we measure the speed of light along the x-direction in the frame Sto be c, then in the moving frame S" itwill be c’ = c— v. This violets the second postulate of special relativity. (The speed of light in free space is same in all inertial frame of reference). Hence, a different transformation is required if the postulates of special relativity arc to be satisfied. Lorentz Transformation Equations The Galilean transformation equations are not suitable under the new concept of special theory of relativity, where the speed'of the object or observer is comparable with the velocity of light, therefore,«2 You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewving limit for this book.«2 You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewving limit for this book.14 Engineering Physics-I (U.P.) The Lorentz transformation equations reduce to the classical Galilean transformation equa- tions when << ¢, thatis, (1 —v/c?)w Land 1-2 a1 xfea-vh yiny, voz and tot Example 4; Derive Lorentc inverse transformations, Solution : Well known Lorentz transformation equations are : bene 7 ® yen Ye Ble and Solving for xand ¢, we find FYU-Vie)=s- oo weal) t we and PYG -vI2)=1-Ie or ee f-3 + sna) Substituting the value of r from eqn. (2) in eqn. (1) and solving, we get revi ge fes +3 we ¥ +p av on (2 )-c sof —@ 21 Viera é (i= fc?) xitvel x eee snsnn(3) Similarly, substituting the value of x from eqn. (3) in eqn. (2), we have PB a tee a fe ete, gate a 2 feat fave, “Yer ae wile! 2) els or mt Es ait a (0-3) Hfl- vie? + vie] vate? or a) Ove avi ot tatitvetse 6 yee ~f) Hence, Lorentz inverse transformation equations are: __tit+ve! t+ vx"/e2 oe y=y') z=z! and ae ee tRelativistic Mechanics 15 Example 5 : The position of a poiat in the frame S' moving relative to S, with a constant velocity of 10 emisec along the X-axis is given by (11, 9, 8). Calculate its position with respect to the frame S, if the two frames were in cotncidence only 0.5 second before. 5 ‘Solution : ihe coordinates of point ia fraine 5’ moving with velocity v along X-axis relative to a frame Sat rest are (x', y’,2") and (x, y, 2) respectively, then the position of the point in stationary frame 5 are xax += 11410 «0.5= 11 +5=16 yry'=9 and z=7'=8 Hence in stationary frame S the position of the particle is given by (16, 9, 8) Example 6 : Use Galilean transformation to prove that the distance between two points (xy yy, 2,) and (indus %) is invariant in two inertial frames. or Show that the distance between any two points in two inertial frames is invariant under Galilean iransformation, (UPTU, B.Tech II 2008) Solution : Suppose a frame ofreference ’ is moving with velocity vrelafive toa frame Sat rest, such that Y= iv, t jv, + kv,, Let the coordinates of two points in frame 5 be (x), 7121) and (x. ¥>. 22); While those in frame 5" be (x/, yy, 211) and (%2,94', 27!) From Galilean transformations, we have RLM HM Yo vyh a Ey vet and WAHL Way Haz ove ‘The distance between two points in moving frame 5’ MiG -*1F +07 —riP +@! - 211 von) ‘Substituting the values of x;', »;,2)',%',)/ and z,’ from equations (1) and (2) in equation (3), we get B= {EG — vel) ~ a — MDP + [02 — vy) On ~ ry DP + I ~ ve) — Ga — ve PH @- mF + r- WP + @-2F I The distance between the two points in stationary frame S Hence, the distance between any two polnts is invariant under Galllean transformation, Example 7: A ball has velocity (4i— 5/+ 10K) m/sec relative to a train moving with velocity (31 + 4)) mn{see relative to an observer on the ground. Calculate the velocity of the ball relative to the ground, ‘Solution : Suppose the train is equivalent to a moving frame of reference S’ and the ground as stationary frame of reference S. According to the given problem, P=@it4) m/sec and w! = (4i~ 5+ 108) m/sec Therefore the velocity of the bal relative to the ground is given as unwth = (4i- 5) + 10k) + G14 4), or w= J+ 10k mst Example 8 : Show that the motion of one projectile as seen from another projectile will always be a stralght line motion, Soludon : Let the two projectiles be projected from the origin O with intial velocities u, and u, at angles of projections cy and a respectively as shown in Fig. 5. After 1 sec the position coordinates of points P, (&,y1) and P, (3,94) along X- and Y-axes are given as %=(u,c0s a), y, Eu sin ete? =u) 005 GY, Y= (usin G)I- Eg?16 Engineering Physies-I (U.P 2-71 = (ty 608 0% — uy c08 04)t and yaya {Wy sin Gu; sin) ¢ = yp. Me Sino — 14 sin ay, or Hy 08 Hy cone, ™ where m is constant as u,, tz, , and &, are constants On-n) =m &%-*) Suppose y—yi=¥ and x,-x=X Y=mX ‘This is the equation of a straight line, Therefore, the Fig. 5 motion of one projectile asscen from another projectile will always be a straight line motion. Example 9 : Show that space-time interval, x + y'+ 2 -¢ f is invariant under Lorentz transformation. [UPTU, B. eek: 1Sem. (C.O.) 2003, II Sem 2005, If Sem, 2006 Show that space-time or interval between 160 eno rematn Invariant under Lorena wensformation (UPTUB. Tech, ¥ Sem, 2007, Solution : Suppose (x, y, 2, ) and (x’,y',2’,1') are the coordinates of the same event observed by twe observers in stationary frame ofreference Sand in moving frame S respectively. Let frame Sbe moving with constant velocity v relative to S in positive direction of X. We have to prove using Lorent: transformations that BHP te dha x ty 2 ar? The Lorentz transformation equations are a Substituting these values of x’, y', z' and in the right hand side of equation (1), we have aye aaytest erie Ge vet) XP ty? ez? oy wry +27 7 1) Se adie aes er 2g yt 2 2p _ xt xhevt ? —dxt— ots A S + exe! + y+ 2? e ea(eg) ree ot “CF “wal (-3)Relativistic Mechanics 7 + [2 -Ce"]+y?+2 LHS of equation (1) or xPtytte erates oF Heace, x’ + y' +z? —c’¢ is invariant under Lorentz transformation. Example 10:: Ifatthe time1=1' = 0, the origins of systems S and S' just coincide and a spherical pulse of light is produced at the common origin, show that the speed of propagation of the spherical wavefront is the same in both systems-namely c. (where system S' ts moving relative to stationary sysiem S) Solution : According to the problem, the origin of twosysteras Sand S' justcoincide at¢~/’~0. The system, Sisat rest while is moving with fixed velocity vrelative to 5. Let spherical pulse start froma point where coordinates relative to S and" are (x,y,z, #) and (z', y’,z',") respectively. We know that B+PteacP and x P+y2Hz2 = a a) ‘The Lorentz transformation equations are 1a xs sy, z=2 and Yoav) From equation (1), we have cn tt yg ora GP eet ven) ‘Substituting the values of x’, y’,z’ and 2’ in equation (3) from equation (2), we get {[@-wP/a-vi2)]+ 2 +2}? 0 TET (Gav? + (924.220 v2 fe? y? oF (t= vale?) 2 Adding and subtracting a factor of x? (: - 3) in the numerator of equation (4), we get dt, [G2 + y? +22)(1—v2 fc?) + 0? — ave + (vlc?) x2}? (t= vxley Bu ty te=eP or cl=c Thus, the velocity of light is the same in both systems or the speed of propagation of the spherical wavefront is same in both systems.18 Engineering Physics-t (UP.) Example 11: As seen by an inertial observer Sa cerisin event takes place a x,=— © at timet,= é. Another event takes place at x,— atte =F So that for S the two events are simultaneous. Show that for another inertial observer S* moving along X-axis at velocity v with respect to x the events are yly ayia not simultaneous, and At =— “=~, where 7 = (1-7 Solution : According to Loreatz transformation equations for space and time, ' x-vt "firey or x= y(e-w) __t-(vale?) mi alt recy Le son(3) ef) Heace, events are not simultaneous in moving frame 5’, Example 12: Consider threeinertial frames ofreferenceS,S' and 5".S' is moving with velocity vrelative 10S, and S” is moving with velocity urelative to S'. Both velocities arein the same direction. Derlve the transformation equations relating x, y, z,1 and x", y", 2", 1". ‘Soluston ; According to Lorentz, transformation equations for transformation from frame S to S’ are , x-vt Fe “ro = 7e-v) yiayass and f= 71t—(nie)] 1 yi - (4 ie?) (1) where ¥Relativistic Mechanics 19 ; Lorentz equations for transformation from S* to 5” are EO = YR —ur)y" yz =2' and 0” = y'[r -(ux’/e)] 1 L here "= where 1 Fa lety Substituting the values of x' and 1’ in eqn. (3) from eqns. (I) and (2), we get = y'Ty— v) — uly {t- (vsle)}] = 7’ 1lGe— v8) — ut + (vale?) or ane" IC: sh -o+or] snl) Similarly, f= yy (t- (wale) — wy (e— vie] = 7’ Y[t- vale - (ux - wi¥e] or wer |(- Se w a Similarly, substituting the values of y’ and z" form oqa, (1) in equ. (3), we get, and yony and =z Example 13 : An event occurs atx 100 m,y= 5 m, 7~ 1 mandt=1* 10~*secin a frameS. Find the coordinates of this event in a frame S' which is moving with velocity 2.7 x 10'mlsec with respect to the frame S along the common XX" axes using Lorentz transformation, Solution : According to Lorentz transformation equations (for t= t'), we have __aew ee Here, x7 100 m,y~5m,z~1m,6= 1% 104 sce and v= 2.7 * 108 mjsce 100-27 x10*x1x10-4 _ - 26900 _ Yo aaa) = 61713 m=-6.17 « 10-!m yl =y=Smz=2'=1m 27x 108 x 100 od patel VOC “Go Jere 2.7% #) 3 or = 250210" «9 287 x 10sec (0.1920 Engineering Physics-1 (U.! ‘Example 14: Determine the time {as measured by a clock at rest (on the rocket)| taken by a rocket reach adistant star and return to earth with a constant velocity v=1(0,9999)c, ifthe distanceto the st #54 Ught years (A light year ts defined as the distance travelted by a light beam in vacuum in one yea ‘Solution : From the Lorentz transformation equation for time, we have 1 vx/c ve - Joe) Here x=2 * 4 light year =2 x 4 x 365 x 24 x 60 x 60 x ccm = 2.523 x 10°c, where ¢ is the time taken by the rocket to reach the star and back to the carth as measured by an observ inastationary frameat earth and /’ isthe timemessured by the clock inthe moving rocket for the total journ: Now, 1= x/v, where v=c,/(0.9999) x 2 pole oxte?) s(-2) a-v? jc?) (- yr ay (1 vf) Substituting the values of x and v in equation (2), we get 25Bx108e p— = _ 2523 x 10° x (0.0001) Be Mogan 1 09999 = 0.9999 2523x108 _ 2.523 x10 _ 2 GooaIa = 95-595 = *529 x10 sec or 29.2day ade or a o F Example 15 : A light pulse is emitted at the origin of a frame of reference S! attime = 0. is distan x! fromthe origin after a timet! is given byx!*= ct", Use the Lorents transformation to transform th equation to an equation in.x and t and show that this is x*= cP, Discuss the implication of this resu. Solution ; According to the givon problom, the distance of alight pulse x" from the origin aera time in the moving frame 5" is given a2 vier From Lorentz transformation equations, we have a ee t= xviet Vie We Substituting these values of x' ands’ in equation (1), we get (xe? _ eft (avic?)? I-VI Fie ef (wp =e(«-2) x«2 You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewving limit for this book.2 Engineering Physics-I (U..) ‘The time between the two flashes = =1.346 x 10 0.135 ps Ve sign shows that red light flash comes before the blue one. Example 17: Ina reference frame an event | occurs at the origins att ~0 and another event2 occurs ‘at x= 3000 meters and t= 4 x 10-6 sec. Find the time interval between events as registered by clocks in aframeS’ moving withaspeed v=0.6 crelativetoS along the common XX" axes, the origins coinciding tat'=0. Solution : Suppose t' and t; are the times of two events 1 and 2 as registered by clocks in moving frame S*. Then from Lorentz transformation equation, we have ye fy Geple?) _ Ya-Fe) 1 27 Cv1e) _ 4 «10-6 — (3000 x 0.6)/(3 108) Va-v71e) [1 (0.6)"] _4x«lot-6x10% 2x10 i time interval, t; - t;' = - 2.5 10-* sec ‘The clock in frame S” registered the event 2 earlier than clock in frame S. (Lorentz-Fitzgerald) Length Contraction Lorentz-Fitzgerald, for the first time, proposed that the length of a moving body (moving with a velocity comparable with the velocity.of light) measured with respect to an observer does not remain constant but gets decreased due to its relative motion. This decrease in length in the direction of motion is called length contraction, According to Lorentz-Fitzgerald, " when an object moves with a veloc- ity v (comparable with the velocity of light) relative to = stationary observer, its measured length appears to be contracted in the direction ofits motion by « factor (1 -v'/ ©), whereas its other dimensions perpendicular to the direction of motion remain unaflected, To derivean expression for length contraction, let us consider frame of reference S’ moving with a uniform velocity vrelative to a stationary frame 5 in a positive direction of X-axis, Leta rigid rod of proper length Lobe placed with its Jength parallel to the X-axis in moving frame 5” as shown in fig. 6. (The proper length is the length of the rod as measured and =- 25% 10% sec«2 You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewving limit for this book.«2 You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewving limit for this book.«2 You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewving limit for this book.26 Engineering Physies-I (U.P.) That is, 1221 ve “ a4 a ¢ or aff = fi x3xt0t =2.6% 10% mst Example 25 : Ifa spaceship 50 m lang were to pass the earth travelling at 2.4 x 10* misec, what would be tts apparent length, assuming a Lorent-Fitrgeratd contraction ? Solutions: If Lp be the proper length of the spaceship, then its apparent length appeared to an observer at earth is given by or 2.410% L=Lyy(t-v/2) = 501 ~50*0.6=30m Therefore, the apparent length of the spaceship is 30 m 3 ] = 50Y(1 -0.64) Example 26 : How fast would a rocket have to go relative to an observer for its length to be contracted 10 99% of its length at rest. (UPTU, B. Tech. IT Sern. 2008) ‘Solution : According to the Lorentz length contraction formula E> Lg (1 -v'/e?) L_ 99 HereL=99L/100, thatis, [5 = 100 BPafe-Fie) oo or F a1-csy= =0.0199 of # or v= 3.0 x 10 x /(0.0199) = 3.0 x 108 x 0.141 .0199 « 3.0 x 10% 1410 = 42.3 « 10 ms-! .. Example 27: A rocket ship is $0 meter long. When itis on flight, its length appears to be 49.5 meters 10 an observer on the ground. Find the speed of the rocket. (UPTU,B. Tech. I, Q. Bank, 2001) Solution : If Ly is the proper length, then according to length contraction formula La dgl(t-VIE)_ot_ Y(1-VIe) = Uy a) or v=3x 10°* 0.141 = 4.23 x 10’ ms“! = or yee -(h =3x10t/1- ‘Example 28 : Calculate the percentage contraction of a rod moving with a velocity of 0.8c ina direction inclined at 60° to tts own length, ‘Solution : Suppose I, be the length of the rod in the frame S in which itis at rest, Let S” isthe frame which is moving with a speed of 0.8 cin a direction making an angle 60° with X-axis. The components of Z along and perpendicular to the direction of motion are Ly cos 60° and Zy sin 60° respectively.Relativistic Mechanies 27 ‘The apparent length of the rod along the direction of motion = Ly eos 60%[1 ~ (0.8)] [v L= Lyle] L L =P VU- 0G) =F «0.6 = 0.3.5 Apparent length ina direction perpendicular to the direction of motion osin 6 41, +. Tength of the moving rod in the moving frame, 12 i“ [e» 1pP+ (44 = 0.916 Ly Ig-L Percentage contraction in Length = —)— x 100 ‘No change in perpendicular direction) Ly -0.916 Lo ‘% contraction = Te x 100= 8.4% ‘Example 29: Caleulate thelength andorientation of arod oflength 2 metrein aframe ofreferencewhich is moving with 0.6 c velocity in a direction making an angle of 30° with the rod, Solution : The length of the rod along the direction of the moving frame of reference = Ly cos 30°, The apparent length of the rod along the direction sees Ly Lo 08 30°, (I= v8 fe?) = 253 Goo cet] =¥3 yl - 0.67] = 1.73 x08 = 130m Apparent length in a direction perpendicular to the direction of motion, in30°= 2x b= Ly= Losin 30°= 2X5 =1m :. The length of the rod in a moving frame in a direction making an angle of 30° with rod, SY ll +L, =f 038" += 1.704 Ifthe rod makes an angle 6 with X-axis in the moving frame, then L Sp Le re = tan (0.72) = 35.8° Example 30 : the area of a certain square is L7 as measured by an observer atrest. If another observer ts moving with velocity v relative to first and parallel o one sides of he square, then calculate the area of the square as measured by the second observer, Solution : According to length contraction, the length of a moving body is contracted by a factor \(1— 2) along its direction of motion, whereas its dimeasion perpendicular to the direction of its motion Temains unaffected. If Ly is one side of the square, then its contracted side would be, tan O~ 0.7228 1-3)" ‘Therefore, the area of the square when it is in motion, is nxt(i-3) -u(-3) Example31 : Obtain the volume of a cube, the proper length ofeach edge of which is Ly whenitis moving with velocity v along one of its edge. JUPTU, B.Tech. II Sem (C.0.) 2004} Solution : According to the length contraction concept of relativity, the length of a moving object is contracted by a factor (1 ~ »*/c*)' along its direction of motion, whereas its dimension perpendicular tothe direction of motion remains unchanged. If Lis the proper length of side of a cube, then its contracted side would be V2 anu(t-8) The lengths of other two sides remains unchanged, that is they are Ly Wiz, volume of the cube, ¥=,L,L,= s4(1 ~ 2) Igo na o v=1(1-%) Example 32: A vector in system S' is represented by 8i+ 6j. How can the vector be represented in system Swhile S' is moving with velocity 0.8 i with respect to S. i and j are unit vectors along the respective directions, Solution : According to the given problem, system S” is moving with a velocity 0.8 ¢ along X-axis. ‘Therefore, the length of the vector will change only along X-axis while its length along Y-axis will remain the same, According to Lorentz length cortraction L=Ipy(1- Vic) Along X-axis, Ly-8 and v=08c L=8 J] 8xV0.36 = 4.8 Therefore, in the system S the vector may be represented by 481 +6) Time Dilation (or Apparent Retardation of Clocks) Measurement of time intervals are also affected by the relative motion. A clock in stationary frame ‘measures longer time interval between two events occurring in amoving frame of reference than doesa clock in the moving frame or a clock moving with a uniform velocity v relative to an observer appears tohim to go slow by a factor (1 ~ v'/c’), than when at rest relative to him. The effect is called time dilation,Relativistic Mechanics 29 ‘To derive a relation for time dilation, let us consider initially that the observer Q in frame S and 0" in frame of reference S’ are at rest with respect to cach other. They synchronise their respective clocks and observe that the time interval betwecn any two events measured by their owa clocks is the same (whea both Sand S' are at rest), Let the clock in the stationary frame S gives signals at regular intervals and suppose the flame S” moves to the right along the X-axis with a uniform velocity v with respect to 5, Let the clock in Sis situated ata position zand given outsignals attwo instants of time, end , asmcasured by an observer ind. ‘ = 4h a) Let the time mensured by an observer O" in moving frame 5 between the same two events be (and tf. Tous, t=) 4) seen) From Lorentz transformation equation for time 4, - xvlet ty - vlc? eS ot yf SS 6) te A a 2 tg -xvle t — xvic2 feel OS h- 1-5 (4) or Since v% ‘Thus, the observer O” in frame 5’ measures a longer time interval between two events with his clock atrest with respecttohim. In other words, the time Interval appears to be lengthened owing tothe relative motion by a factor 1/,/T — v? /e? or aclockin stationary frame appears to go slow to an observer in moving frame, This phenomenon is called time dilation. The time dilation is a real effect. All clocks will appear running siow for an observer in relative motion, Itisincorrectto say thet the clock in moving frame 5" is slow as compared to the clock instationary frame 5, The correct statement would be that, according to an observer in stationary frame, the clock in moving frame is slow compared to his own. An observer in moving frame will also feel that clock in stationary frame isslow compared tohis own clock. Inother words, all clocks willrun slow for an observer {in relative motion. Biological clocks are also subjected to time dilation. This situation is contrary to our day-to-day experience, where if A's watch is slower than that of B, then B's watch is faster than that of A (Both are in same frame of reference). a a can be neglected therefore, From equation (4) “to Hence, the time interval measured by an observer in a moving clock is same as whea the clock is at rest. Ifv< velocity 0.8c relative to laboratory along + ve direction of x-axis. Find u in laboratory frame. (UPTUB.Tech II Sem. 2005) s ‘Solution : In the given problem, w' = 3i+4/ + 12k, therefore, u,’ =3, uj -4, uj ~ 12 and y= 0.8 c According to the law of addition of velocities, the X, ¥ and Zcomponents of u in the laboratory frameare lev 3408e _ B40.8c)e . i = Rr Testy Gea Tay BOs 24 0 ms J We ese 4 - 21a tfc?) oe ia 4x3 sei0SGe 36) e _ azote 246 024 ms! 1 ‘ f= FF) _ aE sey koe ae 14 meinen bee frame is given by Peusiuyens w= (2.4% 101+ 24) + 7.2K) msm! 7.2 ms"! Example 57: Derive the relativistic acceleration transformdtion. ‘Solution : Lorentz transformations in moving frame S' are; zou = 2 psy’, =z" and ( yeu 7” ‘These gives on differentiation arn vt dt — (dele?) one oe dy’, de =de' and dt’ = Toe ‘The velocity transformation in moving frame 5” are;Relativistic Mechanics a 1 1-3 1 ug on differentiation gives, as Se 8 wvy2r iy aenige ee oa(i-'e) ee real (uz - ») 5 de, ~ 1-4 , (-"2) diy 1-4 (us 35a 1 de, ‘Acceleration, a, = 2 = tion, a, =r ima ae ae ae Oe ys or a= (- -%4) 1-7 tat “ae 12 ay ait =e ae Goa aay =(- ay" Es + ,[1- =y)'¢ aa,6 Engineering Physics—1 (U.P.) Fora particle instantaneously at rest in $ frame, u,= y= u,= 0 and we get a\32 ay -(1-4) a ay-(1 = Example 58 ; 4 particle P instantaneously at rest in frame S experiences an acceleration + a~3i+4) + 12k, Determine the acceleration measured from an observer tn frame S’ when Sis moving with velocity 0.98 relative to S along X-axis. Solution : If a ay a, and a;,,a;) and aj are the components of acceleration @ in systems $ and S* 2 respectively. Then according to the given problem, a= 31 +4) + 12k z= 3,ay=4 and a,=12Relativistic Mechanics 47 Fora particle at rest in $ frame, u,= yu, 0. Therefore, a -(-8) a-fi-(22f] xa-ome o=(0-3)o- [1-2] xaos (0-4). -[- (222) |x -a0s Variation of Mass with Velocity ‘One of the major break through in special theory of relativity isthe variation of mass with velocity. According to the classical idea, the inertial massofa body isindependeatofits velocity and is constant under all circumstances.In the light of relativstic ideas of time and space, this concept of constancy of mass must be modified. In relativistic mechanics the mass of « body varies with its velocity. The mass of a body moving at very high speed v (w ¢)relative to an observer is larger than Its mass when itis at rest by a factor 1A((1 - v4’). Using the law of conservation of linear momentum together with Loreatz transformation equations the following expression for the variation in mass with velocity is obtained, a Yo- v/e?) where mois the rest mass of the body or the mass of the body when it is at rest and m is the measured mass of the body when it is moving with respectto an observerand is called relativistic mass, Relativistic mass increase is significant only at speeds approaching to that of light. Derivation ‘The relativistic formula for the variation of mass with velocity can be derived by using relativistic invariance of the law of conservation of momentum as follows : Consider two inertial frames ofreference Sand S’, $is atrest while S’ is moving with uniformvelocity vwith respectio S along the positive X-direction. Lettwo identicil bodies A and 2 ofmasses m, and m,aremoving with velocities u’ and —u' respectively in the moving frame S’ along a straight line as shown in fig. 8, Letusconsiderthe collision between the two with respect to the frame S. Iu, and, bethe velocities ofthe two bodies / and B relative to an observer in stationary frame 5, then according to the law of addition of relativ- istic velocities wey ok sone) + oe and =“ t¥ svan(2)48 Engineering Physics-I (U.P.) At the time of collision, the two bodes are momentarily at rest relative to the frame S$’, but as seen fromthe frame S they are still moving with velocity v.Sincé the momentura ofa body is aninvariant quantity, which remains same in all the inertial frames. The law of conservation momentum is a fundamental law and holds even atrelativistic, velocities. Therefore, according to the principle of conservation of momentum, ‘momentum before impact = momentum after impact mya, + matey = (m, + m,) Vv snsven(3) Substituting the values of w, and u, from equations (1) and (2) in equation (3), we get wey -u'ty )_ "| ( (wrele i) i (= at) =feutma Rearranging the terms m ut =m|{v~ -wty or Ts wh aus 1 Wve) ult v—v—(uve/et) v= (u'vt/e?) + w' or mt [ Tele) ) | i= quvlety (u'v? fe?) iy ul = (u've?) ba 14 (u've?) T= Wiley my _ 1+ u'vie? or me of ‘Now squaring equation (1), we have u'ty ? os) teed utev \ o eet lat wile) Us @vle? I? — We? Yu! +»)? ~ [1+ w'vic2]? utyt Wy yt Quy u'? ee ae ee ee y2 2 ea (2-0-8) (8-2) tS) (+S)Relativistic Mechanics ptt: Q-Viet)fi- w/e] a=W IW) Similarly, +r lm a]om my ee ae] mem -F Wet If the body B is at rest or moving with zero velocity, in stationary frame S that is, u, = 0, before collision and if m, = mg, the rest mass of the body, then relation (7) reduces to sl@) Since the two bodies are identical, the rest mass of body A is also my. Therefore, equation (8) may be applicable toa single body having the rest mass myand relativistice mass m, while moving with velocity u, along the X-axis. In the commonly used notations, (m, =) m and (u, =) v, the relativistice mass formula may be expressed as, seeuelD), m 3 ta This Is the required relativistic formula forthe variation of mass with velocity. The above formula shows that the mass of a body increases with the increase in its velocity, We can draw following inferences from the above formula : 1, Atordinary velocity, that is, when v << c, v/¢? may be ignored as compared to 1, Thus, equation (9) gives, m =a, It means thet at ordinary velocities the two masses are equal. 2, When v->c, moo, It means that ifa material panicle travels with the speed of light, its mass would become infinite which is impossible, Therefore, ao material particle can travel with a velocity equal to or greater than the velocity oflight in vaccum orno material ps rticle can attain a velocity larger than the velocity of light, c, in other words itis Imposalble for a material particle to move faster than the velocity of light in free space.Experimental Verification The first experimental confirmation of relativistic mass formula was found in an experiment performed by Bucherer in 1908 for the study of e/m of electron, He observed that the ratio e/m of the electron's charge to its mass is smaller for fast electrons than for slow one. Since then, ithas been verified by a number of experiments, Relativistic Momentum and Force In relativistic mechanics, the momentum of a particle is defined in a similar way as in classical mecivanics, that is, pamy Ea ietativicl 5 ™ mov relativistic mechanics, m= Ya v? fc?) yo-ve ‘Conservation of momentum is valid in special theory of relativity just as in classical physics. > In relativistic mechanics, the Newton's second law, when F is parallel to v, that is, the force acting on a particle can not be defined as the product of mass and the acceleration of the particle, but, as the time rate of change of it momentum. Thus : a r$-409- 4 | 2 > Example 59: Show that the relativistic form of Newton's second law, when F is parallel to vis def, yt? Fe nt on 5) (UPTU, B.Tech. If Sem, 2002) Solution : According to the given problem, force is parallel to the direction of velocity. In relativistic mechanics, the force acting on a particle is defined as the time rate of change of its momentum, that is, Baten) orao. av(/,_ vty" or F= mfr (1 - +) This is the required relativistic form of Newton's second law. Example 60 : On the surface of the earth the mass of « man Is 100 kg. When heis in rocket moving with a speed of 4.2 « 10" misee relative to the earth, what will be his mass as observed by (1) an observer on the earth, (2) an observer in his rocket? (c=3.0 * 10" misec). ‘Solution : (i) The mass of 2 man, at rest in a rocket, moving with a speed v as observed by a stationary observer on the earth is given by mo "Ie where my is the rest mass of the maa. Here m= 100 kg, v=4.2 x 10” m/sec and c= 3.0 x 10" misee 4 100 = 10___ 100 10 = spor eg 1 ( 3) | Vi-@.1syy] Vo.s804 ~ 0.99 1 xi @) The mass of a man with respect to an observer moving in the rocket will be same as its rest mass, that is, 100 kg, Example 61 ; At whet speed will the mass of a body be 2.25 tines its rest mass.? (UPTU, B, Tech, Special C.O, Exam. Aug 2008) Solution : Suppose at a speed v, the mass of an object is 2.25 times to its value at rest. Then, according to the variation of mass with velocity formula, mo Yor) He ‘ 7 [ere -m=2.25mo e 225m" Tay sate al, or sos 506 06) _ 3x 108 x V406 or ($08) = SE 2,68 x 10Fm/ee Example 62 : A particle is moving with 90% of the velocity of light. Compare its relativistic mass with ‘its rest mass. . Solution : The relativistic mass of « particle moving with velocity v is given by52 mo Taco: Weeremoistherestmnes of the prt, Here v = (90/100)c = 0.9 c mo ose? 1-2 e 1 1 = = 2.294 Vi-C81 | V0.9 Example 63 : A man weighs 50 kg on the earth. When ke is in rocket ship in flight, his mass is 50.5 kg as measuredby an observer on earth. Whatis the speed of the rocket, (UPTU,B. Tech. I, Q. Bank, 2001) ‘Solution ; According to the variation of relativistic mass with velocity formula, waa «(2-2 Here mg = 50 kg, m = 50.5 kg and c= 3,0 x 10° mvs = vn 3x 108 M1 - (2 ) =3 x 10° O.141 =4,23 x 107 ms“? Example 64: For what value of vic ~ P) will the relativistic mass of « particle exceed lts rest mass by a given fraction f? fate my : Solution : We have, 2, a, or mer ltt According to the formula of variation of mass with velocity, we have where mais the rest mass and m the mass of particle ata relativistic speed v. Mat ees -—_1 mo iF Oa =1-—1— or Pat aanRelativistie Mechanics 33 if (2+ f) ati or B Example 65 : 4 charged particle shows an acceleration of 4.2 x 10" cm/sec? under an electric fleld at tow speed. Compute the acceleration of the particle under the same fleld when the speed has reached « value 2.88 10" cm/sec, The speed of light is 3.0 * 10" cm/sec. Solution : The force acting on 4 charged particle due to an electric field E is given by Feqé At low speed (v << c) the effective mass of the particle is equal to its rest mass mg. Therefore, acceleration at low spced is o> y= He = 42x 10 erlsec? 0) ‘When the speed of the particle has reached a value 2.88 « 10" m/sec, its mass increases with velocity to an effective value m, because vis comparable to c. Therefore, mo ™o mo ne . = = agree Va) 98x10! Vi-092 Vo.0g 0-28 0.28F m5 ear a Therefor, the acceleration athigh speed (v0), a=" = Taos = Substituting the value of F/m, from equation (2), we get @=0.28 x 4.2 x 102= 1.176 x 104 ems Example 66 : The rest mass of a proton is 1.67 x 10-*” kg. At what speed will tts mass be double tts rest mass? (UPTU, B. Tech. 1, Q. Bank, 2001) Solution : According to the reletivistic variation of mass with velocity relation, ogi °F we (2) Here my = 1.67 «10-7 kg, m=2mo and c=3 x 108 m/sec (=) Example 67: Whatis the length ofa metre stick moving paralle! tots length when its mass is > tines ofits rest mass. IUPTU, B. Tech. I Sem.(C.0,) 2003] my m9 3x108 3 sels =2.6 x 10" m/sec v=3x108Engineering Physics-1 (U.P.) Solution : 1a tho given problem, the mas ofthe rod is times its rest mass, tbat is, ‘Tho length of meter stick moving parallcl to its length, according to length contraction formula z L=Ly tear Here Ly = 1 metre L=1%0.667=0.667 m iExample 68 : A certain young lady decides on her twenty-fifth birthday that itis time to slenderize. She weights 100 kg. She has heard that ifshe moves fast enough, she will appear thinner 10 her stationary Sfrlerds. @ How fast must she move to appear slenderized by a factor of 50% ? (At this speed what will her mass appear to be to her stationary friends ? (i) Ifshe maintains her speed until ihe day she calls her twenty-ninth birthday, how old will her Slationary friends claim she is according to their measurements ? Solution : (i) According to length contraction formula L=1,(1-vie) According to the given problem, the dimensions of young lady are reduced to 50%, that i, SO%ofl, or Laat L 2 Sa loV-F1) ot 1-5 2 or wld o ade or v2 IQ? - 0.2666 (i) According to the variation of mass with velocity relation, the mass of particle moving with velocity vis mo “Yar Here mo= 100 kg and v = 0.866c 10 100 100 “res ore" Hence, mass appeared to her stationary friend = 200 kg (iii) We know thatRelativistic Mechanics 55 ty te 2 , where t is the dilated time Ye 4 4 ts = A <8 years (a8 5 ¢ Hence, the lady will appear 25 +8 ~ 33 years old Example 69: How fast must an electron move in order that its mass equals the rest mass ofthe proton? (UPTU, B. Tech. I Sem. 2005) Solution : According to the variation of mass with velocity relation, 5 m F)_ ‘mo _ or p<) oe. owe tre (™ Woe) ( 3) moor vmedll (=) Here my=m,=9.11 x 10" kg, m= mp= 1.67 x 10° kg and c=3 x 10* m/sec 3.x 10°x 0,99 = 2.99 x 10° ms Mass-Energy Equlvalence (Einstein’s Mass-Energy Relation) ‘The mass-energy equation (E=mcis the most famous and most significent relstionship obtained by Einstein ftom the postulates of their special theory of relativity. Numerous experiments have demonstrated that the mass is convertible into energy, and energy into mass, and that the conversion factor between two ia the square of speed of light. The mass-energy equivalence can be deduced directly ‘rom special theory of relativity as follows : Let us consider a particle of mass m acted upon by a force Fin the same direction as its velocity v. Increase in energy of the particle by the application of force may be defined in terms of work which is the product of force and displacement (due to application of force). “Thus, ifa force F displaces the particle through a small distance ds, then work done, dW is stored by the particle as its kinetic energy #K. Therefore, dW = dK= Feds a) According to Newton's law of motion in relativistic mechanics, the force is the rate of change of momentum p, that is, r=. 4om) sneeen(2) According to the theory of relativity, mass of the particle varies with velocity. Hence m and v both are variable in equation (2). Therefore, Famhyyat @) ‘Substituting this value of F from equation (3) in equation (1), we get56 Engineering Physies-I (UP) av dm ds ds GK = mods + vids =m dy + vd or aK = mvdy + ¥ dm. (* dsldt=v) According to Einstein special theory of relativity, the mass m of a particle moving with velocity v varies in sccordance with the relation maf aye may ta ns) where mig is the rest mass of the particle. Differentiating equation (5), we get anom(-H)(-8) (Pea But, from equation (5), mg=m (L-/cyI2 _ (1 v/e2)! vd __mvdv one 2(-3) oa ee, or mvdv = (2 v7) dm Substituting this value of mud in equation (4), we get aK =(2—V) dn + Pdm=cdm If the change in kinetic energy of the particle be %, when its mass changes from rest mass m to effective mass m, then K= fax = fi etan=a(n-m) (7) " K-eem =e 8m] This isthe relativistic expression forkinctic energy of a particle. From this expression it isclear that the increase in kinetic energy is due to the increase in mass of the particle on account of Its relative motion and is equal to the product of gain in mass and square of the velocity of light, Therefore, myc? may be regarded as the rest energy of the particle of rest mass my. This rest encrgy may be considered as intemal stored energy of the particle. The total energy of'a moving particle is the um of kinetic energy of motion and its energy at rest, that is, Total energy, £= rest energy + relativistic K.E, = moc + (m—-m)e=me E= mc This is well known Einstein mass-energy relation which states a universal equivalence between mass and energy. This mass-energy cquation shows that an amount of energy mc7is always associated with a mass m or conversely, a mass m (= E/c?) always corresponds to an energy E.Relativistic Mechanics 57 Limiting Value of Relativistic Kinetic Energy ‘The expression for relativistic kinetic energy is _ _(__m _ ayla kadenman[ Aen? -me(1-4) - Expanding using binomial theorem, we get 4 Km mp2 [14d 8% teed mele pg fv <<6, that is, v/e << 1, then higher terms may be neglected. Thus 2 keme[i+z-I] =4mv ‘This is well known classical expression for kinetic energy of the particle moving with velocity v. In general, relativistic mechanics does reduce to classical mechanics in the limits of small velocities. “The expression for relativistic kinetic energy is Kae] 20 img Ya) I v—>g, thatis, (1 - vc)» 0, the kinetic energy tends to infinity. It means that to accelerate a particle upto the speed of light, an infinite amount of work would be needed to be done. Thus velocity of ight c plays the role of a limiting velocity. Experimental Verification ‘There are numerous experimeatal evidence in support of mass-energy relation. The above relation forms the basis for better understanding of nuclear phenomens like nuclear reactions such as fission and fusion. These reactions take place in nuclear reactor and during the explosion of atomic bombs. The cause of production of energy in stars and some other processes become known today only due to the discovery of this important mass-energy relation. Sommerfeld was able to explain the fine structure of Hg line only by introducing relativistic correction on the basis of relativistic variation of mass with velocity, The good agreement ofhis theory with experimental results provides verification of mass-energy relation. In the process of annihilation of matter, an electron and a positron, may give up all ofits mass in producing two photons or radiant energy. Hence the eatire mass is converted into energy due to universal equivalence of mass and energy. This verifies mass-energy relation. Relativistic Relation between Energy and Momentum The relativistic total energy of ¢ particle moving with velocity vis given as 2 pemd =o wenn) . ™ a-vie#y where my is the rest mass of the particle.58 Engineering Physics-I (U.P.) ‘The momentum of the particle, p - mv Substituting the value of v as p/m in se (D, we get mgt “Ee EF Es | or Eee (. E=me) snnan(2) Squaring equation (2), we have mew (BE ete! Ba ae or E-pe= mje or Es y(mfe!+ pie) ‘This is the relativistic relation between the total energy E and momentum p of a particle, Relativistic Relation Between Kinetic Energy and Momentum ‘The expression for the relativistic kinctic energy X of a particle of rest mass mois given by K=E-me Ba, E= (mec tp’c) K=J(ndetp'e)—me p " «tele pe ‘This is the required relativistic relation between kinetic energy and momentum of « particle. Ifv ° x £ i Fig. (@) 2 O © O sont beth @ 0) © @ 33. The incorrect inverse Lorentz transformation equation is : xoue (4x viet @2-———— () = —— va —v*fe?) Va-v%e2) +o vied me. (@) all are incorrect. Va-v1e) 34. A clock moving with velocity v with respeet to an observer appears slowed down by a factor of : @E-(@1 ory? @)t-@ rer T? O©l-C@ray? @t-o@ror. 35. The half life of an elementary particle moving with speed 0.9 c is measured to be 5 x107*s, The proper half life is : @)2.2x10% s (b)5x107 s (4x10 s @)10x107 s, 36. How fasta spaceship has to go for each yearon the ship to correspond to the two years on the earth? @)1.6x10* m/s (0)2.0x10° m/s @3x10* ms 42.6 x10* mis. 37. The mean life of a muon is 2.210 s and its velocity is 0.98 c. The distance covered by muon before decay is : @) 10.42 km (b) 20.84 km (©)658.7 m @) none of these.«2 You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewving limit for this book.«2 You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewving limit for this book.74 s 64. Engineering Physics-I (U.P.) ‘The kinetic energy of.a body is equal to its rest mass energy, then its velocity is equal to : ob ® £, ze of ‘ Ofthe two twin brothers, one goes on a relati ic tour and come back. The brother on tour wil! : (a become older (b) become younger (© will be of the same age (d) none of these. Rest mass of a particle is defined as : (2) zero mass (b) mass when particle is absolutely at rest () mass when moving with speed of sound (@) mass when moving with speed of light. 6S. The sun radiates energy at the rate of 3.6 x10? erg/see which is equivalent to an annihilation of mass at the rate of : @) 4x10" gmisec (b)1.2x107 gmisce (()10.8x10" gm/sec (48.5 x104 gm/scc. 66. ‘The momentum of a particle of rest mass my and kinetic energy K. E.is expressed as : 12 12 2 2 (2 ame) (b) [#2 vam =p ¢ 12 is © p=! +2mpK.E. @ +2moK.. =p. es ° «Ep 67. ‘The rest mass my of a particle of momentum pand kinetic energy K.E.is represented as : Ite ae TORE Bee? ~(K.E.) wie (KE. @, 2K.E.ct 2K.E.c* 2K.E.c? 2K.E.c* Om saw —. pet - (KE)? Y pic? -(K.E.)? Toial energy Z of a particle of rest energy Eyand momentum pis given as : ay? 52 yl? {ee se @Eo f (4 J Eo [-[ pe J v2 v2 2 Bp pe _{ 4. on|-(t7] onl]«2 You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewving limit for this book.«2 You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewving limit for this book.«2 You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewving limit for this book.7B Engineering Physics-] UP} 36. ‘The momentum of photon of eneruy £ moving with speew cis . 37. 1 kg mass is equivalent to 38 Tie kinetic energy of a body of rest mass mg moving with a very high velocity is 39. In.elativistic mechanies, the time rate of change of momentum is defined as... ctingon a particle. 40. In relativistic mechanics, the momentum of a particle moving with velocity v, comparable with c, is the product of. and ¥ 41. The relation shows that under suitable conditions, mass can be converted into energy and vice-versa. 42. Conversion of rest mass of | a.m.u. (1.65 x10” kg) releases .w. of energy. 43. In nuclear phenomenon in which energy is released there is a corresponding decrease in 44. Relativistic addition of velocity of light to velocity light gives 48. The relativistic mass of a Brparticle moving at about 90% of speed of light, is about 4x10 kg. 13. 14 15. 16. Kinetic energy of f-particle A particle of rest mass my moves with speed tobi fa, is mass can be given (UPTU, B.Tech. 1 Sem, 2009) Is an aircraft in steady flight an inertial frame or non-inertial ? What is frame of reference ? What is non-inertial frames of reference 2 Ts earth an inertial frame ? Explain. Are Galilean transformation equations valid for all velocities ? ‘Write Galilean transformation equations for space and time. ‘What is the difference between inertial and non-inertial frames ? We do not feel the motion of earth. Why ? ‘Write Galilean transformation equations for space and time. ‘What are the conclusions of Michelson-Morley experiment ? What do you understand by the terms varianis and invariants under Galilean transformation ? How the negative results of Michelson-Morley experiment interpreted ? What was the objective of conducting the Michelson-Morley experiment ? State the fundamental postulates of special theory of relativity. Interpret the negative result of Michelson-Morley experiment. Explain why Galilean relativity failed to explain the actual result of Michelson-Morley experiment,«2 You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewving limit for this book.«2 You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewving limit for this book.«2 You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewving limit for this book.gineering Physics-I (U.P.) Unsolved Numerical Problems 1, Calculate the fringe-shift in Michelson-Morley experiment. ¢ iven that 111m, v=30 km/sec and 2 =6 x 10-5 em 2. In the Michelson-Morley experiment, the wavelength of the monochromatic light used is 5000 A.U. What will be the expected fringe shift on the basis of the stationary ether hypothesis if the effective length of each path is 5 m? (Velocity of the earth =3x10* msec and =3x108 m/sec) 3. © For/=50.em and v =1000 nsec, calculate the path difference A between longitudinal and lateral journeys in Michelson-Morley experiment, in terms of wavelength of visible light 4 =5x1075 om. 4. Anevent occurs at x =100 km, y=10km and 2=1.0 at ¢=2.0 x1074 sec in a reference frame S, Another frame S' is moving with speed 0.95 relative to S along the common X ~X” axis, the origins coinciding at « = ¢”=0, Compute the coordinates x’, »’, 2’, ’ of event in S’. 5. A projectile is projected with a velocity v at angle @ from the horizontal in a frame S. Shove that in another frame S’ moving with velocity vcos@ relative to S along the positive X-direction, the projectile will appear to have only vertical motion. 6. Toanobserver at rest on the ground, a body thrown vertically upwards in a uniformly moving frame 'S appears to describe a parabolic path, What is the path of the body as it would appear to.an observer in another reference frame S” ina uniform motion, parallel to S, when S’ has (i) an identical velocity with 5, (ii) a velocity equal and opposite to that of S and (iii) a velocity twice that of S. 71. Show from Lorentz transformation that two events simultaneous (¢, =¢,) at different position x2 #x2 inareference frame S are not, in general, simultaneous in another reference frame 5’, (UPTU I Sem. 2005) 8 Show that for the low values of v, Lorentz transformations approach to Galilean. 9. An inertial frame 5’ is moving with velocity 1.8 x10® m/sec with respect to the frame S along the common XX ‘axes in such a way that the origins of the two frames coincide at t= 1’ =0. Two events are recorded in the frame S, one occurs at the origin at f, =Oand the other occurs on the X-axis at X_ =300m and, =1x10~ sec. Find the time interval between the events as measured in the frame s 10. A spacing 50 m long passes the earth at a speed of 2.8 X10® misec. What will be its apparent length 2 (c=3 x10 misec), Ai. A rod has length 100 cm. When the rod is in a satellite moving with a velocity that is one half of the velocity of light relative to laboratory, what is the length of the rod as determined by an observer (@) in the satellite, and (b) in the laboratory. (UPTU, I Sem. (C.0.) 2006) 12. A rod 1.0 m long is moving along its length with a velocity of 0.6 c. Calculate the length as it appears to a stationary observer.«2 You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewving limit for this book.«2 You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewving limit for this book.«2 You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewving limit for this book.Fill in the Blanks : Galilean stopped Engineering Physics-1 (UP.) 37. 9,9x10') 38. (m— mg) c? the speed oflight,e 39. force nero at rest light Ele infinite disappears I. invariant energy Ele 3h @=tan@! (0.72) =36° 32. 33. 34, 35. 36, 37. 38, 39, 40. 1.5x108#+4.3/4+17.3k 41. 1, relative motion 13. the speed oflightis 25. same in 2, inertial 14, light 26, 3. accelerated orrotating 15. same 2. 4, earth, ether 16. inertial 28, 5. no, relative 17. all 2. 6. postulates 18. proper 30, 7. invariant 19. ze10 31. & different 20, 60m 32, 9. inertial frame 2. hy twice) 33. vr 10. maximum limiting 22, x7 =-@M_ 3 lav? ie? 11. postulates 23. unchanged 38. 12. inertial frame 24, ellipse 36. Unsolved Numerical Problems : 1. 037 15. 0.854m 2 02 3. 1.1x107> wavelength 16. 1.013 «107° sec 4. 17. 2.83 x10° m/sec 18. 101 sec, 2.94 km 19. 3.7107 sec 3.74x10-4 20. 0.995 ¢ 6 (i) Vertical straight line 22. 1,95x104 m (i) Parabola 23. 1.03 x10 m/sec (ii) Parabola 24. 09750 9% 0,5x107% sec 25. 2.99 x10! cm/sec 10. 18m 26. 0.9946 M1, (a) 1000m 27, -0.23¢ (6) 86.6 em 28, 12, 80cm 29, 100.9 kg 13. 4.23 x10? cmisee 30. 15% 1073 kg a2. 40. mass, velocity 41. B= met 42, 931 MeV 43, Total mass 44, Velocity of light 45. 2x10® MeV 46. V2 mg. 2.8 x10" misee 2.78x107* gm, 6.67x107" gm-cm/sec 1.26 x 10° cm/sec 2.939 x108 m/sec 1.8108 misec VAN At/) 5.61055 eV 8.19x107"* J, 0.51 MeV, 06e 34x10 y 0.909 25109 K.W.H. 3.72 x1079 gm 26.53 MeV.«2 You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewving limit for this book.«2 You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewving limit for this book.«2 You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewving limit for this book.90. Engineering Physies-I (UP.) Young’s Experiment In 1801, Thomas Young performed an experiment that lead to the establishment of the wave theory oflight, His arrangement (Fig. 1) consists oftwo small, closely spaced holesor slits, S, and S,, inan opaque surface with « light source S placed behind it. Here Sand S, serve as two coherent sources of light of the same intensity. He used sunlightas a light source and observed an interference pattem on a screen placed parallel to the two sources S, and S,. A series of few coloured bright and dark vertica! lines called fringes appear on the screen, As a modification of the original experimental arrangement, sunlight is replaced by monochromatic light to get alternatively dark and bright bands. Let us draw circles of radii 4/2, 24/2, 34/2, +», nA/2 around S, and S); the alternate circles represent crests and troughs. Explanation on Wave Theory ‘The formation of interterence fringes on the screen can be explained on the basis of wave theory. ‘When light passes through the slit S, spherical waves spread out from S. According to Huygen's principle, each point of a wavefront become the source of secondary disturbance and the secondary wavelets B Maximum (Bright) 8B Maximum (Bright) ID Minimum (ark) |B Maximum (Bright) Screen Interference fringes Fig, 1 emanating from these vointsspread out inall directions, Hence spherical waves elso spread out fromeclosely spaced holes S, and §,, The radii of these secondary wavefronts increase as they move away from S, and ‘Szand hence they superimpose more az moze on each other. At points where a crest falls over a crest or trough overa trough, the vibrations ae large andthe resultant amplitudeis grestest andhence theresultant intensity at these points is increased. These points are shown by soiid dots in fig. 1. This is the case of constructive interference. At points where a crest of one falls over the trough oi the other, the intensity is minimum, Thisiis the case ofdesiructive intexference. The poiats at which the inteasity is minimum are dark and represeated by hollow dots in the fig. 1. Thus on the screen we get altemate bright and dark lines at the intersection of the soreen with entinodal sid nodal planes. These dark and brigit regions of equal width are called interference fringes. Analytical Treatment of interference We shall derive an expression for the resultaut intensity at any point P on the screen due to superposition of two waves of light. Let 5 be a narrow slit illuminated by a monochromatic light of wavelength A, and (fig. 2) 5; and S, are two narrow slits close together and equidistance from S. The waves«2 You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewving limit for this book.«2 You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewving limit for this book.«2 You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewving limit for this book.4 Engineering Physics-1 (UP.) + The ratio of the amplitudes, 2 The ratio of their intensities, ped=(Q =) o Eg Example 2: Two coherent sources whose intensity ratio is 100: produce interference fringes. Deduce the ratio of maxtmure intensity to minimum intensity in fringe system. A ha Solution ; We kaow that, eee, Given are 10 ati Fras, _ 00a +02)? (uy 121 240, thatis, = 10 TS" Goazeyh 3) “aT Tox _ 121 in Example 3 : Two identical coherent waves produced interference pattern. Find the ratio of intensity at the centre of a bright fringe to the intensity at a point one quarter of the distance between two fringes from the centre. Solution ; The resultant intensity /at any point on the screen is given by I= ay +a;?+2aq, cos 6 ‘As the interfering waves are identical, their amplitudes are equal, hat is, a, = a I= 2a?+ 2a? cos 8= 2a? (1 +.co2 8) whee Bi the phase difference. At the centre of the bright ftinge, 5= 0, 2z, .., Therefore, y= 2a" (1 +608 0°)~ 4a? ‘The phase difference between successive fringes is 2x. Thus, the phase difference at a point distant one-quarter of the distance between two fringes fiom the ceatre will be 2.4 = - Heace, the ites ata point one quarter of the distance between two fringes from centre will be = 2a? (1 + 00s x/2) = 2a? te 4a, “aa Example¢; fnvsmrve efi tutondsteeestnoninasooesepnmen:chun, intensities at points where the waves from two sources superimpose with a phase difference of (0, (li) 2/2, and (uy = Solution : The resultant intensity at point at which phase difference between the waves from two coherent sources 5is Ig=a;?+ 043+ 2aya, cos 6= 1, +h + W(hylz) 608 6 where J, = a," and J, = a,? are the intensities due to individual waves (Q Here, 6=0, 4, =fand=4F Ig=I+ 4I+2\(EAD 00s 0= 91 (it) Here, 8= 7/2, J, =Iand J, ~ 47 [gn 1+ 41+ (LAD cos wi2 = 51 (ii) Hore, 8= x, = Tend f= 41 Ign 1+ 41+ (LAD cos = 51-41=1«2 You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewving limit for this book.«2 You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewving limit for this book.«2 You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewving limit for this book.8 Engineering Physics~i (U.P.) 1. Position of bright fringes : For bright finge or maximum intensity at P, the path difference must be an even multiple of the half wavelength (4/2) of light uood, that i, A=2n(W2)= (QxdyD, wheren ant mA x AD, where n =0, 1,253, om 2. Position of dark fringes : Fordark fringes or minimum inteasity at P, the path difference must be an odd muultiple of half wavelength (2/2) of light used, that is, A=(n+1) U2, where n= 0, 1, 2, 3, Qxd = (Qn+ DAD A= 22 senttan or x= CRED a ‘The eqn. (7) gives the distance of nth dark fringe from O. Therefore writing x, for x, we get _ Qn+)aD @ Where = 0, 1, 2, 3, o0 or X Wo =1,23,.4 3. Separation of fringes or fringe width w: The separation between any twosuccessive bright fringes ‘or any two successive dark fringes is called the fringe width and is denoted by a. For bright fringes : If x, ; and x, denote the distances of (n + 1) and n' bright fringes from O, then we have Fon = (nt D94 and 3,= 22 + Fringe width, @ = xyqy —3y = (n+) 24 MDA = DA (411) = @= BR 0) ga. @)reprseatsthoreparationbetneen two consecutive bright fringes or — width of bright fringes. For dark fringes : If, + | and x, are the distances or spacing of two consecutive dark fringes from O, then we have _(2n+3)AD | _(Qn+)AD ad a (2n43)AD _(2n+1)AD ad ad 6 Width, 0) — apg, — y= ap or = DB ant3—2n-1] = 49 o a= (10) ‘Eqn (10) is the required relation for the separation between two consecutive dark fringes or fringe width of dark fringes. ‘Eqns. (9) and (10) are independent of n. Hence the separation between any two consecutive bright fringes or any two consecutive dark fringes is the same. Fromeqn. (9) or (10) it is clear that the fringe width varies directly with the slit-screen separation D, inversely with the separation ofslits«2 You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewving limit for this book.«2 You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewving limit for this book.«2 You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewving limit for this book.102 Engineering Physics-I U.P.) 4-%1=90-Fo= Bo=0.8835 or = 2889582 or @=0,1178 m= 1.178 x 107 Now the wavelength, 2 @ 32, Here 2d~ 0.5 mm = 0.05 emand D~ 100 em 2= 0.1178 x 9-06 = $890 x 10-* m= $890 A Example 17. In a two slit experiment with monochromaticlight, fringes are obtained onascreen placed at some distance from theslits. If the screen ts moved by5 x 10-* m towards theslits, the changein fringe wlidthis3 x 10-* m, Ifthe distance between thesilss is 10~*m, calculate the wavelength of the light used, ‘Solution : In the given problem, wavelength of light 2.and the separation between the slits 2dis fixed. The fringe width o changes with the distance of screen from the slit, that is, with D. ‘We know that, the fringe width, o-4D If change in fringe width be Acand change in position ofthe screen is AD, then, A@= AD HereAD=5x10-?m, A@=3x10-%m and 2d=10-*m ~A@ 4,_ 3x10 ns im = 1 = Sp td = PORE x10 = 6% 10-%m = 600A Example 18: In a particular two-slitinterference pattern with A= 6000 A, the cero order and 10th order maxima fall at mlerometer readings 12.34 mm and 14.73 mum. If Ais changed to $000 A, deduce the positions of the zero order and 20" order fringes, other arrangements remaining the same. ‘Solution : Zero order fringe is the central fringe and independent of 2. So it falls at 12.34 mm ‘We know that if the position of zero order fringe is x, and10" order fringe is xo, then ai" 10,42 9,43 (: = 42) 10aD Xo ~ 29 _ 14.73-12.34 2 Foye = MBS = 0.259 mm or ty ID gg Paws ‘Therefore for 2= 6000 A, >= 0.239 mm = AD 9.2 239 mm= 22 or 2-B ) ‘We know that the fringe width changes with 2. Let the new interference pattern has ay’ fringe width when 2 = $000 A, then 12D o' _D OW 8 Tid Dividing eqn. (2) by eqn. (1), we get (2) oh Loo T=2 o aed e Therefore «= $909 x 0.239 = 0.199 m ‘The separation of 20 fringes = 20<= 20 * 0,199 - 3.98 mm + The position of 20 order fringe with = 5000 A is Xo 3.98 = 12.34 £3.98 = 16.32 mm, 8.36 mm«2 You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewving limit for this book.«2 You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewving limit for this book.«2 You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewving limit for this book.106 Engineering Physics-I (U.P.) ‘Sis allowed to fall symmeuically on the biprism ABC with ts refracting edge vertical (Fig.7). Whea light falls from slit Sou lower half (surface AC) ofthe biprismitis bentupwardsand appears ocome from S, Similarly, the light fromS, which falls onupperhalf (surface AB)of the prism, is bent downwards and appears tocome from S, ‘The virtual images 5, and S, of S act as two coherent sources. 3. Lloyd's Mirror Itis anarrangement oobiaintwo coherent sources of light o produce interference. ce, plane gle plte (48, acting as mirror) ited at almost grazing inci- dence by amonochromatic light froma narrow slit5,.A virtual image S, of S, is formed closed to S, by reflection (Fig. 8) from the mirror. The real source S, and virtual source S, act as coherent sources for the study of interference. 4, Thin Film (Reflected System) In this case two coherent beams are obtained by division of the amplitude of a incoming beam by partial reflection and refraction. A single wave train Sd of monochromatic light be incident on the upper surface of athin film of thickness rand refractive index p (> 1) at an acuteangle (<90°). This ray is partly reflected along ‘AB and partly refracted along AC. At point C the ray AC is again partly reflected from the second surface along CD, then part of itis transmitted along DE (Fig. 9). As the rays AB and DE are derived from the same incident wave SA, they are coherentand actas they are originating from two coherent sources, Fresnel’s Biprism Itisadevice for producing coherent sourcesby division veebolia of wavefront, Fresnel produced the interference fringes in the Teo Inboratory by deriving two coherent sources S, and S; froma single monochromaticsource Sbyusing the deviation produced S, by a biprism. The experimental arrangement is shown schematically in fig. 10. The biprism consists of two acute | c 4t> wy, Under this condition the reflection of both the interfering rays will be fiom denser to rarer medium. Hence the effective path difference between both the interfering rays at the point of contact becomes zero which is the condition of maximum intensity. Hence the ceatre of Newton's rings appears bright. This situation was achieved by Young, Inhisexperiment, he poured few drops of sassafras oll (u=1.57) between acrown glass (jt 1.50) lens and « flint glass (4 1.65) plate and obtained a bright centre of the rings system. Newton's Ring with White Light ‘When an air film between the plano-convex lens and glass plate is illuminated with an extended source of white light, a few mixed coloured rings around a black centre are observed and beyond itauniform illumination is obtained. This is because the diameters of the ring is a function of wavelength and white light is composed of a number of colours (wavelengths). Thus the diameters of rings of different colours will be different. As we know that 1,> Ay, therefore the diameter of violet ring of the same order will be smallest and those for red ring will be the largest, and the diameters of other coloured rings shall occupy the Plane glass plate«2 You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewving limit for this book.«2 You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewving limit for this book.«2 You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewving limit for this book.146 Engineering Physics-I (U.P.) Example 62 : Ifthe angle of wedge is 0.25° of arc and the wavelength of sodium D lines are 5890 = 10-* ‘and 5896 » 10"! em, find the distance from the apex of the wedge at which the maximum due to each wave length first colncide. Solution : Let tbe the thickness of the wedge at a point where the maximum due to A, = 5896 x 10-* cm and 4, = 5890 x 10-* cm coincide when viewed by the reflected light. Thus, for normal incidence and air film. This condition can be given by 28= (2n-+1) A/2= (2n+3) a2 evwen() or n+) 4=@n+3)%, on ee Substituting the value of n in eqa. (1), we get Auda Why noel If @ is the angle of wedge and x is the distance from the apex of the wedge at which the maximum. due to 2, and 2, coincide, then tan g=t or of=xtan@ = = or— t= x0 a= (3) i 0 0.25 8 Given 9=0.25°= —Te5— rad. Therefore, from eqns. (2) and (3), we get Ah Aan 28 = 5 or "qa svoreenl) Given 2, = $896 x 10-* cm, 2,= 5890 x 10-Fem, therefore (A, -2,)= 6 « 10cm Substituting these values in eqn. (4), we get __ $896 « 10°? 5890 x 10° x 180 6x10 x 20.25% 3.14 Example 63 : Light containing two wavelengths A, and A, fall normally on a plano-convex lens of radius of curvature R resting on a glass plate. If the nth dark ring due to 4, coincides with the (n+ 1)" dark ring due ta Ax, prove that the radius of the nth dark ring of A, is a,a,R Qy Ay) Solution ; Radius of the nth dark ting in the Newton's ring pattem is given by t= fadR nt dark ring due to 2, coincides with the (m + 1)th dark ring due to 2,. That is, Dya4ndR=4(nt DAR or nh=(nt+h, or 2 Substituting this value of n in equation (1), we get _ [uaR PRR ery =6.6 em Ar "«2 You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewving limit for this book.«2 You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewving limit for this book.«2 You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewving limit for this book.150 iceting Physics-I QP? (0 When wavelength of light changes from 4.t0 2, we have 44'R BL Dividing equation (2) by equation (1), we get Din~D% 2 2 2 peor D2-Dt=F0},- 0d Here 4 =4.5 x 10S cm, A= 6 x L0~ cmand Di,+ 1 -D% = 0.125 om? 1g 4510-5 1D = Spgs X 0125 = 0.0937 em? (i) When a liquid of refactive index p! is introduced botween the leas and plate, then we have v2, pan tak Dine 1D yr Dividing equation (3) by equation (1), we get Din~ Dr at 2 Dis DF a Here f=1,y'=133 and D4,1-D}=0.125 cm? ” D4 1 — DF, = (1/1.33) 0.125 = 0,096 em? (it) When the radius of curvature of he couver surface ofthe plano-convex lens is changed to 2’, then we have D?n41~ D2, = n= (Dat ~ Dad 4aR 44 4-D4= D1 D2 Dividing equation (4) by equation (1), we get Dinu Di _ Rt “Di, -DL OR Here Rs2R and D3, —-D4=0.125 cm? o D4 5-D'%=2 x 0.125 = 0.250 em? (4) or Die DE = Die PA) Example 73 : Two plano-convexlenses, each ofradius of curvature 100 cm, are placed with their curved surfaces in contact wish eack other. Newton's rings are formed by using a light of wavelength 6 «1075 cm. Find the distance between 10" and 20" rings, Solution : In fig. 35 lee thethishnes of iim and dimer of lt ig is Dy then} soe EB) For normal incidence the condition of n'* dark ring is em RBI«2 You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewving limit for this book.«2 You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewving limit for this book.«2 You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewving limit for this book.154 Engineering Physics-t (U.?.) ‘Maltiplying eqn. (1) by 2 sin 8/2, we get 2R cos g sin (8/2) = al2 sin (8/2) +2 sin (8/2) cos 5 +2 sin (62) cos 26+ ...+2 sin (4/2) 08 (n - 1) 4} Applying trigonemetrical formula, 2cosd sin B= sin (4+ B) sin (A—B), we get ancosd sin $= a[asing + {sin 38 -sin$) (sin 52 sin) st {ein (n-$) 8a (3) 5}] wafin $sn(o- 4) s]m a fa 58 in ( 28. rou = UF) cal 524] sin +s Similarly the second series [eqn. (2)] after multiplication by 2 sin (4/2) and on simplification gives Ring = oa an 4] ) wad weal) @ sin? (5/2) Ss (3) and (4), and ad rns ;quaring eqns. (3) and (4), iding, we get =D (5) 5/2) or R=) sere) Dividing eqn. (4) by eqa. (3), we obtain 1) 6 eh tan 9 = tm SVE or gens sao)«2 You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewving limit for this book.«2 You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewving limit for this book.«2 You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewving limit for this book.«2 You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewving limit for this book.«2 You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewving limit for this book.«2 You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewving limit for this book.«2 You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewving limit for this book.«2 You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewving limit for this book.«2 You have either reached a page that is unavailable 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