Tutorial 17.

Modeling Cavitation

Introduction: This tutorial examines the pressure-driven cavitating flow of water

through a sharp-edged orifice. This is a typical configuration in fuel injectors,
and brings a challenge to the physics and numerics of cavitation models, because of
the high pressure differentials involved, and the high ratio of liquid to vapor den-
sity. Using FLUENT’s multiphase modeling capability, you will be able to predict
the strong cavitation near the orifice after flow separation at a sharp edge. In this
tutorial you will learn how to:
• Set boundary conditions for internal flow
• Use the mixture model with cavitation effects
• Calculate a solution using the segregated solver

Prerequisites: This tutorial assumes that you are familiar with the menu structure in
FLUENT and that you have solved or read Tutorial 1. Some steps in the setup and
solution procedure will not be shown explicitly.

Problem Description: The problem considers the cavitation caused by the flow sepa-
ration after a sharp-edged orifice. The flow is pressure driven, with an inlet pressure
of 5 × 105 Pa, and an outlet pressure of 9.5 × 104 Pa. The orifice diameter is 4
× 10− 3 m, and geometrical parameters of the orifice are D/d = 2.88 and L/d =
8, where D, d, and L are inlet diameter, orifice diameter, and orifice length respec-
tively. The geometry of the orifice is shown in Figure 17.1.

Preparation

1. Copy the file cav/cav.msh from the FLUENT documentation CD to your working
directory (as described in Tutorial 1).

2. Start the 2D version of FLUENT.

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pressure Wall
inlet = 5e5 Pa

pressure
outlet = 9.5e4 Pa

Axis

Figure 17.1: Problem Specification

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Step 1: Grid
1. Read the grid file (cav.msh).
File −→ Read −→Case...
As FLUENT reads the grid file, it will report its progress in the console window.
2. Check the grid.
Grid −→Check
FLUENT will perform various checks on the mesh and will report the progress in the
console window. Pay particular attention to the reported minimum volume. Make
sure this is a positive number.
3. Display the grid.
Display −→Grid...

(a) Display the grid using the default settings (Figure 17.2).
As shown in Figure 17.2, half of the problem geometry is modeled, with an
axis boundary (consisting of two separate lines) at the centerline. Especially
when you begin to display data graphically, you may want to mirror the view
across the centerline to obtain a more realistic view of the model. This step
will be performed later in the tutorial.
The mesh is quadrilateral, slightly graded in the plenum to be finer toward the
orifice. In the orifice, the mesh is uniform, with aspect ratios close to 1, as
the flow is expected to exhibit two-dimensional gradients.

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Grid Nov 26, 2002

FLUENT 6.1 (2d, segregated, lam)

Figure 17.2: The Grid in the Orifice

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Step 2: Models

1. Specify a steady-state axisymmetric model.

Define −→ Models −→Solver...
The segregated solver must be used for multiphase calculations.

(a) Under Space, select Axisymmetric.

(b) Keep the default settings for everything else.
Note: A computationally-intensive unsteady calculation is necessary to accurately
simulate the irregular cyclic process of bubble formation, growth, filling by
water jet re-entry, and breakoff. In this tutorial, you will perform a steady-
state calculation to simulate the presence of a bubble in the separation region
in the time-averaged flow.

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2. Enable the multiphase mixture model with cavitation effects.

Define −→ Models −→Multiphase...
(a) Select Mixture as the Model.
The panel will expand.
(b) Under Mixture Parameters, turn off the Slip Velocity option.
Since there is no significant difference in velocities for the different phases,
there is no need to solve for the slip velocity equation.
(c) Select Cavitation under Interphase Mass Transfer.
The panel will expand again to show the cavitation inputs.

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(d) Enter 3540 for the Vaporization Pressure.

The vaporization pressure is a property of the working liquid, which depends
mainly on the liquid temperature. The default value is the vaporization pressure
of water at a temperature of 300 K.
(e) Enter 1.5e-5 for Non Condensable Gas.
This is the mass fraction of non condensable gas dissolved in the working
liquid. 1.5e − 5 (15 ppm) is a typical value for air dissolved in water.
(f) Enter 0.0717 for the Liquid Surface Tension.
Like the vaporization pressure, the liquid-vapor surface tension is a property of
the liquid, which depends mainly on temperature. Here too, the default value
is the surface tension for water and vapor at a temperature of 300 K.

3. Turn on the standard k- turbulence model with standard wall functions.
Define −→ Models −→Viscous...
(a) Select k-epsilon as the Model.

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(b) Keep the default selection of Standard under k-epsilon Model.

The standard k-model used in conjunction with standard wall functions is a
suitable choice for this problem. For different cavitation problems, you may
use other turbulence models. See Chapter 22 of the User’s Guide for more
information on the choice of turbulence models to be used in conjunction with
FLUENT’s cavitation model.
(c) Keep the default selection of Standard Wall Functions under Near-Wall Treat-
ment.

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Step 3: Materials
1. Create a new material to be used for the primary phase. Copy water vapor from
the materials database so that it can be used for the secondary phase, and modify
its density.
Define −→Materials...
(a) In the Name field, type water.
(b) Clear the Chemical Formula field.
(c) In the Density drop-down list, keep the default selection of constant, and enter
a value of 1000.
(d) In the Viscosity drop-down list, keep the default selection of constant, and enter
a value of 0.001.
(e) Click Change/Create, and then click Yes in the dialog box prompting whether
you want to overwrite the definition of air.
(f) Click the Database... button in the Materials panel.
The Database Materials panel will open.

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i. In the list of Fluid Materials, select water-vapor (h2o).

ii. Click Copy to copy the information for water vapor to your model.
iii. Close the Database Materials panel.
(g) Change the value of Density for water-vapor (h2o) to 0.02558.
(h) Change the value of Viscosity for water-vapor (h2o) to 1.26e-6.

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Step 4: Phases

1. Define the liquid water and water vapor phases that flow through the orifice.
Define −→Phases...

(a) Specify liquid water as the primary phase.

i. Select phase-1 and click the Set... button.

ii. In the Primary Phase panel, enter liquid for the Name.
iii. Select water from the Phase Material drop-down list.

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(b) Specify water vapor as the secondary phase.

i. Select phase-2 and click the Set... button.

ii. In the Secondary Phase panel, enter vapor for the Name.
iii. Select water-vapor from the Phase Material drop-down list.

Step 5: Operating Conditions

1. Set the operating pressure to 0 pascal.

Define −→Operating Conditions...

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Step 6: Boundary Conditions

For this problem, you need to set the boundary conditions for two boundaries: the pressure
inlet (consisting of two boundary zones), and the pressure outlet. The pressure outlet is
the downstream boundary, opposite the pressure inlets.

1. Set the conditions for the pressure inlets (inlet-1, inlet-2).

For the multiphase mixture model, you will specify conditions for the mixture (i.e.,
conditions that apply to all phases) and also conditions that are specific to the
primary and secondary phases. In this tutorial, boundary conditions are needed for
the mixture and secondary phase only.
(a) Set the conditions for the mixture.
Define −→Boundary Conditions...
i. In the Boundary Conditions panel, keep the default selection of mixture in
the Phase drop-down list and click Set....
ii. Enter 500000 for the Gauge Total Pressure.
iii. Enter 449000 for the Supersonic/Initial Gauge Pressure.
If you choose to initialize the solution based on the pressure-inlet con-
ditions, the Supersonic/Initial Gauge Pressure will be used in conjunction
with the specified stagnation pressure (the Gauge Total Pressure) to com-
pute initial values according to the isentropic relations (for compressible
flow) or Bernoulli’s equation (for incompressible flow). Otherwise, in an
incompressible flow calculation, the Supersonic/Initial Gauge Pressure input
will be ignored by FLUENT. In this problem the velocity will be initialized
based on the difference between these two values.
iv. In the Direction Specification Method drop-down list, keep the default se-
lection of Normal to Boundary.
v. In the Turbulence Specification Method drop-down list, keep the default
selection of K and Epsilon.
vi. Under Turb. Kinetic Energy, enter 0.02.

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(b) Check the volume fraction of the secondary phase.

i. In the Boundary Conditions panel, select vapor from the Phase drop-down
list and click Set....

ii. Keep the default Volume Fraction of 0.

(c) Copy the boundary conditions defined for the first pressure inlet zone (inlet-1)
to the second one (inlet-2).
i. In the Boundary Conditions panel, select mixture from the Phase drop-down
list.
ii. In the Boundary Conditions panel, click Copy...
This will open the Copy BCs panel.

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iii. Select inlet-1 in the From Zone list, and then select inlet-2 in the To Zones
list.
iv. Click Copy.

2. Set the boundary conditions for the pressure outlet (outlet).

The turbulence conditions you input at the pressure outlet will be used only if flow
enters the domain through this boundary. You can set them equal to the inlet
values, as no flow reversal is expected at the pressure outlet. In general, however,
it is important to set reasonable values for these downstream scalar values, in case
flow reversal occurs at some point during the calculation.
(a) Set the conditions for the mixture.
i. In the Boundary Conditions panel, keep the default selection of mixture in
the Phase drop-down list and click Set....

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ii. Under Gauge Pressure, enter 95000.

iii. Keep the default selection of K and Epsilon for the Turbulence Specification
Method.
iv. Set the Backflow Turb. Kinetic Energy to 0.02.
(b) Check the volume fraction of the secondary phase.
i. In the Boundary Conditions panel, select vapor from the Phase drop-down
list and click Set....
ii. Retain the default Volume Fraction of 0.

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Step 7: Solution

1. Set the solution parameters.

Solve −→ Controls −→Solution...

(a) Under Under-Relaxation Factors, set the under-relaxation factor for Pressure to
0.4.
(b) Set the under-relaxation factor for Momentum to 0.4.
(c) Scroll down and set the under-relaxation factors for Turbulence Kinetic Energy,
Turbulence Dissipation Rate, and Turbulent Viscosity to 0.5.
FLUENT’s new cavitation model follows a different numerical approach from
the previous one. In general it is more robust and gives more accurate results.
Typically, for more complex cases, with very high pressure drops or large liquid-
vapor density ratios, the under-relaxation factors may need to be reduced to
between 0.1 and 0.2. For the Vaporization Mass, it is generally advised to use a
value of 0.1, even though for this term you can use an under-relaxation factor
of 0.001 to 1, as necessary.
(d) Under Discretization, select Linear in the Pressure drop-down list and SIMPLEC
in the Pressure-Velocity Coupling drop-down list.

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2. Enable the plotting of residuals during the calculation.

Solve −→ Monitors −→Residual...

(a) Change the convergence criterion for continuity to 1e-7 for improved accuracy.
(b) Change all other convergence criteria except for vf-vapor to 1e-5 for improved
accuracy.
(c) Select Plot under Options, and click OK.

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3. Initialize the solution from either of the pressure inlet zones (inlet-1 or inlet-2).
Solve −→ Initialize −→Initialize...

(a) Select inlet-1 or inlet-2 in the Compute From drop-down list.

(b) Under Reference Frame, select Absolute.
(c) Click Init to initialize the solution.

4. Save the case file (cav.cas).

File −→ Write −→Case...

5. Start the calculation by requesting 2500 iterations.

The solution will converge to within the specified criteria in approximately 2100
iterations.
Solve −→Iterate...

6. Save the data file (cav.dat).

File −→ Write −→Data...

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Step 8: Postprocessing

1. Plot the pressure in the orifice.

Display −→Contours...

(a) Select Pressure... and Static Pressure in the drop-down lists under Contours Of.
(b) Select Filled under Options.
(c) Click Display.
Note the dramatic pressure drop at the flow restriction in Figure 17.3. Low
static pressure is the major factor to cause cavitation, though turbulence also
contributes to cavitation, due to the effect of pressure fluctuation and turbulent
diffusion, as will be shown in the following plots.
To make the view more realistic, you will need to mirror it across the center-
line.

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4.99e+05
4.74e+05
4.50e+05
4.25e+05
4.00e+05
3.75e+05
3.50e+05
3.25e+05
3.00e+05
2.75e+05
2.51e+05
2.26e+05
2.01e+05
1.76e+05
1.51e+05
1.26e+05
1.01e+05
7.64e+04
5.15e+04
2.67e+04
1.77e+03

Contours of Static Pressure (mixture) (pascal) Nov 26, 2002

FLUENT 6.1 (axi, segregated, mixture, ske)

Figure 17.3: Contours of Static Pressure

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2. Mirror the display across the centerline.

Display −→Views...

(a) Select symm-1 and symm-2 in the Mirror Planes list and click Apply.

4.99e+05
4.74e+05
4.50e+05
4.25e+05
4.00e+05
3.75e+05
3.50e+05
3.25e+05
3.00e+05
2.75e+05
2.51e+05
2.26e+05
2.01e+05
1.76e+05
1.51e+05
1.26e+05
1.01e+05
7.64e+04
5.15e+04
2.67e+04
1.77e+03

Contours of Static Pressure (mixture) (pascal) Dec 17, 2002

FLUENT 6.1 (axi, segregated, mixture, ske)

Figure 17.4: Mirrored View of Contours of Static Pressure

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3. Plot the turbulent kinetic energy.

Display −→Contours...
(a) Select Turbulence... and Turbulent Kinetic Energy in the drop-down lists under
Contours Of.
(b) Click Display.

2.48e+01
2.35e+01
2.23e+01
2.11e+01
1.98e+01
1.86e+01
1.73e+01
1.61e+01
1.49e+01
1.36e+01
1.24e+01
1.12e+01
9.91e+00
8.67e+00
7.44e+00
6.20e+00
4.96e+00
3.72e+00
2.48e+00
1.24e+00
6.01e-03

Contours of Turbulent Kinetic Energy (k) (mixture) (m2/s2) Dec 17, 2002
FLUENT 6.1 (axi, segregated, mixture, ske)

Figure 17.5: Contours of Turbulent Kinetic Energy

In this example, the grid used is fairly coarse. However, in cavitating flows the
pressure distribution is the dominant factor, and is not very sensitive to grid size.

4. Plot the volume fraction of water vapor.

Display −→Contours...
(a) Select Phases... and Volume fraction in the drop-down lists under Contours Of.
(b) Select vapor in the Phase drop-down list.
(c) Click Display.

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1.00e-00
9.50e-01
9.00e-01
8.50e-01
8.00e-01
7.50e-01
7.01e-01
6.51e-01
6.01e-01
5.51e-01
5.01e-01
4.51e-01
4.01e-01
3.52e-01
3.02e-01
2.52e-01
2.02e-01
1.52e-01
1.02e-01
5.24e-02
2.59e-03

Contours of Volume fraction (vapor) Dec 17, 2002

FLUENT 6.1 (axi, segregated, mixture, ske)

Figure 17.6: Contours of Vapor Volume Fraction

Note that the high turbulent kinetic energy region near the neck of the orifice (Fig-
ure 17.5) coincides with the highest volume fraction of vapor in Figure 17.6. This
indicates the correct prediction of a localized high phase change rate. The vapor
then gets convected downstream by the main flow.

Summary: This tutorial demonstrated how to set up and resolve a strongly cavitating
pressure driven flow through an orifice, using FLUENT’s multiphase mixture model
with cavitation effects. You learned how to set the boundary conditions for an
internal flow. A steady-state solution was calculated to simulate the formation of
a vapor bubble in the neck of the flow after the section restriction at the orifice.
A more computationally-intensive unsteady calculation is necessary to accurately
simulate the irregular cyclic process of bubble formation, growth, filling by water
jet re-entry, and breakoff.

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