Topic X Salts

8
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Explain how soluble salts and insoluble salts can be prepared;
2. Explain how cations and anions in salts can be identified;
3. Conduct tests to identify gases;
4. Describe how salt can be prepared by crystallisation; and
5. Identify the ions present in an unknown salt using qualitative
analysis.

X INTRODUCTION
Hello and welcome to the final topic of this module! Well, first of all, I am sure
you are aware that chemical salts are part of our daily life. We use sodium
chloride and monosodium glutamate or MSG in food preparation, ammonium
nitrate and urea as fertilisers, mercury (II) chloride and copper(II) sulphates in
pesticides, sodium benzoate and sodium nitrate as preservatives in our food and
so on.

In addition, most of the medications we take are salts in tablet form. As an

example, for gastric pain due to digestive acids, we take antacids such as natrium
hydrogen carbonate, which is a base to neutralise the digestive acids. Another
familiar and popular example is Panadol or paracetamol which we use to relieve
headaches and fever. For indigestion and bloatedness, we use „ENO‰ salt.
 TOPIC 8 SALTS W 191

Epsom salts or magnesium sulphate crystals are used for relaxing muscles, as a
sedative and to draw toxins from our body. The examples can go on and on
because there are so many uses of salts in our daily lives; it is just a matter of
whether we realise it or not.

So, in this topic, we will learn more about salts, how they are prepared, how
cations and anions in salts can be identified, how cations and anions in salts can
be analysed through qualitative analysis as well as how salts can be obtained in
their crystalline form through the process of crystallisation. Are you ready to
start now? Let this exciting lesson begin and enjoy this final topic!

8.1 PREPARATION OF SALTS

We begin this topic by discussing salt. Before we proceed further, what can you
say to define salt?

A salt is an ionic compound that contains a cation other than H+

and an anion other than OH- or O2-.

There are many different types of salts which exist in nature. The earth crust
contains different types of salt such as calcium chloride, magnesium sulphate
and calcium carbonate. There are also salts such as potassium chloride,
magnesium chloride and potassium bromide. Keep in mind that not all salts are
soluble in water. There are soluble salts and insoluble salts. In Topic 7, we learnt
that the solubility of a substance is the amount of that substance (solute) that can
be dissolved in a given quantity of solvent. Can you still recall? What does it
mean by soluble salts?

Soluble salts are salts that dissolve in water at room temperature

while salts that cannot dissolve in water are called insoluble salts.
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However, some salts that do not dissolve in water at room temperature do

dissolve in hot water such as lead(II) chloride. You can refer to Table 8.1, which
gives you a summary of soluble and insoluble salts.

Table 8.1: Soluble and Insoluble Salts

Soluble Salts Insoluble Salts

x Nitrate Salts x Chloride salts: All are soluble except silver chloride,
x Sodium lead(II) chloride (soluble in hot water) and mercury(II)
chloride
x Potassium
x Sulphate salts: All are soluble except lead(II) sulphate,
x Ammonium Salts barium sulphate, and calcium sulphate (dissolves a little
x Ethanoate Salts bit in water)
x Carbonate salts: All are insoluble except sodium carbonate,
potassium carbonate and ammonium carbonate

We can prepare both soluble and insoluble salts using various methods. The
methods used depend on the saltÊs solubility in water. These methods will be
discussed in the following sections.

8.1.1 Preparation of Soluble Salts

Do you know that there are three methods to prepare soluble salts? These
methods are acid-base neutralisation reactions, displacement reactions, and
reaction of acids with carbonates. Then, the salt solutions formed are evaporated,
cooled, filtered, and dried to obtain dry salt crystals. Figure 8.1 shows the
preparation of soluble salts.
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Figure 8.1: Preparation of soluble salts

Source: http://wiki.one-school.net
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Now, let us study these three methods further, starting with neutalisation
reactions.

(a) Neutralisation Reactions

Firstly, let us learn the definition of neutralisation reaction. What does it
stand for?

Acid-base neutralisation reactions are processes in which an acid

reacts with a base to form salt and water.

Do you know which salts can be prepared this way? Salts of sodium,
potassium, and ammonium can be prepared by neutralisation reactions.
How does this method work? This method works by neutralising the acid
by a base/alkali, thus producing the end products which are salt and water.
This process can be simplified as follows

Acid + Base/Alkali Æ Salt + Water

(Neutralisation)

One typical example for this particular method is the reaction between
hydrochloric acid (acid) and sodium hydroxide (base) to form sodium
chloride (salt) and water.

HCl(aq) + NaOH (aq) Æ NaCl(aq) + H2O (l)

From this example, we can also define salt as a compound that is formed
when the hydrogen ion, H+, from an acid is replaced by a metal ion or
ammonium ion from the base/alkali.

A salt is also an ionic compound which consists of a cation such as a metal

ion or an ammonium ion from a base and anion from an acid. For example,
in the salt sodium chloride, the cation is sodium ion, Na+, and the anion is
the chloride ion, Cl.
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Other soluble salts can also be prepared through neutralisation by having

an acid react with a metal oxide, just as shown in the following:

Acid + Metal Oxide Æ Salt + Water

(neutralisation)

An example for this method is when you have hydrochloric acid (acid) react
with magnesium oxide (base) to form magnesium chloride (salt) and water.

HCl(aq) + MgO (aq) Æ MgCl2(aq) + H2O (l)

Table 8.2 shows some examples of salts from different acids.

Table 8.2: Examples of Salts from Different Acids

Acid Salt Formula

Sulphuric acid Magnesium sulphate MgSO4
Ammonium sulphate (NH4)2 SO4
Nitric acid Potassium nitrate KNO3
Aluminium nitrate Al (NO3) 3
Carbonic acid Iron(II) carbonate FeCO3
Calcium carbonate CaCO3
Phosphoric acid Iron(III) phosphate FePO4
Ammonium phosphate (NH4) 3PO4
Ethanoic acid Lead(II) ethanoate Pb (CH3COO) 2
Copper(II) ethanoate Cu (CH3COO) 2
Hydrochloric acid Sodium chloride NaCl
Ammonium chloride NH4Cl

(b) Displacement Reactions

Now, let us move on to the second method of preparing soluble salt 
displacement reactions. How does this method work? In this method, salts
are prepared by reacting non-oxidising acids such as hydrochloric acid and
sulphuric acid with active metals, just as shown in the following:

Acid + Metal Æ Salt + Hydrogen gas

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For example, when zinc is dissolved in sulphuric acid, the reaction

produces zinc sulphate; hydrogen is displaced from the acid and it bubbles
off as gaseous H2, just like the following equation:

H2SO4(aq) + Zn (s) Æ ZnSO4(aq) + H2 (g)

Zinc sulphate solution is then evaporated, cooled and filtered to get solid
crystals. The reaction is an example of a displacement reaction in which one
element displaces another from a compound. The more active the metal
(Zn) displaces, the less active it is for hydrogen from its compound in
aqueous solution to form zinc sulphate and hydrogen gas.

(c) Reaction of Acids with Carbonates

Lastly, let us look at the third method, which is reaction of acids with
carbonates. What does reaction of acids with carbonates yield? Reaction of
acids with carbonates yields salt, water and carbon dioxide gas as shown in
the following:

Acid + Carbonates Æ Salt + Water + Carbon dioxide gas

For example, calcium chloride salt is prepared by the reaction between

hydrochloric acid and calcium carbonate. Carbon dioxide gas bubbles off and
the salt solution is then evaporated, cooled and filtered to obtain calcium
chloride crystals.

2HCl(aq) + CaCO3 (aq) Æ CaCl2(aq + H2O (l) + CO2(g)

Let us now learn how to prepare ammonium sulphate salt in Activity 8.1.
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ACTIVITY 8.1

Preparing Ammonium Sulphate Salt

You will need: ammonia solution (2M), dilute sulphuric acid (1M),
beaker, glass rod, bunsen burner, tripod stand, wire gauze, filter funnel,
and filter paper.

Step:
1. Heat 30 cm3 of dilute sulphuric acid into a beaker.
2. Add ammonia solution little by little into the beaker, stirring the
solution.
3. Do not add any ammonia solution when the solution smells
amniotic.
4. Heat the solution until it becomes one-third of its original volume.
5. Cool the hot saturated solution in a mixture of ice and water.
6. Filter the salt crystals produced.
7. Dry the crystals using filter paper.

Questions:
(a) Which method is used to prepare the salt?
(b) How does the addition of ammonium sulphate affect the pH of the
soil?
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8.1.2 Preparation of Insoluble Salts

Let us move on to insoluble salts. How do we prepare it?

Insoluble salts are prepared by precipitation reactions,

which are processes in which two aqueous soluble salts
are mixed together to form a soluble salt and an insoluble
salt as a precipitate that can be obtained by filtration.

What are the steps involved for this method? Figure 8.2 shows the steps involved
in the preparation of insoluble salts.

Figure 8.2: Preparation of insoluble salts by precipitation

Source: http://www.docbrown.info/page03/AcidsBasesSalts06.htm
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A typical example of precipitation is the preparation of the insoluble salt, barium

sulphate. This is shown in Figure 8.3.

Figure 8.3: Preparation of barium sulphate

Source: http://wiki.one-school.net

You may notice that both starting solutions of barium chloride and magnesium
sulphate are soluble in water. The reaction between the two solutions yields a
precipitate, barium sulphate, and a soluble salt, magnesium chloride, as shown in
the following:

BaCl2 (aq) + MgSO4(aq) BaSO4(s) + MgCl2(aq)

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How do we predict whether a precipitation reaction will occur or not? In order to

predict whether a precipitation reaction will occur on mixing solutions of two
substances, you must know the solubilities of the potential products. This can be
done by using the solubility guidelines in Table 8.1 shown earlier. Can you still
recall?

Based on Table 8.1, we can conclude that if a substance has a low solubility in
water, it is likely to precipitate from an aqueous solution. If a substance has a
high solubility in water, no precipitate will form from this reaction.

ACTIVITY 8.2
Search in the Internet and find out the uses of salt in:
(a) Agriculture;
(b) Medical field; and
(c) Food industries.

8.2 IDENTIFICATION OF CATIONS AND

ANIONS
Thus far, we have learnt about the formation of ions in Topic 5. An ion is an atom
or group of atoms that carries an electric charge. Ions that possess a positive
charge, such as sodium ion, Na+, are called cations. Those carrying a negative
charge, such as chloride ion, Cl, are called anions. Ions also exist as polyatomic
ions or groups of atoms that bear an electric charge.

The first atom in the formula is usually the central atom to which the other atoms
are bonded to make a stable unit. Examples include the ammonium ion, NH4+,
the sulphate ion, SO42 and the nitrate ion, NO3.
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Table 8.3 shows the formula, ionic charges and names of some common ions.

Table 8.3: Some Common Cations and Anions

Common Cations Common Anions

Formula Charge Name Formula Charge Name
Li+ 1+ Lithium F 1 Flouride
Na+ 1+ Sodium Cl 1 Chloride
K+ 1+ Potassium Br 1 Bromide
Ag+ 1+ Silver/argentum I 1 Iodide
NH4+ 1+ Ammonium OH 1 Hydroxide
Cu+ 1+ Copper(I) MnO4 1 Permanganate
Cu2+ 2+ Copper(II) CH3COO 1 Ethanoate/acetate
Mg2+ 2+ Magnesium NO3 1 Nitrate
Ca2+ 2+ Calcium O2 2 Oxide
Zn2+ 2+ Zinc O22 2 Peroxide
Hg22+ 2+ Mercury(I)/mercurous CO32 2 Carbonate
Hg2+ 2+ Mercury(II) of CrO42 2 Chromate
mercuric
Fe2+ 2+ Iron(II) Cr2O72 2 Dichromate
Pb2+ 2+ Plumbum(II) S2 2 Sulphide
Sn2+ 2+ Tin(II)/stannous SO42 2 Sulphate
Fe3+ 3+ Iron(III) SO32 2 Sulphite
Al3+ 3+ Aluminium CO32 2 Carbonate
Cr3+ 3+ Chromium PO43 3 Phosphate

In the following sections, we will learn how to identify anions and cations.
202 X TOPIC 8 SALTS

8.2.1 Identification of Anions

Do you know that anions are identified by the reaction of the salt or salt solution
with silver nitrate solution or barium chloride solution? These are shown in
Table 8.4.

Table 8.4: Reactions of Anions

Anions Silver Nitrate Iron(II) Chloride Barium Chloride

Bromide, Br Pale yellow precipitate No reaction No reaction
Chloride, Cl White precipitate No reaction No reaction
soluble in ammonia
Iodide, I Yellow precipitate Red colouration No reaction
Nitrite, NO2 White precipitate Reddish brown No reaction
precipitate on heating
Sulphate, SO42 White precipitate if No reaction White precipitate
solution is insoluble in dilute
concentrated HCl
Sulphide, S2 Black precipitate Black precipitate in No reaction
alkaline solution
Sulphite, SO32 White precipitate Red colouration or White precipitate
soluble in excess brown precipitate soluble in dilute
sulphite solution HCl

8.2.2 Identification of Cations

How about cations? How do we identify them? Cations are identified by reaction
of the salt or salt solution with sodium hydroxide or ammonia solution as shown
in Figure 8.4.
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Figure 8.4: Test for cations

Source: http://wiki.one-school.net
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In addition, cations can be identified by a flame test where a small amount of

the salt is heated on a nichrome wire moisten with concentrated sulphuric acid
to produce a flame characteristic of the cations. The characteristic is shown in
Table 8.5.

Table 8.5: Flame Test of Some Cations

Colour of Flame Cations

Green Barium ion, Ba2+
Red Calcium ion, Ca2+
Blue Copper(II) ion, Cu2+
Yellow Sodium ion, Na+
Violet Potassium ion, K+

8.3 IDENTIFICATION OF GASES

We turn our attention now to gases. How do we identify gases? First of all,
you have to understand that many important chemical substances are gases
at ambient conditions. The earthÊs atmosphere is a mixture of gases such as
nitrogen and oxygen with smaller concentration of other gases. When some
chemical compounds are heated, gases are also evolved.

For example, when a carbonate salt is heated, carbon dioxide gas is evolved. Each
of these gases has characteristic physical properties and can be identified by its
colour, smell, and test with damp litmus paper as shown in Figure 8.5.
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Figure 8.5: Identification of gases

Source: http://wiki.one-school.net
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The gases that are evolved can be further identified by carrying out confirmatory
tests as shown in Table 8.6.

Table 8.6: Confirmatory Test for Gases

Gas Confirmatory Test

Carbon dioxide Turns lime water or calcium hydroxide milky due to the
formation of calcium carbonate.
Ca(OH)2(aq) + CO2 (g) CaCO3(s) + H2O(l)
Sulphur dioxide Decolourises acidified potassium permanganate solution.
Hydrogen sulphide Decolourises acidified potassium permanganate solution,
smells like rotten eggs.
Chlorine Bleaches wet litmus paper.
Ammonia Thick, white fumes of ammonium chloride when in contact
with concentrated hydrochloric acid.
NH3(g) + HCl(g) NH4Cl(g)
Oxygen Burns when a lighted splinter is placed inside a gas jar of
oxygen.

8.4 CRYSTALLISATION
Let us start this subtopic by defining crystallisation. Do you know what it stands
for?

Crystallisation is the formation of solid crystals from a

homogeneous solution.
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You have learnt that a solution is formed when a solute dissolves in a solvent in
the Topic 2. Do you still remember? As a solid solute begins to dissolve in a
solvent, the concentration of solute particles in a solution increases, and so do
their chances of colliding with the surface of the solid. Such a collision may result
in the solute particle becoming reattached to the solid. This process, which is the
opposite of the solution process, is called crystallisation. Thus, two opposing
processes occur in a solution in contact with undissolved solute. This situation is
represented in the following by the use of a double arrow.

Dissolve
Solute + Solvent Solution
Crystallise

Do you know that crystallisation is also a method to purify solid compounds?

Usually, a compound is dissolved in a hot solvent and the hot solution is filtered.
This removes extremely insoluble particles. As the hot filtrate is allowed to cool,
the compound crystallises. To obtain the best crystals, the crystallisation should
proceed slowly. A cold filtration separates the crystals from the solvent. The final
stage is to dry the crystals in an oven. Figure 8.6 illustrates to you the process of
crystallisation of a salt.

Figure 8.6: Processes for making crystallisation of a salt

Source: http://images.google.com

Let us look at an activity which shows you how to make crystals.

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ACTIVITY 8.3

Making Crystals

You will need: warm water, about half a cup of baking soda (sodium
bicarbonate), a jar, a piece of yarn about 30 cm long, a spoon and a
pencil.

Step:

1. Fill the jar half way with warm water. Stir in the baking soda to
help it dissolve.

2. Tie one end of the yarn around the middle of the pencil.

3. Place the pencil across the top of the jar so that the yarn hangs
down into the liquid.

4. Look at the yarn carefully each day for a week and record your
observations.

8.5 QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS OF SALTS

Before we end this topic, let us look at qualitative analysis of salts. Firstly, let us
learn the meaning of qualitative analysis. Do you have any idea?

Qualitative analysis is a procedure for identifying the ions present

in an unknown salt.

However, keep in mind that qualitative analysis determines only the presence
and absence of anions and cations in the salt. It does not determine the amount of
a particular ion that is present in the salt.
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Do you know that there are three steps of doing qualitative analysis of an
unknown salt? These steps are shown in Figure 8.7.

Figure 8.7: Three steps of qualitative analysis

8.5.1 Preliminary Examination of the Salt

What can we do to preliminary examine the salt? Preliminary examination of the
salt involves these five following tests as listed in Figure 8.8.

Figure 8.8: Five tests of preliminary examination of salt

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Now, we are going to look at these steps further, starting with the first step 
physical examination of the salt.

(a) Physical Examination of the Salt

We can do preliminary examination by looking, touching and smelling. By
doing so, we can determine the physical properties of the salt such as its
physical state, colour and smell. We can always check our observations
against Figure 8.9 to infer the salt.

Figure 8.9: Colour of salts

Source: http://wiki.one-school.net
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(b) Solubility of the Salt

We can check the solubility of the salt by dissolving it in water. This can be
done by putting a small amount of the salt in a test tube. Then, we can refer
to Table 8.1 to check the solubility of the salt in water.

(c) Action of Heat on the Salt

This can be done by heating the salt and then observing the colour change
of the salt and the gases that are evolved. These observations can infer the
type of that salt as shown in Table 8.7 and Table 8.8 respectively.

Table 8.7: Action of Heat on Salts and Colour Change

Colour of Salt
Salt
Before Heating After Heating
Greenish blue Brown Copper(II) chloride
Blue White Copper(II) sulphate
Violet Green Chromium(III) salts
Green White Iron(II) salts
Bright yellow Iron black Iron(III) chloride
Bright green Yellow Nickel(II) salts
White Yellow when hot, white when cold Zinc salt or zinc oxide
Yellow Yellow when cold, brownish-red Lead(II) oxide
when hot
White White sublimate Ammonium salts
Yellow Yellow sublimate Sulphur or sulphur
compounds such as
thiosulphates, sulphites
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Table 8.8: Action of Heat on Salts and Gases Evolved

Observation Salts
Water vapour Hydrated salt, hydrogencarbonate, hydroxide
Violet vapour Iodine or iodine compounds
Oxygen Oxides, peroxides, nitrates, chlorates and others
Carbon dioxide Carbonates, bicarbonates, oxalates and organic
compounds
Ammonia Ammonium salts
Sulphur dioxide Sulphites, sulphates, thiosulphates
Hydrogen sulphide Hydrated sulphides, acid sulphides
Chlorine Hypochlorites, some chlorides
Dark brown or reddish fumes Nitrogen dioxide gas from nitrates, bromine from
certain bromides

Confirmatory tests are then conducted for specific gases as shown in Table
8.6 (Subtopic 8.3).

(d) Reaction of the Salt with Dilute Hydrochloric Acid

Now, let us move on to see the reaction of the salt with dilute hydrochcloric
acid. We can do this by adding dilute hydrochloric acid to a small amount
of the salt in a test tube. If there is no reaction, then we need to heat the
mixture slowly. Identify any gases that are evolved to infer the type of salt
as shown in Table 8.9.

Table 8.9: Action of Dilute Hydrochloric Acid

Observation Inference
Reddish brown fumes Nitrogen dioxide from nitrites
Odour of vinegar Acetic acid from acetates
Yellowish green gas which bleaches wet litmus paper Chlorine from hypochlorites
Colourless gas which discolourises acidified Sulphur dioxide from sulphites
potassium permanganate solution (no rotten smell)
Colourless gas which discolourises acidified Hydrogen sulphide gas from
potassium permanganate solution sulphides
(rotten smell)
Colourless gas which turns lime water milky Carbon dioxide from
carbonates or bicarbonates
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(e) Reaction of the Salt with Concentrated Sulphuric Acid

Lastly, let us look at the reaction of the salt with concentrated sulphuric
acid. This can be done by adding concentrated sulphuric acid to a small
amount of the salt in a test tube. If there is no reaction, heat the mixture
slowly. Identify any gases that are evolved to infer the type of salt as shown
in Table 8.10.

Table 8.10: Action of Concentrated Sulphuric Acid

Observation
White precipitate
Colourless gas which fumes in air or
when in contact with ammonia solution
Violet vapour
Colourless gas burns with blue flame
Colourless gas which burns when a
lighted wooden splinter is placed
Colourless gas which discolourises
acidified potassium permanganate
solution (no rotten smell)
Colourless gas which discolourises
acidified potassium permanganate
solution
(rotten smell)
Colourless gas which turns lime water
milky
Inference
Insoluble sulphates from barium, calcium
and lead(II) salts
Hydrogen chloride from chlorides
Iodine from iodides
Carbon monoxide from formates or
oxalates
Oxygen from peroxides, permangantes,
chromates and dichromates
Sulphur dioxide from sulphites
Hydrogen sulphide gas from sulphides
Carbon dioxide from carbonates or
bicarbonates
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8.5.2 Identification of Anions and Cations in the Salt

How do we identify anions and cations in the salt? Well, this can be done by
preparing an aqueous solution of the salt and do testing for anions and cations
present in the salt as discussed in Subtopic 8.3.

8.5.3 Confirmatory Tests for Specific Anions and

Cations
How about confirmatory tests for specific anions and cations? Confirmatory tests
for specific anions and cations can be conducted as described in Table 8.11 and
Figure 8.10 respectively.

Table 8.11: Confirmatory Tests for Anions

Anion Test
Nitrate ion, Brown ring test. Put an amount of a solution in a test tube; then,
NO3 slowly pour concentrated sulphuric acid down the side of the test
tube. If the solution is a nitrate, a brown ring is obtained where the
acid meets the nitrate solution.
Bromide ion, Br With chlorine water or bleaching powder, a brown colouration is
obtained.
Chloride ion, Cl A mixture of solid chloride and solid dichromate on heating with
concentrated sulphuric acid. It liberates reddish-brown fumes of
chromyl chloride.
Iodide ion, I Same method as bromide ion but the organic layer is violet.
Nitrite, NO2 With dilute hydrochloric acid or dilute sulphuric acid, it evolves
brown fumes of nitrogen dioxide.

How about cations? Cations in the salt solution are confirmed by reacting it
with potassium iodide (KI), potassium thiocyanate (K4Fe(CN)6), and potassium
hexacyanoferrate(III) solution (K3Fe(CN)6) as shown in Figure 8.10.
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Figure 8.10: Confirmatory tests for cations

Source: http://wiki.one-school.net

ACTIVITY 8.4

You are given a magnesium sulphate solution.

1. Carry out a qualitative analysis on the magnesium sulphate

solution; and

2. Describe briefly the chemical tests done to identify and confirm

the presence of anions and cations in the solution.
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SELF-CHECK 8.1

Answer the questions below:

1. Ammonia gas is bubbled into a test tube filled with a copper(II)

sulphate solution. A blue precipitate is formed. What will
happen to the blue precipitate when ammonia gas is
continuously bubbled into the test tube?

2. How would you differentiate a barium chloride and a barium

nitrate solution?

3. Salt X is soluble in water. The solution is divided into two

portions:

(a) The first portion produces a white precipitate with a

sodium hydroxide solution. The precipitate will dissolve
when placed in excess sodium hydroxide solution; and

(b) The second portion gives a yellow precipitate with

potassium iodide.

Based on the above description, name salt X.

x A salt is an ionic compound that contains a cation other than H+ and an anion
other than OH or O2. It is formed when the hydrogen ion, H+, from an acid
is replaced by a metal ion or ammonium ion from the base/alkali.

x Soluble salts include nitrate salts, salts of sodium, potassium, and ammonium,
and ethanoate salts.

x All chloride salts are soluble except silver chloride, lead(II) chloride (soluble
in hot water) and mercury(II) chloride.

x All sulphate salts are soluble except lead(II) sulphate, barium sulphate and
calcium sulphate (dissolves a little bit in water).
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x All carbonate salts are insoluble except sodium carbonate, potassium carbonate
and ammonium carbonate.

x Soluble salts can be prepared by acid-base neutralisation reactions,

displacement reactions, and reaction of acids with carbonates.

x Insoluble salts are prepared by precipitation reactions.

x Anions are identified by the reaction of the salt or salt solution with silver
nitrate solution or barium chloride solution.

x Cations are identified by reaction of the salt or salt solution with sodium
hydroxide or ammonia solution.

x Gases can be identified by their colour, smell and a test with damp litmus
paper.

x Crystallisation is the formation of solid crystals from a homogenous solution.

x Qualitative analysis is a procedure for identifying the ions present in an

unknown salt.

x Qualitative analysis of an unknown salt involves the following steps:

preliminary examination of the salt, identification of anions and cations in the
salt, and confirmatory tests for specific anions and cations.

Anions Nitrates
Carbonates Neutralisation reaction
Cations Precipitation reaction
Chloride salts Qualitative analysis
Crystallisation Salt
Displacement reaction Soluble salts
Gases Solubility of salts
Insoluble salts Sulphates
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Briggs, J. G. R. (1992). Science in focus chemistry for GCE ÂOÊ Level. Singapore:
Pearson Education.

Brown, T. L., Lemay, H. E., & Bursten, B. E. (2000). Chemistry: The central science
(8th ed.). New Jersey: Prentice Hall.

McMurray, J., & Fay, R. C. (2001). Chemistry (3rd ed.). New Jersey: Prentice Hall.

Ralph, A. B. (2003). Fundamentals of chemistry. New Jersey: Prentice Hall.

Whitten, K. W., Davis, R. E., Peck, M. L., & Stanley, G. G. (2010). Chemistry
(9th ed.). Belmont: Brooks/Cole.