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S ON
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BELT
S&
DRIV
ES VOL.1
A LOOK AT
DIFFERENT BELTS
A compendium of technical articles from Machine Design

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SETTING YOUR DESIGNS INTO MOTION
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MACHINE DESIGN LIBRARY

FOCUS ON:

BELTS&
DRIVESVOL.1
A LOOK AT
DIFFERENT BELTS
2
| Chapter 1: Flat Belts
3
| Chapter 2: Syncronous Belts THESE ARE NOT YOUR
GRANDADDY’S BELTS.
4
| Chapter 3: Classical Multiple-V Belts Belts have been transmitting power
and rotary motion for centuries.
5
| Chapter 4: V-Ribbed Belts But today’s belts are not made of
leather and are not, for the most
6
| Chapter 5: Narrow V-Belts part, turned by water wheels. They
are made of highly engineered
7
| Chapter 6: Taking the Serpentine Route materials and can deliver hundreds
of horsepower in power at nearly
9 | More Resources from Machine Design 99% efficiencies while travelling
traveling at over 15 feet per minute.
There are also a wide variety of belts
SPONSORED BY including flat ones that run quietly
at a fraction of the cost of gears,
V belts that deliver high driving
forces, and synchronized ones with
teeth that mesh with the pulleys for
synchronized motion and accuracy.
Here are some of the belts engineers
have at their disposal to solve both
power and motion challenges
efficiently and elegantly.

Steve Mraz
Technology Editor

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MACHINE DESIGN LIBRARY FOCUS ON:

BELTS&
DRIVESVOL.1

FLAT BELTS
CHAPTER 1:

F
LAT RUBBER BELTS were developed around the turn and bearing loads to transmit significant power. The strongest flat
of the century primarily as replacements for leather belts now transmit over 100 hp/in. of belt width.
belts. With the advent of V-belts, fewer machines were Different flat belt surface patterns serve different transmission
designed to use flat belts, and their production became requirements. For example, in high-power applications and
largely a matter of supplying replacement parts. outdoor installations, longitudinal grooves in the belt surface
Recent developments in flat-belt technology reduce the air cushion that flat belts generate when they run at
have overcome their previous drawbacks of high tension and speed onto a pulley. An air cushion reduces friction between
mistracking. New designs and advances in materials have made pulley and belt. In addition, the longitudinal profile nearly
both low and high-power transmission practical and cost efficient, eliminates the effect of dirt, dust, oil, or grease. Furthermore, the
and at speeds that usually exceed other belt grooves reduce the noise level of an already quiet
designs. Recent developments power transmission design even more.
Small woven endless belts. This type of in flat-belt technology Perhaps the most significant advantage of flat
flat belt is used where minimum vibration is belts is their high efficiency -- nearly 99%; about
required at the driven pulley. Maximum damping
have overcome their 2.5 to 3% better than V-belts. Three factors
requires tuning the spring rate of these belts. In previous drawbacks account for the good efficiency: lower bending
addition, semielastic belts have many features of of high tension and losses due to the thin cross section, low creep
unsupported stretch belts while maintaining a because of special friction covers and high
fabric substrate for support. mistracking. modulus of elasticity traction layers, and no
Semielastic belts do not require pulley take-up wedging into pulleys like V-belts. Without the
or adjustment, easily work in sets, work well over a wider length wedging action as in V-belts, flat-belt and pulley wear is minimal.
tolerance, and are relatively inexpensive in high volume. Because Flat belts offer greater design freedom than standardized
of these features, many OEMs are able to simplify and compact designs because they are available in most any width and length,
otherwise complicated designs. Over the past few years, a high in increments of 1/16 in. This means drives can be sized closer to
volume of semielastic belts have gone into machines for the optimum rather than the next size larger.
banking industry, copiers, computer disk drives and peripherals, Pulley alignment is equally important to flat belts as it is to
and office equipment. Most of these designs use a wide variety of other styles. Crowning at least one pulley, usually the larger one,
small multipulley precision drives. improves belt tracking. Flat belts are forgiving of misalignment;
Nonstretch endless flat belts also deserve consideration, however, proper alignment improves belt life for any drive.
especially in applications where small pulleys, high speeds (10,000 Low-horsepower drives with small pulleys are usually more
to 15,000 fpm), or both are involved. Because endless flat belts can expensive than comparable V-belt drives. But once the larger
be made very thin, 0.015 to 0.062 in., they are not as susceptible pulley diameter reaches 30 in., flat-belt drives become less
to centrifugal loads at higher speeds. Flat belts also are less costly expensive. Despite initial cost of smaller flat-belt drives, their
than gears when teamed with small high-speed motors, especially efficiency gain makes up for the cost differential within a few
when a compact package is important. Typical applications years. n
generally involve motors of 1 hp or less and speeds to 10,000 fpm.
Higher power flat belts. Developments here include sticky yet ☞ BACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS
abrasion-resistant rubber compounds that eliminate the need for
high tension to grip pulleys. These materials also allow lower shaft

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MACHINE DESIGN LIBRARY FOCUS ON:

BELTS&
DRIVESVOL.1

CHAPTER 2:

SYNCHRONOUS
BELTS
P
OTENTIAL FOR SLIP IN conventional belts prevents Recent modifications to tooth profiles have improved on the
their use where input and output shafts must be original trapezoidal shape. The full-rounded profile, often called
synchronized. Synchronous belts, often referred to HTD, distributes tooth loads more evenly to the belt tensile
as timing belts, were developed to overcome this member. It also provides greater tooth shear strength and hence
limitation. They have a toothed profile that mates carries greater load than trapezoidal designs.
with corresponding grooves in the pulleys, thereby A modified curvilinear tooth design, called STPD, appears
providing the same positive engagement of chain similar to the HTD design. However, its pressure
or gears. Syncronous belts angle, tooth depth, and materials are chosen
A stable belt length is critical for synchronous have a toothed profile for improved load/life capacity and other
applications, so they were originally reinforced characteristics such as nonratcheting. A newer,
with steel. Today the most common reinforcement that mates with modified curvilinear tooth design is called GT.
is glass fiber, but aramid is used if maximum corresponding grooves MXL pitch belts were developed mainly to convey
capacity is required. Standard sections are MXL, paper past reading heads at constant speed. A
XL, L, H, XH, and XXH.
in the pulleys, thereby high-friction coefficient polyurethane drives the
The trapezoidal tooth profile first used on providing the same paper with zero slip.
synchronous belts is recognized as standard. positive engagement of Some nonstandard belt pitches for special
Belts with this configuration are commonly industrial use are sized between XL (0.20 in.)
used in machine tools, textile machinery, home chain or gears. and L (0.375 in.) such as 0.233, 0.246, and 0.250
appliances, business equipment, and as camshaft in. In the auto industry, new belts are designated
drives in engines. STA, AL, and ZA. The main difference between industrial and
Synchronous belts have a number of attractive features that automotive sections is the size and tensile cord, which changes
put them in applications where there is no real need for shaft the pitch line differential. Automotive and industrial belts are not
synchronization. They are thin and flexible, so they operate interchangeable. n
well on miniature drives and in applications involving high
speeds or small pulleys. Preliminary studies indicate they may ☞ BACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS
be the most efficient form of power transmission short of direct
drive. In addition, they are able to sustain high loads. For these
reasons, synchronous belts have proved to be cost effective in
such nonsynchronous applications as drives for power saws,
motorcycles, and vacuum-cleaner brushes.
The primary drawbacks of synchronous belts are their higher
cost relative to other types, and a demand for fairly accurate
alignment of pulleys. In all, synchronous belts find use on highly
engineered and mass-produced drives, and continue to be widely
used in general industrial markets.

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MACHINE DESIGN LIBRARY FOCUS ON:

BELTS&
DRIVESVOL.1

CHAPTER 3:

CLASSICAL
MULTIPLE V-BELTS
I
N ADDITION TO the flat leather and fabric belts used in construction at higher power, section for section.
belt drives of the early 1900s, industry used hemp or wire The lack of wrap makes a belt more vulnerable to damage;
rope running in grooved pulleys. These rope systems inspired therefore, wrapped construction can be thought of as a more
development of the rubber V-belt, which first appeared in conservative selection. In OEM applications, however, service
the 1920s. V-belts make use of a wedging action between conditions tend to be well defined, and drive systems normally
belt and sheave, thereby developing high driving forces undergo thorough analysis and rigorous testing. Thus, these
with considerably less belt tension than required by flat belts. applications tend to favor nonwrapped construction, where the
This feature reduces loads on bearings. Also, V-belts inherently higher power rating can be used safely by virtue of the thorough
track better than flat belts and, thus, do not have to be aligned as engineering applied to possible environmental effects on the belt.
carefully. Belts for in-plant use, in contrast, are normally selected
When V-belts first appeared, most applications were for large according to simple catalog ratings or to fit existing sheaves. Little,
industrial drives typically requiring 10 to 15 belts between a single if any, attention is given to life testing or environmental effects, so
pair of shafts. Thus, belts for these industrial drives became known wrapped construction is recommended.
as “multiple” belts, and today they are referred to as “classical Belts of nonwrapped construction, sometimes called bandless
multiple” or “heavy-duty conventional” belts. V-belts and sheaves or raw-edge belts, are made with cogs or molded notches on
have been standardized, with letter designations running from A the underside. Cogged belts permit more severe bends, thus
through E. These standard sizes are recognized worldwide. allowing operation over smaller pulleys. Belts of standard
Classical multiple V-belts offer the broadest range of power wrapped construction are not available cogged because the
ratings and generally are the first type of belt drive considered. protective envelope is both difficult to manufacture in cog form
They are readily available from local distributors and engineered and also prevents severe bends. Notched belts are more expensive
and rated for long, low-maintenance service. Their only drawback than those having a flat base. However, because they have a
when compared with more modern designs is relatively high weight higher load-carrying capacity and run on less-expensive, smaller-
and space requirements. The belt, being of heavy construction, diameter pulleys, the drive may require fewer notched belts.
generates high centrifugal forces that place relatively low limits on Classical V-belts are frequently used individually, particularly
top speed. Also, the thickness of the belt limits bend radius, thus in A and B sizes, smallest of the five cross sections. The larger
requiring the need for relatively large sheaves. In practice, these sections, C, D, and E, generally are not used in single-belt drives
constraints rarely are serious limitations. because of certain cost penalties and inefficiencies encountered
Most manufacturers offer two lines of multiple classical belts. when scaling drives upward. The economics are such that for
One is the “standard” classification based on a fabric-wrapped equivalent ratings, multiple belt drives based on A or B sections
construction. The wrap provides a protective envelope that tends usually cost less than single-belt drives with C, D, or E sections. n
to prevent damage and prolong life. The other classification is
the “premium” or nonwrapped construction. The advantage of ☞ BACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS
this design is that for a given standard size, none of the cross
section is allocated to a wrap; thus, the total section consists of
working tensile material. This allows rating belts of nonwrapped

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MACHINE DESIGN LIBRARY FOCUS ON:

BELTS&
DRIVESVOL.1

CHAPTER 4:

V-RIBBED BELTS
T
HE V-RIBBED CONCEPT combines some of the belts can be matched almost precisely to the power requirements
best features of flat belts and V-belts. It employs what of specific drives. V-ribbed belts are not recommended for
is essentially a flat belt with a series of V-shaped ribs clutching drives.
running the length of the belt on the driving surface. The belt performs well with reverse-bend idlers, and most
These thin belts operate efficiently and can run at high applications involve high-speed ratios with a reverse-bend idler
speed. But even more important, tensile cords have total used for take-up and to increase the arc of wrap on the smaller
support because the belt ribs bottom completely on the sheave; pulley.
there is no wedging action. The total support of the cord permits Five standard configurations are available, with designations
high load-carrying capacity. Theoretically, this design could of H, J, K, L, and M. L and M were the first to be introduced and
provide the highest capacity of any belt if reinforced with high- are intended primarily for industrial and agricultural drives. The
strength fiber. To date, however, there has been M section is capable of transmitting up to 1,000
no commercial demand for such exceptional Major applications of hp. J (originally called JR) is normally applied to
power capacity in this type of belt. the V-ribbed belts are fractional-horsepower drives in home appliances,
The sacrifice of wedging action in V-ribbed belts snow blowers, and power tools. H is intended for
increases tensioning requirements, but not to the in mass-produced miniature drives and K for automotive accessory
levels required by flat belts. Supposedly, friction consumer goods such drives.
is independent of area of contact. Nevertheless, The V-ribbed section, because it is available
the V-ribbed shape increases friction between
as snow blowers, in extremely high-power ratings, eliminates
belt and sheave considerably beyond that of home power tools, and matched-set belts required in multiple V-belt
flat belts. Consequently, tensioning requirements clothes dryers. drives. The power density also permits compact
are only about 20% above those of V-belts. In drive configurations.
addition, the ribs ensure that belts track properly, The most effective use of V-ribbed belts
making alignment less critical than it is for flat belts. Flat-belt normally requires testing the drive system. Some tooling
alignment requirements are more critical than those of V-belts. investment may be necessary for pulleys. The user also may find
Major applications of the V-ribbed belts are in mass-produced it prudent to draw upon the belt manufacturer for technical help
consumer goods such as snow blowers, home power tools, and and design refinement. Therefore, the V-ribbed concept is almost
clothes dryers. It is also on accessory drives in automobiles. always applied to mass-produced drives. n
Operating efficiency of the V-ribbed belts rivals that of flat belts
and synchronous belts. It also is able to operate over small pulleys. ☞ BACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS
Because it is available in small width increments of one-rib width,

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MACHINE DESIGN LIBRARY FOCUS ON:

BELTS&
DRIVESVOL.1

CHAPTER 5:

NARROW V-BELTS
V
-BELTS in classical and single-belt configurations load-carrying capacity becomes more pronounced with increases
are not optimum from the standpoint of load in the strength of the reinforcing cord.
transfer. Reinforcing cords near the center of the Narrow belts are standardized, with designations of 3V, 5V,
belt sink radially inward under tension, thereby and 8V. Some belts are cogged to maximize the allowable degree
shedding load and reducing the of bend, thus permitting operation over small
total power capacity of the belt. For a given width, pulleys and allowing space-saving design. These
Narrow belts overcome this deficiency through narrow belts have belts represent the highest level of development of
a configuration having greater depth to width V-belts. The space saving they allow is significant,
ratio, which places more of the sheave directly
power ratings much especially in high-reduction drives. In all, they
under the reinforcing cord. Thus, loads in the higher than those of provide the highest power in the smallest package
tensile cord are transferred more directly to the conventional V-belts. and are particularly well suited to severe-duty
sides of the sheave, allowing minimum load applications, including those subjected to shock
shedding and producing better force distributions. and high starting loads. n
For a given width, narrow belts therefore have power ratings much
higher than those of conventional V-belts. The improvement in ☞ BACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS

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MACHINE DESIGN LIBRARY FOCUS ON:

BELTS&
JACK ZEDEK, Rockwell Automation
DRIVESVOL.1

CHAPTER 6:

TAKING THE
SERPENTINE ROUTE
The ins and outs of a serpentine belt drive design are revealed in this application where
synchronous belting replaces gears.

S
YNCHRONOUS BELTS are often used instead of flat In the press roll system, motor speed is 1,750 rpm. The motor
or v belts for several reasons, the most notable being puts out 7.5 hp and is mounted to a gearbox with a 20.9:1
the near-perfect shaft synchronization they provide. reduction. The two larger external gears have 30 teeth, attaching
They remain in mesh with their sprockets, while to a 2 7/16 -in. shaft. The 18-tooth pinion attaches to a 1 3/8 -in.
traction-based belts on pulleys can slip. shaft. All shafts are aligned, with center distances of 9.55 and 21.45
Synchronous belts are a popular choice for in. from the pinion to each of the two gears. All of the shafting is
serpentine drives, in which a single belt turns three or more there to stay; it cannot be moved or changed. Some level of shock
pulleys or sprockets. Besides providing zero-slip, synchronous loading is expected.
belts allow a little more “aggressive” belt Knowing the motor and gearbox specs, we
geometry – the toothed belt can often move the Synchronous belts could base our design on the maximum driving
sprocket with a shorter arc of contact than a flat
belt along a pulley, and this additional freedom
are a popular choice power. But, even better, the user provides the
required power: each roll needs 2.5 hp to operate.
makes complex serpentine arrangements easier for serpentine drives, Typical service factors for serpentine drives are
to design. Even with toothed belts, however, in which a single belt no less than 2.0, but because of shock loading
serpentine configurations often require special and relatively tight drive geometry, we choose a
attention. For instance, shafts sometimes rotate turns three or more slightly more conservative service factor of 2.2.
in opposite directions, in which case a two-sided pulleys or sprockets. First off, the design horsepower must be
synchronous belt is required. assessed. This is given by:
The following is an example of serpentine
synchronous belt drive design. The machinery involved is a press DH = SH SF η
roll system with two contacting rollers of opposing rotation. The where
original configuration uses a motor connected to a gearbox, with DH = design horsepower
a spur pinion mounted to the gearbox output shaft. This external SH = system horsepower
pinion meshes with a larger gear attached to one of the rolls. The SF = service factor
gear then drives a second identical gear and roller in the other η = estimated (or known) system efficiency
direction. The goal is to replace all external gearing with belts to
eliminate the maintenance and excessive noise. We use the value of 5 hp (two rolls requiring 2.5 hp apiece)
Before selecting the belt, sprockets, and bushings for such an for the system horsepower; this driven horsepower, if known, is
application, the following should be established: XY coordinates preferred over the driving (motor) horsepower. System efficiency
of each shaft centerline (with respect to any convenient datum); is therefore irrelevant because the rolls require 100% of the
necessary horsepower for each shaft; the overall horsepower specified driven power. If, on the other hand, our belt selection
requirement; speed of each shaft; a description of each shaft’s were based on motor horsepower, gearbox efficiency would be
function (type of equipment attached); and knowledge of shock factored in. If unknown, it would be reasonable to assume a
loads and environmental conditions. conservative (in this case, deliberately large) efficiency value –

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MACHINE DESIGN LIBRARY CHAPTER 6: TAKING THE SERPENTINE ROUTE

the greater the efficiency in the equation, the higher the design with the geometry that’s in place, these contact angles are likely
horsepower. to remain high regardless. The idler’s distance along the X axis is
With a system horsepower of 5, a safety factor of 2.2, and an what matters. This is the take-up distance – it’s what compensates
efficiency of 1, we have a design horsepower of 11. The belting for belt slack.
and driving sprocket must be capable of transmitting 11 hp at the To determine belt size, dimension all arcs and tangent lines
gearbox output speed of 84 rpm. To match the operation of the (a lot easier with CAD) and vary the take-up distance within a
original system, this output speed must be further reduced by the reasonable window so that total length can be matched to a stock
30:18 (1.66) reduction ratio of the pinion and gears that are being belt size. With the system described here, a 246-mm (9.7-in.) take-
replaced. up distance allows a 2,230-mm stock belt. At this location, the
Sprocket designation is a good place to begin. This involves the idler sprocket still maintains 81° of belt contact. The next closest
belt width, tooth pitch, and pitch diameter, parameters associated stock belt is 2,310 mm, which would require moving the idler
with horsepower, speed, and space requirements. Based on the further away from the system. In our case this is unnecessary, even
speed and horsepower, a 14-mm HTD is the first pitch choice. undesirable. So, the take-up distance is set at 9.7 in.
HTD, or High Torque Drive, has become the baseline rating for While flat-faced idler pulleys are sometimes used with the flat
power belts. Specs like HT150 refer to a rating that’s 150% of the side of a single- sided synchronous belt, this belt is double-sided
baseline. “HTD” can therefore also be written “HT100.” and requires a toothed idler sprocket.
Using the 14-mm HTD sprocket as our launch pad, we go
to any standard (HTD-based) ratio and center-distance tables The final component specifications are as follows:
corresponding to 14-mm pitch. A 68 to 112 combination (1.65 • Driving and idler sprocket: P38- 14M-115-3020 (tooth
reduction ratio) is available at the specified pitch, but doesn’t fit number, pitch [mm], width [mm], bushing number) •Bushing
in the 9.55-in. center distance between the driving and the first (driving): 3020 x 1 3/8 (standard number x width [in.])
driven sprocket. A smaller sprocket combination of 38 to 64 is • Driven sprockets: P64-14M-115- 4545
then used, providing a 1.68 reduction ratio. • Bushing (driven): 4545 x 2 7/16
Had it fit, the bigger sprocket combination would have been • Belt: Dual-sided 2310-14M-115
better. Largerdiameter sprockets allow a narrower belt width.
With a narrower belt, the transverse load can be forced axially (circumference, pitch, width [all mm]) Working sprockets are
closer to the bearing, thus reducing moment loading. But larger fixed to the shafts with high-friction bushings so the sprocket
sprockets would have meant moving the shafts further apart and and shaft turn together. However, the idler sprocket needs an
increasing the roll diameter. antifriction bearing, as it rides on a static axle. This bearing is
The width of the belt is then specified. For these 38 and selected or designed according to the required size (the idler has
64-tooth, 14-mm HTD sprockets, a 115-mm wide belt carries a 3020 bushing size), speed, and loading. It may happen that an
11.8 hp at 84 rpm. This selection acceptably increases the service antifriction bearing isn’t readily obtainable in the required size,
factor to 2.36. and to avoid delay the designer may consider decreasing the idler
To determine belt path geometry, a graphical approach can be sprocket diameter for compatibility with an available bearing.
used, using either CAD software or engineering paper. One of the This is generally reasonable, if not ideal. n
criteria for HTD synchronous belting is that the contact arc be
at least 60° with no less than six teeth in mesh. Furthermore, it’s JACK ZEDEK is an Applications Engineer with Rockwell
best to place the idler on the slack side of the belt (belt direction Automation, Dodge Drives Components, Greenville, S.C.
from driving to idler sprocket). Center distances are fixed for all
shafting except the idler, and the working sprockets are already
designated. Thus, idler selection and placement are the free ☞ BACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS
parameters.
For our scale drawing we use an idler the same size as the driving
sprocket. While there is no apparent reason to go larger than this,
using an idler smaller than the smallest working sprocket will
generally detract from belt life. However, other constraints may
take precedence, and deviation from this guideline is sometimes
necessary.
As for idler location, it can be somewhat arbitrarily placed
along the Y axis, parallel to the line joining the three working
sprockets’ centers. Shifting the idler on this axis will only affect
the angle of contact with the two outer working sprockets, and

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