UNIT NO. 3.

4
PULLEY BLOCKS

Pulley blocks are one of the simplest and oldest forms of lifting machine. They are widely used
in a variety of lifting and pulling applications where, a) the direction of the line pull needs to be
changed and b) where higher loads than the WLL of the winch, or other pulling/lifting force
provider, are to be lifted or pulled. A close look at pulley blocks forms an extension to our
study of mechanics and will help us to understand the effects of MA, VR and Efficiency.

The simplest form of pulley block is the gin block to BS 1692. Gin blocks are intended for use
in simple manual lifting operations where a light load can be easily raised by a man pulling on a
rope with no gain of mechanical advantage. Pulley blocks intended for use with winches and
jaw winches are covered by clause 5.6 of BS EN 13157 – Cranes – Safety – Hand Powered
lifting equipment.

THE EFFECTS OF FRICTION

When we considered pulley blocks in unit 3.3 we assumed a perfect pulley system with no
frictional losses, the result being an Efficiency of 100%, but this is not possible. There is in fact
a loss of Effort, due to Friction at each sheave, and this amounts to between 5% and 8% and is
accumulative.

So let us consider the effect of friction on a single sheave pulley block. We will assume our
pulley block is in perfect working order and that the frictional loss at the sheave is a maximum
of 8%. (See Figure 1)
2.08t

1.08t

1t

Figure 1

Here the block simply allows a change in direction of the effort applied, so that a downward
effort acts to raise the load. No Mechanical Advantage is gained.

If the load is 1t, then the effort required to lift the load will need to be greater than 1t + 8%
i.e. 1.08t. As both the load and the effort act on the sheave the total load on the suspension
eye will be 2.08t, i.e. the sum of the Effort, the Load Lifted and Friction.
Let us now consider what happens when we have two single sheave pulley blocks, as in Figure
2. Again we will assume a maximum frictional loss per sheave of 8% and a load of 1t.

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 X 1.08X

1.082X

Figure 2

The load is held by two parts of rope, let us call the force in the fall connecting the becket and
the bottom sheave X. The force in the fall which passes to the top sheave will then be X + 8%.
We can therefore see that:

X + ( X + 8%) = 1t or X + 1.08X = 1t

1
Therefore X = = 0.4808t
2.08

And that 1.08X = 1.08 x 0.4808 = 0.5192t

We can also see that the effort will be 1.082 X

That is 1.08 x 1.08 x 0.4808 = 0.561t

This means that to lift 1t with a two-sheave pulley block arrangement an effort of 0.561t is
required and NOT 0.5t as may have been thought by the casual observer. The total load on the
head fitting will be 1.561t being the sum of the effort, the load lifted and friction.

Figure 3 shows the effect of cumulative friction on various pulley block arrangements and how
this relates to the Mechanical Advantage.

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Head fitting 2.08t 1.561t 1.388t 1.302 1.25t
load

1.08t 0.56t 0.388t 0.302t 0.25t

Friction
= 8% per
sheave

1t 1t 1t 1t 1t
Two Double Two Treble
Single Singles Single Doubles Double

Figure 3

From the above we can see the need to take friction into account when designing or selecting
suspension points for multi-sheave arrangements. For instance with an arrangement having
two single sheaves to lift 1t we need a lifting point with a SWL greater than 1.561t.

ROPE SELECTION
From the above we can see that the resultant force increases in each fall of rope. Care must
therefore be exercised in the selection of a suitable rope for use with a pulley block system.
There is a further consideration, that of the `loss of strength' in the rope due to bending. It is
therefore assumed that there is a 10% cumulative loss due to bending and friction in respect of
each sheave in the pulley block arrangement.

The load taken by each fall of rope can be assumed to be equal to the safe working load of the
equipment divided by the number of falls and taking account of the bending losses.

SWL
This can be expressed in the equation WLL =
P (0.9) p

Where WLL = Working load limit single part of rope

P = Number of falls of rope which carry the load

Values for P (0.9) p are given in table 1

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 No. of falls of rope which carry the load P (0.9) p
1 0.90
2 1.62
3 2.19
4 2.62
5 2.95
6 3.19
7 3.35
8 3.44

Table 1

Example 1
If we have a double and treble sheave pulley block arrangement and require a safe working
load of 1t. What is the minimum WLL of rope we can use?

Known information is No. of falls = 5

P (0.9) p (from table) = 2.95

1
Therefore WLL = = 0.34t
2.95

PULLEY BLOCKS
Until the publication of BS EN 13157 in 2004 there were three British Standards covering
pulley blocks for various applications. As a vast number of blocks to the old British Standards
remain in service we will briefly consider the main two of these standards. We will then
consider BS EN 13157. All of these standards cover single sheave, multi-sheave and snatch
blocks. A snatch block is a form of single sheave block that has a gate opening to allow the
block to be fitted onto a running rope system without the need for reeving the rope through
the block.

British Standard BS 4344 (Withdrawn) Natural and Synthetic Fibre Pulley Blocks
This standard covered pulley blocks for natural and synthetic fibre ropes, reeved for up to 7
tonnes lifting capacity, using up to 1 tonne WLL rope with a factor of safety of 8.

The SWL marked on the blocks is based on the number of falls e.g. a single sheave block
(used as a bottom block) will have two falls.

The sheave must have a diameter at the bottom of the groove of not less than 5 x the rope
diameter. It must have a smooth groove, not less than one-third the rope diameter deep with a
minimum radius of 0.6 x diameter of the rope. The boss width must be at least 2mm larger
than the sheave.

The axle pin must be positively secured against rotation by means that permits the pin to be
withdrawn for examination. There must be a lubrication point in the pulley block unless it is
permanently lubricated.

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The rope needs to be supported for approximately one third of its circumference. A sheave
that is too wide or too narrow will cause distortion of the cross section of the rope thereby
reducing its working life.

To avoid overheating (another effect of friction) and, in the case of man-made fibre ropes,
electrostatic build-up, the maximum permitted rope speed with this type of block is 0.5 m/s.

British Standard BS 4018 (Withdrawn) Wire Rope Pulley Blocks up to 25 tonne

capacity
This standard covered pulley blocks with sheaves up to 300mm bottom of groove diameter.

The sheave form is as shown in Figure 4. The sheave diameter at the bottom of the groove
should be not less than 12 x the rope diameter, with a boss width at least 1.6mm larger than
the sheave width.

Minimum D
Maximum 1.5 D

Radius of groove a
minimum of 1.05 x
radius
of rope
Figure 4

Axle pins must be positively secured against rotation and lateral movement by means that
permit the pin to be withdrawn for inspection.
The breaking load of the becket must be at least equivalent to the breaking load of the rope on
which the block design is based.

The standard included a table of bearing pressures for various diameters of steel axle pins in
phosphorous bronze bearings. These bearing pressures must not be exceeded or the sheave is
liable to collapse.

The maximum permitted rope speed with this type of block is 0.5m/s.

BS EN 13157, Clause 5.6 – Pulley blocks and deflection pulleys

This standard requires a factor of safety of at least 4:1.
In the case of blocks for use with wire rope, the requirements for the sheave are similar to
those of BS 4018. The pitch circle diameter of the centre line of the rope must be at least 12
times the rope diameter. The angle of the groove must be between 45º and 55º, the radius of
the groove between d/2 + 5% and d/2 + 10% and the depth of the groove must be at least 1.5
times the rope diameter. There must be a rope guide to ensure that slack rope remains located.

For fibre ropes the sheave must be radiused to at least 0.5 times the rope diameter.

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Pulley blocks to this standard must be capable of use at ambient temperatures in the range
-10ºC to + 50ºC.

HEAD AND LOAD SUSPENSION FITTINGS

Pulley blocks are available with swivel eye or hook fittings. It should be noted that BS EN
13157 shows a swivel eye in the illustration of a pulley block but only mentions hooks in the
text. Unfortunately this standard is poorly written but it can be assumed from this that it is
intended to cover both types of head fitting.

MARKING
BS EN 13157 requires that all pulley blocks and deflection pulleys are fitted with a permanent
identification plate which gives the following information:
a) Name and address of the manufacturer
b) Series type or designation
c) Serial number (identification mark?)
d) Rated capacity
e) Year of manufacture
f) Dimensions and quality of rope (for which the block is intended?)
g) Minimum breaking force of the rope(?)

MANUFACTURER'S TESTS
Type Tests
To prove the design and performance of pulley blocks prior to series manufacture, BS EN
13157 requires the manufacturer to make certain tests as follows:
a) Calculation of mechanical strength, attachment device and suitability for use in the
specified temperature range
b) Static test of 1.5 times the rated capacity for blocks less than 20t WLL and 1.25 the
rated capacity for blocks with a WLL of 20t or more
c) Breakage test for blocks designed for a rated capacity of less than 5t
d) Functional test to ensure correct operation of rope guide
e) Measurement of sheaves
f) Visual examination of instructions, periodic examination requirements and marking.

Manufacturing Tests and Examination

Each block must be subject to a dynamic test of 1.1 times the rated capacity, a functional test
of the rope guide and a visual examination on completion of manufacture and subject to a
visual examination.

Note: The testing requirement in BS EN 13157 is considerably lower than previous,

legislation, good practice and standards called for as shown in table 2. This must be
remembered when we discuss the examination of pulley blocks.

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 Type of Block Proof Load Applied to Block Proof Load Applied to Becket

Single sheave block and snatch Four times the safe working load One third of the proof load
blocks applied to the block

Single sheave block (used as a Twice the safe working load of One third of the proof load
bottom block with load attached the head fitting applied to the block
to bottom hook)

Multiple sheave block with safe Twice the safe working load (Any double block)
working load up to and including One quarter of the proof load
20 tons applied to the block

Multiple sheave block with safe 20 tons in excess of the safe (Any treble block)
working load over 20 tons up to working load One sixth of the proof load
and including 40 tons applied to the block

Multiple sheave block with safe One and a half times the safe (Any four-fold block)
working load over 40 tons working load One eighth of the proof load
applied to the block

(Any five-fold block)

One tenth of the proof load
applied to the block

(Any six-fold block)

One twelfth of the proof load
applied to the block

(Any seven-fold block)

One fourteenth of the proof load
applied to the block

(Any eight-fold block)

One sixteenth of the proof load
applied to the block

Table 2

A word of explanation is necessary regarding the proof load as applied to both single sheave
blocks and snatch blocks in the above table. We have previously noted that how the load on
the head fitting is two times the load being lifted plus friction. The friction is generated by the
action of the effort and load and need not be considered when proof testing as the proof load
will generate its own friction. The normal load on the head at maximum loading is therefore
two times the marked SWL. If a proof load of twice the SWL were applied we would only be
loading the block to its normal load. Therefore, in order to apply a proof load of 200% it is
necessary to apply a load of 4 times the marked SWL.

However the fitting of a SINGLE BOTTOM BLOCK (i.e. crane block) lifts only its SWL and
can be tested to twice its marked SWL.

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EXAMINATION
Pulley blocks fall under the heading of 'lifting equipment' in modern legislation and therefore
should be examined by a competent person at periods not exceeding twelve months. Nothing
will be achieved by a load test during the examination as the strength is known prior to the
examination. However if a repair has been made to a load bearing part it will be necessary to
load test the block in accordance with its initial verification by the manufacturer. It is therefore
necessary to establish the standard to which the block has been manufactured and/or obtain
the original manufacturer's instructions to ensure that the correct test load is applied. All in-
service pulley blocks should be carefully visually examined. In particular the following should
be checked (it may be necessary to strip down the block to make the examination):
1) Ensure that the marking is clear and legible
2) Wear/fracture in eye of block, maximum 8% reduction in diameter
3) Wear/fracture in shank of eye, maximum wear 1.5mm to 25mm (6%) of shank
diameter. Also check shank for distortion and crosshead hole for wear. Where the eye
of a block has been secured by welding around the retaining collar or nut, wear in the
shank of eye may be assessed by moving the collar. Should it be suspected that the
shank is excessively worn, bent or otherwise defective, the welding should carefully be
removed and the eye extracted for closer examination
4) Distortion or torn side straps/bindings. Distorted or worn side plates, chafed edges to
side plates. Fracture leading from centre pin hole
6) Worn/distorted/fractured centre pin, maximum wear 1.5mm for each 25mm of pin
diameter, i.e. 6% of pin diameter
7) Worn/distorted/fractured bush, bush slack in sheave. Ensure oil or grease ways in pin
and bush, sheave and shell are clear. In the case of self oiling sheaves the leathers must
be renewed. If roller bearings are fitted these should be checked for wear, freedom of
movement etc
8) Sheave chipped/cracked/worn, score should be checked using a suitable gauge.
Particular attention must be paid to rope imprint which can damage the rope
9) Check becket for wear or distortion.

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