Académique Documents
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By
Daniel Russin
_________________
DEPARTMENT OF GEOSCIENCES
MASTER OF SCIENCE
This thesis has been submitted in partial fulfillment of requirements for the
Master of Science degree at The University of Arizona and is deposited in the Antevs
Reading Room to be made available to borrowers, as are copies of regular theses and
dissertations.
Brief quotations from this manuscript are allowable without special permission,
provided that accurate acknowledgment of the source is made. Requests for permission
for extended quotation from or reproduction of this manuscript in whole or in part may be
granted by the Department of Geosciences when the proposed use of the material is in the
interests of scholarship. In all other instances, however, permission must be obtained
from the author.
Daniel Russin*
Mark D. Barton
Eric Seedorff
* E-mail: daniel.russin@gmail.com
Abstract
The Dos Pobres Cu(-Au-Mo) deposit (211 million metric tonnes sulfide resource
0.73% Cu with up to 1 ppm Au) is located in the Safford district of southeastern Arizona
and is one of several Au-bearing porphyry systems in Arizona. The deposit is centered on
Paleocene (57 Ma) quartz monzodioritic porphyry dikes that intrude and alter Late
Cretaceous (67-73 Ma) basaltic andesites. The porphyry dikes locally contain igneous
anhydrite. The volcanic rocks dip gently (10-15° ) to the northeast; they and the ENE-
trending porphyry dikes are cut by a NW-striking down-to-the-west normal fault that
down-drops the southwestern portion of the Dos Pobres system by roughly 1 km. This
and ore minerals below the base of weathering, utilizing core logging and petrography
4
coupled with whole-rock geochemical and electron microprobe analyses, as well as U-Pb
Hypogene veins at Dos Pobres are divided into groups based on their mineralogy,
textures, and alteration envelopes. Five early vein types have envelopes that are
dominated by biotite and/or K-feldspar. These are: hairline biotite (biotite ± magnetite ±
chalcopyrite) ± biotite); complex biotite (biotite + K-feldspar + quartz + sulfide (pyrite <
bornite < chalcopyrite) ± anhydrite); and green mica veins (biotite + sericite + K-feldspar
± sulfides (chalcopyrite > pyrite) ± chlorite ± sericite ± anhydrite). These veins cut those
with biotite and/or K-feldspar envelopes. Veins consisting of chlorite + epidote + calcite
+ quartz ± sulfide (pyrite > chalcopyrite) with chlorite + epidote + calcite envelopes are
also common and cut those with chlorite ± sericite envelopes. Zeolite veins without
magnetite comprise the best developed and earliest alteration suite. It is most intense in
proximal locations where quartz + K-feldspar veins locally compose upwards of 30 vol
percent of the rock. The intensity of this alteration diminishes outward and upward.
sericite- and chlorite-rich replacement of feldspars and biotite is later and/or peripheral,
± epidote ± calcite) forms a weakly defined zone that overprints the earlier assemblages
and shows a gradational boundary with unaltered host rock. Whole-rock geochemical
analyses indicate that the Dos Pobres rocks have unextraordinary igneous compositions
Hypogene sulfides are abundant and systematically distributed beneath the base of
oxidation (depth ~350 m). Early bornite (± chalcocite ± digenite) dominates the deep
core of the deposit coincident with the most intense K-silicate alteration and quartz veins.
veins and surround the bornite-dominated core but are also associated with K-silicate
alteration. Pyrite (± chalcopyrite)-bearing veins have hydrolytic envelopes and are most
abundant in a ring-shaped zone surrounding the core. Molybdenite is rare but is most
commonly associated with chalcopyrite in deep, flanking veins with associated hydrolytic
alteration. Gold occurs as tiny (mostly <10 μm) grains of electrum (~10-15 wt % Ag) and
sylvanite in early bornite. Silver is also present in early bornite, occurring as electrum,
hessite, sylvanite, and a silver sulfide mineral (argentite?). Silver also occurs as hessite
and sparse argentiferous galena (up to ~2.5 wt % Ag) that commonly rim and crosscut all
6
Cu-Fe sulfides. Supergene bornite, chalcocite, and rare covellite locally replace hypogene
gold- and bornite-rich, and magnetite-bearing and is intimately associated with relatively
mafic (quartz monzodiorite - low silica granodiorite) porphyry dikes. Conversely, it has
considerably less pyrite and acid alteration than most other Arizona porphyry deposits.
These features are like those in many other Au-rich porphyry systems, and they have also
as Candelaria.
deposited with voluminous early quartz veins, magnetite is widespread but minor in
abundance, bornite is the dominant early ore mineral, deposition of pyrite postdates most
deposition of Cu, and there is a close spatial and temporal association of mineralization
with relatively mafic porphyry intrusions – all features consistent with introduction and
IOCG deposits, which typically have abundant Fe-oxides (tens of percent), REE
Introduction
The Dos Pobres porphyry Cu(-Au-Mo) deposit is located in the North American
Laramide porphyry belt, which extends from western Mexico into Arizona and New
7
Mexico. This region is richly endowed with porphyry Cu-(Mo) deposits, yet Dos Pobres,
one of at least four porphyry deposits in the Safford district (Langton and Williams,
1982), represents one of the few porphyry Cu(-Au-Mo) deposits, a distinctive family of
porphyry deposits that are commonly associated with relatively mafic intrusive rocks
(Seedorff et al., 2005), that has been documented to date. The spatial and temporal
association of Dos Pobres with comparatively Au-poor porphyry Cu-Mo deposits in the
region and perhaps in the Safford district poses questions about comparisons between
these systems and the processes that form them. Many hypotheses have been presented,
zoning of Cu and Au coupled with different erosion levels (Titley, 1982), composition of
mineralizing intrusions (Kesler, 1973; Sillitoe, 1979), and other complex magmatic
geochemical factors (Sillitoe, 2000). As more of these deposits have been discovered and
described, it is apparent that these systems show differences among themselves and that
none of these hypotheses is sufficient – thus there is the need for continued systematic
study of the deposits themselves and for their comparison with others.
This study, which was sponsored by Phelps Dodge Exploration (now Freeport-
McMoRan Copper and Gold), was undertaken with the twin goals of characterizing the
developing insight into the possible reasons for the unusual metal endowments in this
± K-feldspar) alteration that carries most Cu and has associated precious metals (cf.
Gustafson and Hunt, 1975; Sillitoe, 1979; Seedorff et al., 2005), lack of well-developed
quartz + sericite alteration (Sillitoe, 1979), and relatively low molybdenum content. As
the other deposits in the Safford district become more completely explored and described,
the district may present an uncommon opportunity to compare and contrast different
deposits that formed in identical host rocks and closely in time. The data presented in this
study will add to the understanding of vein and alteration types and mineralization style
This study presents data on the host and intrusive rocks and their geochemistry
and U-Pb geochronology, alteration types and distribution, vein types (and their
and distribution. Selected intervals of drill core were logged to enable the construction of
an ENE-trending cross section through the deposit and a plan map on the 2,000 ft (600
m) level; selected samples from these intervals were made into polished thin sections.
These results compile to give a detailed picture that shows that Dos Pobres resembles
aspects of other porphyry Cu-Au deposits worldwide, notably in the southwest Pacific,
such as Grasberg, Papua, Indonesia, and Panguna, Bougainville, Papua New Guinea
(Rubin and Kyle, 1997; Fountain, 1972), Far Southeast, Philippines (Hedenquist et al.,
1998), and Goonumbla and Endeavour, New South Wales, Australia (Lickfold et al.,
Location
district (Fig. 1A), near the boundary between the Basin and Range province of southern
and western Arizona and the Colorado Plateau to the northeast. Dos Pobres is located in
the Safford (Lone Star) district, which contains a NW-SE oriented group of porphyry
deposits located northeast of the town of Safford, in the northwest-trending Gila Range
(Fig. 1B). Dos Pobres is situated at the northwestern end of the district; the other deposits
include San Juan, Lone Star, and Sanchez, as well as several small prospects. The Lone
Star deposit is situated beneath the spine of the Gila Range, whereas Dos Pobres, San
Copper mineralization in the Safford (Lone Star) district has been known for over
one hundred years. The San Juan, Lone Star, and Sanchez deposits were claimed in the
late 1800s, and some small-scale exploration and mining took place at these three
deposits in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. By about 1920, exploration and
late 1940s and was most active until the late 1960s. The Dos Pobres deposit was
discovered by Phelps Dodge in 1958 (Langton and Williams, 1982). A project in the late
1970s to evaluate bulk underground mining of the deposit was abandoned due to
geotechnical problems and other factors, such as copper price, water availability, and
10
project economics) (J. E. Gerwe, pers. comm., 2006). The Lone Star deposit, which was
discovered by Bear Creek Mining Co. (a Kennecott subsidiary) in the mid-1950s and
studied as a potential in situ leaching project (Robinson and Cook, 1966; Anonymous,
1973; D’Andrea et al., 1974), was acquired by Phelps Dodge in 1986. Drilling resumed at
Dos Pobres in early 1990, this time focused on the supergene mineralization; by 1991, a
leachable resource was delineated. Phelps Dodge purchased the nearby San Juan deposit
in 1992, in 1994 initiated permitting to put both Dos Pobres and San Juan into production
as a single leach operation, and then in 1995 purchased the Sanchez deposit. Freeport
Production from the leachable part of the Dos Pobres deposit commenced in late
2007, and the combined Dos Pobres-San Juan leach operation at the end of 2007 carried a
proven and probable ore reserve of 549 million metric tonnes at 0.36% Cu (weighted
average of crushed and run-of-mine leach ore, FMI 2007 10-K Report). The sulfide
portion of the Dos Pobres deposit contains 211 million metric tonnes of mineralized
material at an average grade of 0.73% Cu (FMI 2007 10-K Report). There are no
published figures for the sulfide portion of the San Juan deposit. FMI is actively
exploring the Lone Star deposit and currently considers that the deposit contains 1,451
2007 10-K Report). FMI does not currently quote a size or grade of the sulfide portion of
the Lone Star deposit, but Williams and Forrester (1995) published a sulfide resource of
~4,300 million metric tonnes at an average grade of 0.47% Cu. Sanchez contains 209
2007 10-K Report), and there are no published estimates regarding the sulfide portion of
the deposit.
Previous Work
Published reports on the Safford district are few despite its long history of mineral
exploration and its huge mineral resource. Robinson and Cook (1966) were the first to
present a detailed study of the geology of the area; they focused on the Lone Star and San
Juan deposits and comparisons between them. Blake (1971) described the structure,
alteration, and mineralization of the surface exposure of the San Juan deposit. Bolin
(1976) compared the major element whole-rock geochemistry of the Lone Star and San
Juan rock suites with several other barren and mineralized intrusive complexes in
Arizona. Dunn (1978) examined and interpreted the structure of the district. Langton and
Williams (1982) published the first description of the structure, alteration, and
mineralization at the Dos Pobres deposit. Lang and Titley (1998) published major- and
trace-element data as well as Sm-Nd and Rb-Sr isotopic data from Safford and other
districts. Wilson (2004) mapped and interpreted different styles of leached capping
present at Dos Pobres, concluding that the supergene zone may be the product of more
molybdenum and rich in precious metals (Langton and Williams, 1982; this study).
Sericitic alteration is poorly developed and discontinuous in the sulfide zone and only
somewhat better developed at higher levels, consistent with the relatively high oxide
Each of the other three deposits, Lone Star, San Juan, and Sanchez, is centered on
apparently localized along east-northeast trending faults or shear zones (Robinson and
Cook, 1966; Dunn, 1978; Dreier, 1994). The names used to classify the intrusions seem
to imply that the compositions of stocks at certain deposits, such as Lone Star (Robinson
and Cook, 1966), may be more silicic than at Dos Pobres, but Dunn (1978) noted that the
main intrusions at each deposit “are nearly identical in composition and texture.” Several
of the deposits contain crosscutting dikes, breccia pipes, and pebble dikes.
The three deposits other than Dos Pobres also have limited published information
central area of intense sericitic alteration that is partially superimposed on a large area of
biotitization. The only sulfides that Blake (1971) reported at the San Juan deposit are
chalcopyrite and pyrite. At Lone Star, Robinson and Cook (1966) report that chalcopyrite
is much more common than bornite, that magnetite is fairly common; and that
molybdenite occurs in quartz veins and is more abundant in the deeper sulfide zones.
Maps of the distribution of Mo, Au, and Ag grades, presented by Langton and Williams
13
(1982) for Dos Pobres, have not been published for the other deposits. Moreover, the
average grades of elements other than Cu have not been published for any deposit and
may not be available considering that the development focus has been mostly on
supergene mineralization.
(Seedorff et al., 2005), or whether some of the deposits may be gold-poor and related to
deposits of the nearby Morenci district, which is permitted by the petrologic information
presented below.
Geology
Stratigraphy
sediments (Fig. 1B, C). The oldest rocks exposed are the Safford Volcanics (“older
volcanics” of Robinson and Cook, 1966), which comprise >1,300 m of basaltic to dacitic
volcanic and volcaniclastic rocks (Langton and Williams, 1982; Houser et al., 1985).
Near the Dos Pobres and San Juan deposits, these are dominantly basaltic
(trachy)andesites (see Fig. 2A below). Andesite hosting the Dos Pobres system has been
dated at 73.3 ± 1.0 Ma (U-Pb, Appendix A), and stratigraphically higher andesite near
14
San Juan yielded 67.6 ± 1.4 Ma (Ar-Ar on hornblende, Houser et al., 1985). Their total
thickness is unconstrained. The nearest Paleozoic rocks are ~25 km northwest of Dos
Pobres in the Gila Mountains; the nearest exposure of Precambrian rocks is ~50
Xenoliths of presumably Precambrian schist, granite, and gneiss are present in the
Safford Volcanics. Quartzite xenoliths are also present, which resemble the Precambrian
gray to black) and phenocryst size and abundance. Phenocryst contents in the Safford
volcanics range from near zero to ~50 vol percent. They consist dominantly of
plagioclase (An20-An80, avg. An55) and range in size from <1 to 5 mm, with most between
1-3 mm. Hornblende or pyroxene phenocrysts are common (up to ~5 vol %) with most 2
mm or less in length; near Dos Pobres shreddy biotite replaces most mafics. Magnetite is
present as an accessory phase, usually containing <0.1 wt percent Ti. Individual units
within the andesites differ greatly in the types, sizes, and abundances of fragments and
phenocrysts present, but the units are intercalated and too altered to attempt correlation of
sequence of andesitic agglomerates, flow breccias, and lithic tuffs that they term the
Baboon Volcanics. Freeport geologists believe that the Baboon andesites should be
considered part of the Safford Volcanics, since they differ only in their alteration and may
15
interfinger with them (Bill Stavast, pers. comm., 2008). Dikes, sills, and plugs of
hornblende andesite intrude both the Safford and Baboon volcanics and appear to be
related to the extrusion of the Baboon sequence (Langton and Williams, 1982).
Regardless of affiliation, the older volcanic rocks are overlain by the Miocene-Pliocene
(?) Gila Volcanics, which consist of a bimodal sequence of basalts, tuffs, rhyolites, and
agglomerates. The Gila Volcanics locally exceed 1 km in thickness and form the spine of
the Gila Mountains. Middle Tertiary to Recent variably indurated gravels, finer-grained
clastic rocks, and local evaporites fill valleys and partially cover the older units (Houser
et al., 2004).
Intrusive Rocks
The largest known intrusive body in the Safford district is the Lone Star stock.
Numerous smaller intrusive bodies crop out in the district such as the San Juan stock and
The main intrusive phases known at Dos Pobres are Paleocene (57.1 Ma, U-Pb,
(see Fig. 2E below). These occur as east-northeast trending dikes which, on the 2,000-ft
level (~600 m a.s.l.), range from ~150-300 m in length and ~15-100 m in width (Fig.
1D); the ENE orientations are typical of Laramide-age intrusive in this region (Rehrig
and Heidrick, 1972; Titley and Heidrick, 1982). The fresh rock (see Fig. 5A below) is
medium gray in color with obvious plagioclase and biotite phenocrysts. Plagioclase
(An35-An60, avg. An40) is the most common phenocryst mineral; abundances range from
16
~20-50 vol percent. Crystal sizes range from <1 to about 10 mm, most commonly
between 3 and 6 mm. Equant biotite phenocrysts are abundant, typically ranging from 2
to 5 mm, rarely up to 10 mm; abundances range from <1 to ~10 vol percent, but typically
± magnetite ± rutile) typically compose ~5 vol percent and are typically <5 mm in the
long dimension. Quartz phenocrysts are generally absent, though they are locally present
(at ~5 vol %) and range from 3 to 6 mm. They are well rounded and partially resorbed.
The groundmass consists typically of fine, 0.05-0.1 mm plagioclase and biotite with
quartz, K-feldspar, magnetite, sphene, and rare anhydrite. Anhydrite typically occurs as
<0.1 mm grains scattered in the groundmass; however, two larger (~1 cm) crystals also
were noted (see Fig. 5B below). Magnetite is present as an igneous phase and very rarely
shows evidence of hematite exsolution; Ti contents are typically <0.1 wt percent. Chilled
Igneous Geochemistry
Pobres. The compositions of various units are shown in Figures 2 and 3 below. The
Safford andesites are of continental affinity (Fig. 2B) and are metaluminous to weakly
peraluminous (Fig. 2D). The freshest andesites cluster in the high-K calc-alkaline field on
a K2O vs. SiO2 diagram (Fig 2C), but several lie in the shoshonite field due to
K2O metasomatism. IUGS and chondrite-normalized REE plots are shown in Figures 2E
and 2F. The two freshest porphyry samples plot within the quartz monzodiorite field near
17
the boundary with granodiorite (Fig. 2E); the other four samples plot in the granite field
principally due to K2O metasomatism and quartz veining but with a possible contribution
from original igneous variability. Similar trends representing addition of K-feldspar and
Several porphyry and andesite samples from Langton and Williams (1982) and
Lang and Titley (1998) are also plotted in Figures 2A, C, and E, as well as in Figure 4A
below. The compositions of their samples plot with those analyzed in this study, with two
exceptions: the “porphyry with secondary biotite” has an exceptionally low silica content
for a porphyry (56 wt %) and based on the geochemistry is probably an intensely altered
andesite; the “porphyry altered to quartz-sericite” has been subjected to more intense
hydrolytic alteration than any samples collected during this study (see Fig. 4A below).
Analyses of Safford Volcanics provided by Blake (1971) and Bolin (1976) are similar to
those plotted. Also plotted are compositions for the Lone Star stock, Lone Star
porphyries, Baboon volcanics, and hornblende andesite dikes from Lang and Titley
(1998).
show a small positive Eu anomaly. The porphyries at Dos Pobres show more pronounced
intensity. Samples from the seemingly barren Lone Star stock and the porphyries from the
Lone Star deposit show slightly negative Eu anomalies (Lang and Titley, 1998). The
Baboon volcanics show a similar distribution pattern to the Safford Volcanics but with
18
slightly higher REE concentrations. The hornblende andesite dike material is similar to
Additionally, porphyries at Dos Pobres have a more primitive Nd signature (-3.2)
than those at the Lone Star deposit (-8.7) and all other Laramide porphyries sampled by
Structure
The Safford district lies between the highly extended Pinaleño core complex to
the southwest and the Mogollon Rim (the edge of the undeformed Colorado Plateau) to
the northeast. The (Gila Volcanics in the Safford district are tilted
10-15° NE; the deposits and their host rocks are interpreted by previous workers to have
experienced the same amount of tilting. Several sets of faults have been observed and
documented in the Safford district. Langton and Williams (1982) describe a north-south
trending fault set; they also mapped several low-angle faults near the Dos Pobres orebody
but did not speculate on their significance. Structural maps published by Robinson and
Cook (1966) and Langton and Williams (1982) illustrate that all four deposits in this
district are situated along ENE-trending shear zones. Robinson and Cook (1966) report
that the shear zones at San Juan and Lone Star have uncertain displacements (possibly as
much as 250 m combined) and dip vertically or steeply to the north. The shearing does
not affect the Gila Volcanics. Langton and Williams (1982) also describe numerous faults
The dominant structures in the district are the Butte and Red Dyke faults, which
are normal faults that strike northwest and have down-to-the-southwest offset. Dunn
(1978) reports that the Butte fault has ~1,200 m of dip-slip displacement and an
unspecified amount of left-lateral offset where it cuts the Dos Pobres system. Drilling
data indicate that where the Butte fault cuts the southwestern portion of the Dos Pobres
system, it juxtaposes barren Tertiary basaltic andesites and basalts in the hanging wall
and mineralized andesites in the footwall from the surface down to a depth of at least 800
m (Dunn, 1978). Movement on these and other normal faults in the region has tilted the
post-mineral volcanics 10-15° to the northeast, and this appears to be the total tilt in the
district (Dunn, 1978). However, the intense deformation in the Pinaleño Mountains to the
southwest coupled with the observations of low-angle faults in and near Dos Pobres
suggests that the geologic setting may be more complicated than has been previously
appreciated.
Alteration Types
Sulfide minerals, veins, and alteration envelopes are interrelated features. At Dos
Pobres, alteration occurs generally as envelopes on veins and veinlets which commonly
partially coalesce but may be truly pervasive. Moreover, multiple vein types may
contribute to a single alteration type. Sulfide minerals occur in both the vein fillings and
the alteration envelopes. Here, we first describe the alteration types. Then we describe the
veins separately, albeit linking their envelopes to the earlier description of alteration
types. The veins also provide the best evidence for the relative ages of events
20
precious metals. The sulfide mineralogy is organized by vein type, which in turn can be
tied to alteration. Finally, we summarize the spatial distributions of veins and associated
There are several groups of alteration assemblages present at Dos Pobres. One of
the goals of this study is to construct a map of the zoning of hydrothermal alteration
around the porphyry dikes at Dos Pobres using observations from core logging and
Potassic Assemblages
The earliest and most intense alteration observed occurs at the locus of intrusion
and consists of quartz, K-feldspar, magnetite, and biotite (Table 1). In andesitic rocks, this
alteration is typically texturally destructive, replacing the original rock with irregular
masses of quartz, K-feldspar, and magnetite and lacing the rock with veins of identical
mineralogy (see Fig. 5C below). The same alteration minerals are present in the
and magnetite (Fig. 3E, F, G, H, K, L, M). This type contains more biotite and less
quartz, K-feldspar, and magnetite than the previous type; biotite is modally the most
abundant mineral. Even in the most intense examples of this alteration type, magnetite
21
and K-feldspar form in mineral sites, as opposed to irregular masses, and igneous texture
is preserved. This alteration is present with variable intensity in all logged intervals at
Dos Pobres, such that the effects of lower-temperature alteration types such as hydrolytic
and propylitic (see descriptions below) are always superimposed this biotite-dominated
alteration.
rutile, and anhydrite. Mafic phenocrysts are completely replaced by biotite ± magnetite ±
rutile. Ilmenite is uncommon; when present it occurs with biotite and magnetite in mafic
± magnetite. Where biotite and magnetite occur in plagioclase, they typically occur as
tiny specks scattered throughout the phenocryst, but uncommonly biotite replaces
selected zones that reflect original zoning in the plagioclase. Anhydrite is not abundant,
but where present it occurs as tiny (0.1-0.5 mm) equant grains disseminated in the
groundmass or with biotite and magnetite in mafic sites. The groundmass is flooded with
biotite, and the rock thus appears dark gray to black in hand specimen (see Fig. 5F, L, M,
alteration; they are typically less susceptible than the groundmass. Igneous magnetite
may be rimmed with biotite. Hydrothermal magnetite is abundant (3-10 vol %) and
contains up to 0.5 wt percent Ti, higher than typical igneous values (<0.1 wt %).
phenocrysts are partly to completely replaced by K-feldspar but generally lack the
22
speckling of biotite and magnetite that is commonly present in the andesites. Magnetite is
far less abundant than in the andesites (typically <5%). Some secondary biotite is present
in the groundmass, and biotite phenocrysts may show thin rims of very fine (<20 μm)
secondary biotite. In some areas, biotite alteration of porphyry is so intense that only the
(Langton and Williams, 1982). Mafic phenocrysts are completely replaced by the same
minerals as in the andesites. Anhydrite is more common than in the andesites, and occurs
The intensity of this alteration varies, and the characteristics of biotite show these
differences clearly. The grain size of secondary biotite in andesite tends to increase with
thin section, there are noticeable color differences in biotite; in intensely altered rocks,
biotite is dark reddish brown, whereas in weakly altered rocks it assumes a tan or
greenish color. These color differences correlate with the TiO2 content of the biotite; as
indicated by microprobe analyses, biotite from weakly altered rocks generally has
TiO2 contents between 1.5 and 3 wt percent, whereas igneous biotite and biotite from
intensely altered rocks have TiO2 contents up to 4.5 wt percent (see Fig. 3B below).
hand sample (see Fig. 5N below) but differs in thin section (see Fig. 5D below). Biotite
and amphibole occur together in mafic sites whereas feldspars are partially replaced by
K-feldspar, biotite, and magnetite. The groundmass is typically clouded by very fine (<10
23
μm) magnetite grains though they are not always present. Exceptionally anorthitic
plagioclase (up to An95) is uncommonly present with this alteration; it is unknown if this
below. Less silica in the tetrahedral site (lower TSi) indicates a higher crystallization
temperature. Relict igneous hornblende is locally present at Dos Pobres, comprising the
actinolitic hornblende to actinolite fields with TSi values that indicate a lower
crystallization temperature.
Hydrolytic Alteration
sulfide portion of Dos Pobres. It is easily recognized in the porphyry dikes, where
feldspars are destroyed by sericite and quartz and biotite (primary and secondary) is
in the porphyries; feldspars are altered to sericite, and biotite is altered to chlorite and/or
sericite. Titanium-bearing minerals (sphene and/or rutile) are commonly present with
chlorite and sericite after biotite; rutile predominates in more intense alteration whereas
sphene is much more common in weakly altered areas. As a result, most Ti in porphyries
alteration is easily recognized in the andesites where it is locally intense; however, weak
et al., 2005).
Propylitic Alteration
In the andesites, abundant chlorite and epidote characterize this association (see
Fig. 5C, I below); in the logged intervals, this alteration is typically superimposed on
biotitic alteration. Mafic sites are occupied by chlorite that may be accompanied by
epidote, calcite, sphene, and/or rutile; these minerals have replaced earlier hydrothermal
biotite and/or amphibole. Relict plagioclase phenocrysts and secondary K-feldspar may
be partially altered to fine-grained epidote, chlorite, sericite, and/or clay. In some drill
holes, texturally destructive patches of epidote ± chlorite ± magnetite are common (see
Fig. 5H below); this alteration may predate Cu mineralization (Langton and Williams,
1982). Sulfides are not typically associated with this alteration; where present, they
samples, mafic minerals are replaced by apple-green intergrowths of epidote and calcite.
Epidote may attack feldspar (especially relict plagioclase phenocrysts), rarely causing a
greenish tinge in hand sample. Feldspars also may be partially converted to clays. No
epidote ± chlorite ± magnetite patches have been observed in the porphyry dikes.
25
Alteration Geochemistry
Langton and Williams (1982), and Lang and Titley (1998) parallel the mineralogical
patterns. In potassium silicate assemblages, addition of potassium and the correlated loss
of sodium and calcium drives the compositions upward in Figures 2A and 2C and
particularly K-rich igneous compositions (cf. Jensen and Barton, 2000). Plotting the CaO
+ Na2O, K2O, and Al2O3 molar proportions on a ternary diagram (Fig. 4A) shows that the
most samples have not been subjected to intense hydrolytic alteration, though “porphyry
altered to quartz-sericite” and “biotitized core zone” andesite from Langton and Williams
(1982) clearly show alkali loss. Elemental gains and losses associated with hydrothermal
alteration are shown in Figure 4B. Strong potassic alteration (quartz + K-feldspar +
possibly Fe) with corresponding decreases in Na, Ca, and Mg. Ore metals such as Cu, Au,
and Ag are also enriched (as evidenced by core logging and petrography), though these
increases are not quantifiable with data from this study.. This intense alteration removes
rare-earth elements and results in concentrations as low as ~25-50% of their levels in less
altered rocks (Fig. 2F). The most intense alteration results in significant iron addition
(Sample U-2, Fig 4B); most samples show little to no increase, indicating that their
magnetite either is indigenous or formed from the oxidation of ferrous iron in the original
mafic minerals. Andesite on the fringes of the deposit contains roughly 1.9%
K2O, whereas K2O concentrations in the core are nearly 4% (see Fig. 16.7, Langton and
26
Williams, 1982). While this is approximately 100% increase, it still represents a relatively
modest addition of only 2%. This addition of K is offset by a roughly equivalent decrease
in Na + Ca.
results in increased Si, K, Rb, and Ba but decreased Fe. Geochemical data also shows that
biotitization does not necessarily correlate with strong potassium addition (Fig. 4B),
because nearly all of the samples have several tens of percent biotite, yet most do not
Hydrothermal veins at Dos Pobres are diverse. The observed veins have been
divided into three groups based on the mineralogy of the veins and their associated
relationships have enabled the construction of a timeline of the relative ages of veins.
The greatest number and diversity of veins are associated with potassic alteration.
They are most abundant proximal to the porphyry dikes but persist throughout the
observed extent of the deposit. They are divided into the following seven types (Table 2).
27
Hairline biotite - The earliest observed veins are hairline ( 1 mm thick) biotite
veins that are rare and typically contain small (<1 mm) clots of bornite, magnetite, and/or
anhydrite. These veins are only observed in intensely altered andesite in the core of Dos
Pobres.
Sugary quartz – The most abundant early vein type at Dos Pobres consists of
and biotite, with envelopes of K-feldspar that may also contain biotite, anhydrite,
chalcopyrite, and/or bornite (Fig. 5D, E, G, H, O). The veins can be tens of centimeters in
thickness but typically are < 1cm. These veins are a significant host of Cu and Au. They
are abundant in the center of the deposit and gradually decrease in number and width
and centerlines of K-feldspar, chalcopyrite, bornite, and/or anhydrite (Fig. 5E). They may
contain chalcopyrite, bornite, and/or minor molybdenite intergrown with the quartz; the
veins are typically 1-10 mm in thickness. They commonly lack alteration halos, but
where present they consist of K-feldspar. These veins can be difficult to distinguish from
sugary quartz veins, and they are clearly cut by green mica veins. Their distribution is
Complex biotite - These are thin ( 5 mm) rare veins dominated by biotite. The
vein fill consists of biotite, anhydrite, quartz, and K-feldspar. They have envelopes
containing biotite, magnetite, quartz, and sulfides (chalcopyrite > pyrite > bornite) that
are typically zoned from inner biotite + quartz + magnetite + sulfide to outer quartz
28
and alkali feldspar (Fig. 5F, M, L). These veins appear to cut sugary quartz veins, though
documented crosscutting relationships are few. They are present throughout the deposit,
but their scarcity makes their distribution and timing difficult to constrain.
Green mica - These are 1-5 mm thick veins containing biotite, sericite, bornite
and chalcopyrite, andalusite, and K-feldspar with thick (3-20 mm), zoned alteration
envelopes dominated by biotite (commonly replaced by chlorite) and sericite (Fig. 5G, I,
J). Monazite is uncommonly present as a trace constituent. Green mica veins are common
veins are typically devoid of sulfides. They can be difficult to distinguish from complex
biotite veins, especially in the porphyry dikes. These veins clearly cut sugary quartz and
chalcopyrite, with some examples also containing biotite and/or anhydrite. They locally
have white envelopes consisting of quartz and alkali feldspar (Fig. 5K) but commonly do
not have envelopes. Typical widths are 2-5 mm. These were observed cutting complex
biotite veins, and they very commonly show evidence of superimposed low-temperature
alteration, typically consisting of pyrite, chlorite, epidote, and zeolite minerals (Fig. 5L).
Magnetite-dominated veins were observed only in the andesites and are especially
Molybdenite veins – These are rare planar veins continuous for several meters
consisting of molybdenite and lesser quartz with no alteration envelopes. Typical widths
29
are 2 mm (Fig. 5M). They have been observed cutting sugary quartz, comb quartz, and
complex biotite veins. Molybdenite from one of these veins yielded a Re-Os age of 60.9
± 0.3 Ma (Appendix A). They are quite rare, and thus their distribution is uncertain.
chlorite alteration envelopes are the most common type associated with sericitic
alteration (Fig. 5E, F, O). These veins typically are 2-5 mm thick. Chalcopyrite is the
most common sulfide mineral and minor bornite or pyrite is commonly present; bornite
and pyrite have never been observed in equilibrium. Minor sericite and chlorite are
commonly present in the vein fill, and molybdenite is typically a minor constituent.
Sericite and lesser chlorite dominate the envelopes, which are typically 3-5 times vein
width. These commonly reopen sugary and comb quartz veins. Molybdenite from one of
these veins yielded an age of 60.4±0.3 Ma (Appendix A). These veins are most common
in a ring-shaped zone surrounding the core of the deposit and are rarely present in the
Clotty sulfide-chlorite – These are thin ( 2 mm) veins with clots of chlorite and
sulfide (chalcopyrite and/or pyrite) and sericitic (sericite ± chlorite) envelopes. These
may be thin equivalents of sulfide-sericite veins. These veins are common throughout the
Anhydrite-dominated veins – These veins are rare and are dominated by anhydrite
and quartz (Fig. 5K). Envelopes typically contain anhydrite, quartz, sericite, and chlorite;
30
these veins were only observed in andesite, and were only common in one drill hole in
Chlorite-pyrite veins – These veins are planar, have sharp edges and even widths,
and are dominated by chlorite with lesser pyrite (Fig. 5N). They are rare and have weakly
due to their rarity, but they likely represent a transition between hydrolytic and propylitic
alteration types.
epidote, and calcite are associated with propylitic alteration. These veins are common on
the fringes of the deposit but rare in the higher-grade portions. These veins typically vary
in thickness from 1-5 mm. They are mineralogically variable, but have distinctive white
and green speckled envelopes that may be weakly zoned from inner quartz to outer
chlorite (Fig. 5I, L). These also commonly reopen older veins.
Base-metal veins – Veins with Cu-Pb-Zn sulfides and no visible envelopes were
observed in one location (from the central bornite-dominated zone). The veins are 2-3
mm wide and consist dominantly of calcite with, sphalerite, chalcopyrite, galena, and
pyrite.
white to pink-orange zeolite minerals, which very commonly reopen, shatter, and cement
earlier veins or fill jagged fractures (Fig. 5J, O), indicating formation in open space.
31
Many zeolite species are present, but stilbite-stellarite and heulandite are most common;
calcite is variably present. Their thickness ranges from 1-10 mm. These veins are
ubiquitous but their abundance varies widely, ranging from nearly zero locally to
Sulfide minerals were observed and recorded during core logging and
petrography, and precious metal minerals were observed and recorded using petrography
and electron microprobe work involving mainly back-scattered electron (BSE) images
and energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS). Langton and Williams (1982) reported
the presence of precious metals as hessite (Ag 2Te) and sylvanite [(Au,Ag)2Te4] occurring
within bornite grains. Descriptions of sulfides and precious metals observed in each vein
Potassic Veins
Based on observations during core logging and petrography, the group of veins
that exhibit potassic alteration envelopes host most of the copper and practically all of the
gold in Dos Pobres. The sulfides in these veins are dominated by bornite and chalcopyrite
and have not been observed containing any cogenetic pyrite, although local sulfidation of
veins, the grains commonly show chalcocite-digenite with an exsolution texture (Fig. 6A,
B, D, F). The majority of precious metals that were observed occur in bornite-dominated
32
veins, with or without this exsolution texture. They occur as hessite, sylvanite, electrum
(~85:15 Au:Ag), and possibly calaverite (AuTe2) embedded in bornite; most grains are
10 m in diameter (Fig. 6A, B). Bornite in some green mica veins contains wittichenite
(Cu3BiS3) within the exsolved chalcocite (Fig. 6D), and certain chalcopyrite grains rarely
have associated acanthite (Ag2S). Galena (with up to ~20% Se) commonly forms in
fractures and on grain boundaries of sulfides and may have associated hessite (Fig. 6E,
G). Sylvanite does not occur in this manner. In one sample, magnetite pseudomorphing
Hydrolytic Veins
Drill core observations show that these veins also host considerable Cu, largely as
chalcopyrite (Table 2), but microprobe study indicates that these veins contain very little
Au. Silver is present as evidenced by galena and minor hessite commonly present on the
edges of grains and in fractures. Although bornite does uncommonly occur in certain
hydrolytic veins, no precious metals were found in the bornite contained in these veins, in
veins may have rare tiny (<10 μm) inclusions of unidentified Sn- or Zn-bearing non-
sulfide minerals.
Low-Temperature Veins
Propylitic veins were observed in drill core to be only a minor host of Cu, which
shows that these veins do not carry gold, though galena and minor hessite are commonly
found on grain boundaries and in fractures, as in other vein types. Base-metal veins
contain Cu, Pb, and Zn, but no precious metals were observed.
with distance from the locus of intrusion. Moderate to weak K-silicate alteration is
present in andesite for considerable distances (> 1,000 m), persisting far outside the limits
observed at one location; the matrix consists of biotite, bornite, quartz, and zeolites, and
Many of the vein types were not distinguished at the outset of core logging; some
were distinguished only after subsequent petrography; and certain types occur only
noted in the descriptions above (e.g., more abundant in proximal than distal locations,
etc.), estimates of abundance either are not available for most vein types or cannot be
34
confidently contoured in plan or cross section with the data gathered in this study.
sugary and comb quartz veins) are shown in Figures 7 E and F. Quartz veins are most
abundant (~25 vol %) in the strong quartz + K-feldspar + magnetite + biotite alteration
zone in the core of the deposit. Their abundance decreases rapidly to <10% but remains
Bornite content increases with depth and proximity to the deposit center, thus bornite-
outward, forming a zone of chalcopyrite-dominated veins that surrounds the bornite core
and gradually yields to pyrite. Veins with potassic (K-feldspar ± biotite) envelopes host
grade contours (from Langton and Williams, 1982) are shown in Fig. 1D above; they
zone that broadly coincides with the greatest intensity of hydrolytic alteration, with
Cu:Mo ratios ranging from >1000:1 in the Mo-poor core to ~35:1 in the areas with more
Most precious metals at Dos Pobres are embedded in bornite grains, with textures
suggesting having been exsolution at high temperatures from a solid solution; therefore,
grades of Au and Ag are highest in the bornite-dominated core (Figs. 16.9 and 16.10 of
Langton and Williams, 1982). They are observed in most types of “potassic” veins
(excluding magnetite-dominated and molybdenite veins), but sugary quartz veins are the
dominant host due to their greater abundance. Gold content is highest in the core of the
deposit and decreases outward; silver follows the same distribution and Ag:Au ratios
range from ~10:1 in the Au-rich core to >100:1 in the fringes (Figs. 16.9 and 16.10,
Langton and Williams, 1982). Aside from occurrences related to potassic veins, silver
occurs on the edges of and in fractures in sulfide grains, perhaps deposited via adsorption
under hypogene conditions (e.g., Simon et al., 2000). The occurrence of precious metals
mainly within bornite and as small grains is metallurgically favorable because most
Supergene Features
The Dos Pobres system has been thoroughly oxidized and partially leached to a
depth of ~350 m (Langton and Williams, 1982; Wilson, 2004). Wilson (2004) reports that
Oxide copper minerals (neotocite [tenorite?], cuprite, and chrysocolla) are visible in the
occurs in areas where oxidation of mafic minerals was minor; this capping style is
36
interpreted to represent oxidation of hypogene sulfide minerals only (Wilson, 2004). Due
to the low pyrite:(chalcopyrite + bornite) ratio of the ores and pH buffering capacity of
the wall rocks at Dos Pobres, mobilization of copper was limited. In the mixed oxide-
sulfide zone, native copper, chalcocite, and covellite are abundant (Langton and
Williams, 1982).
At the deeper levels examined in this study, supergene bornite and chalcocite
near zones of fracturing. Supergene bornite has only been observed replacing
heavy fracturing, sulfides may be completely oxidized. Covellite is typically absent but is
locally abundant in the mixed oxide-sulfide zone and is associated with rare hawleyite
Many are interpreted to be of secondary origin by the criteria of Roedder (1984), but a
significant fraction of equant (commonly exhibiting negative crystal forms) lack obvious
liquid, lesser vapor, and – typically – one or more daughter minerals fill the inclusions.
Daughter minerals include equant salts (most commonly a single cubic crystal = halite)
37
and lesser opaque (triangles = chalcopyrite, red equant = hematite) and elongate
birefringent minerals.
contain abundant daughter minerals, including halite and other phases. The abundance of
opaque and birefringent daughter minerals decreases rapidly with distance from the
bornite-rich core of the deposit and in time, as inferred from paragenesis of vein types.
Halite-bearing inclusions are common in later and more distal veins such as those with
sericitic envelopes, but inclusions in propylitic (late and typically distal) veins have no
daughter minerals. Opaque minerals and elongate birefringent daughter minerals are
associated with the quartz-bearing potassic vein types (sugary quartz, comb quartz,
complex biotite). Quartz veins associated with sericitic alteration have more abundant
liquid-vapor inclusions, but halite and opaque-bearing inclusions are rarely present and
may indicate that the quartz containing those inclusions formed as part of an earlier vein
Time-Space Evolution
The porphyry dikes are sufficiently similar in appearance and composition that the
number of distinct intrusions is uncertain. The U-Pb ages are well within error (57.2 ±
0.9, 57.2 ± 1.2, 57.0 ± 1.1 Ma; Appendix A), but several factors point to more than one
intrusive event. The variable abundance of embayed quartz phenocrysts, the marked
differences in alteration intensity between dikes, and the observation of sugary quartz
38
veins truncated at contacts all require multiple intrusive events. The facts that no
truncated veins of other types were observed and that no reversals in offsetting vein
relationships (in the sense of Seedorff and Einaudi, 2004) were noted imply that the
assemblages (e.g. quartz + sericite + chlorite + pyrite ± chalcopyrite) became stable. The
vein types observed thus appear to represent a single overall thermal event. With the rare
porphyry copper deposits (Sillitoe, 2000). During early potassic alteration, bornite and
precious metals have a direct correlation (indicating deposition by the same fluid).
metals.
The ages of the porphyry dikes and andesites are well within the expected ranges
for this region. The difference between the ages of the porphyry dikes (~57.1 Ma) and the
host andesite (67 - 73 Ma) demonstrates that they are not coeval, as others have suggested
(Dunn, 1978; Langton and Williams, 1982). The Re-Os age of molybdenite
mineralization (60.4 ± 0.3 and 60.9 ± 0.3 Ma) is enigmatic, being older than the porphyry
dikes (~57 Ma). This is probably a result of disturbance in the Re-Os isotopic system.
This is not the only deposit in which molybdenite Re-Os geochronology has yielded ages
that are significantly older than those obtained by other methods (cf. Raul-Condestable,
39
Peru; De Haller et al., 2006). The two Re-Os dates overlap within error, even though their
important, since their presence indicates that the magma had a high oxidation state. While
hardly common, anhydrite phenocrysts have been reported from a few other deposits,
including Santa Rita, New Mexico (Audétat et al., 2004) and Endeavour (Lickfold
et al., 2003).
A schematic cross section through the core of the deposit is shown in Figure 8
showing the time-space evolution of Dos Pobres. In panel A, porphyry dikes were
emplaced, causing intense potassic alteration and the formation of sugary quartz veins. In
panel B, the continued emplacement of dikes caused the continuation of sugary quartz
vein formation, along with weaker widespread potassic alteration and the formation of
the other potassic vein types. In panel C, as temperature drops, hydrolytic alteration is
superimposed on the earlier potassic. Later propylitic alteration weakly overprints the
entire system. Panel D shows the deposit in its current state, after faulting, tilting,
Discussion
feature of many gold-rich porphyry deposits (Hollister, 1975; Sillitoe, 1979). Most have a
40
potassic (K-feldspar + quartz ± biotite) core, which grades outward into a propylitic halo.
Intense quartz + K-feldspar alteration similar to that present at Dos Pobres is reported
from the cores of many other deposits (Sillitoe, 1979), as is widespread biotitization of
mafic minerals (Seedorff et al., 2005). Propylitic alteration with similar features to that at
Dos Pobres has been described from many other deposits. Biotite-amphibole alteration
like that described here has not been distinguished in other deposits. It may represent a
transition between potassic and propylitic alteration, since it shows some features
common to both. The high TSi content of the amphiboles in this alteration requires a low
temperature of formation.
All of the vein types described in this study are similar to reports from other
deposits. Hairline biotite and sugary quartz veins represent the early vein stages at most
porphyry copper deposits (Seedorff et al., 2005). Comb quartz veins are similar to “B”
veins at El Salvador (Gustafson and Hunt, 1975), though at Dos Pobres they can be
difficult to distinguish from sugary quartz veins and could be combined into one category
(cf. “AB” veins of Clode et al., 1999, at Batu Hijau, Indonesia.) Veins similar to complex
biotite veins have been reported from several deposits, such as Butte, Montana (“EDM”
veins of Meyer, 1965; Brimhall, 1977), El Salvador, Chile (“C” veins of Gustafson and
et al., 1996). Green mica veins have been described from other deposits, such as Butte
(Brimhall, 1977), El Salvador (“EB” veins of Gustafson and Quiroga, 1995), and Los
Pelambres (Atkinson et al., 1996). Magnetite veins have been reported at several
deposits, notably Park Premier, Utah (John, 1989), and Island Copper, British Columbia
41
(Arancibia and Clark, 1996). These veins are interpreted to be of late magmatic age, but
magnetite veins at Dos Pobres clearly formed later. Veins with sericitic and propylitic
envelopes at Dos Pobres are unremarkable, displaying features observed at many other
deposits. Zeolite veins are common in deposits that occur in mafic host rocks (Seedorff
et al. 2005).
descriptions of veins and their relative ages are lacking in many deposits, with many
authors opting instead to group veins into broad categories that fail to capture critical
envelopes are necessary if one seeks to learn about the changes in hydrothermal fluid
chemistry with time. For example, rarely described vein types such as green mica veins
and complex biotite veins can contain mineral assemblages that provide constraints on
600°C.
Ore mineralogy in Dos Pobres is also typical of Au-rich porphyry deposits. Gold
is always associated with potassic alteration, as described in many deposits (cf. Gustafson
and Hunt, 1975; Cuddy and Kesler, 1982; Langton and Williams, 1982; Gustafson and
Quiroga, 1995, Sillitoe, 2000), and gold and copper contents vary sympathetically (cf.
Sillitoe, 1979). Electrum is the dominant gold mineral, and it is always associated with
bornite. The abundance of precious metal tellurides is unusual, but there are other
documented examples of this style of mineralization, such as Granisle and Bell, British
42
et al., 1999), Bingham, Utah (Redmond and Einaudi, 2000), Goonumbla, New South
Wales, Australia (Heithersay and Walshe, 1995), and numerous other deposits for which
mineralogic studies have been conducted on concentrates (Tarkian and Stribrny, 1999).
Minerals containing other uncommon elements, such as the Bi and Sn that were noted in
this study of Dos Pobres, are common in the base-metal lode environment of porphyry
systems (e.g., Meyer et al., 1968; Einaudi, 1982; Takagi and Brimhall, 1999), but trace
occurrences of such phases occasionally are reported from porphyry deposits worldwide
that lack advanced argillic alteration (e.g., Tarkian and Stribrny, 1999; Redmond and
Einaudi, 2000).These rare occurrences are of geochemical curiosity but generally have
Arizona, there are some Arizona deposits with which it shares some characteristics. The
(Gilluly, 1946; Dixon, 1966), with a reported mill production of 399 million metric
tonnes at 0.80 percent Cu, 0.005 percent Mo, and 0.34 g/t Au (Long, 1995). However,
extremely coarse-grained (~1 cm) hydrothermal biotite is present in the core of the Ajo
deposit, whereas the coarsest hydrothermal biotite at Dos Pobres is barely megascopic.
Additionally, magnetite at Ajo is seemingly less common than at Dos Pobres. Gold also
has been produced from the Bisbee deposits and the Courtland-Gleeson mining district
(Lang et al., 2001; Stegen et al., 2005), but only from carbonate replacement bodies
The porphyry Cu-Mo class includes most of the world’s largest known deposits,
et al., 2005). They are most commonly associated with quartz monzodioritic to granitic
intrusions. Chalcopyrite is the most common copper mineral (bornite is absent in some
much more abundant in these deposits, and precious metals (especially gold) are much
Since the recognition of the geologically real difference between Mo- and Au-rich
porphyry copper deposits (Kesler, 1973), there have been many hypotheses concerning
the differences in the origins of the two deposit types. The observation that porphyry
deposits formed in island arc environments tend to be Au-rich while deposits formed in
continental arcs are typically Mo-rich was made early in the discussion (Kesler, 1973).
This observation led to the hypothesis that the composition of the crust through which the
magmas traveled and in which they are emplaced influences the abundance of these
metals. As noted by Gustafson (1978) and others, many deposits (including Dos Pobres)
do not follow this trend, and this idea was dismissed by Sillitoe (1979). Emplacement
depth and wall-rock permeability were also hypothesized to have some effect (Kesler,
1973), though these have also since been ruled out. Titley (1982) proposed that the two
deposit types simply represent different levels of exposure in broadly similar systems, but
this view has also been dismissed based on greater vertical exposure at many deposits of
44
plutons with different styles of mineralization (i.e., Saindak, Pakistan; Sillitoe, 1979), as
well as substantial compositional overlap between classes (Fig. 8C, Seedorff et al., 2005)
imply that this is not the sole factor. In light of all of these observations, igneous rock
While little is known about the sulfide portions of Lone Star, San Juan, and
Sanchez, what information is available suggests that there may be significant differences
between them and Dos Pobres. Thus as the Safford district is further explored, it may
present an uncommon opportunity to study the relationships between Cu-Au and Cu-Mo
porphyry systems. All four deposits certainly formed in a continental arc environment,
and there is no evidence to suggest that the deposits were emplaced or are exposed at
significantly different levels. Geochronologic and field evidence suggest that the deposits
all were emplaced within a few million years of each other, attesting that the source
magmas traveled through the same underlying crust and likely have a shared origin.
Similarly, we can rule out the possibility of influence from wall-rock chemistry or
permeability since the Safford Volcanics host all four deposits. However, further
There are also other variables to consider. An injection of mafic magma into a
silicic magma chamber may affect the type of mineralization formed, such as at Bingham
45
(Keith et al., 1997). Many volcanic arcs show evolution from mafic to felsic over time,
and produce different mineralization types at different stages (Barton, 1990; 1996); this
factor may be particularly important, since Dos Pobres is slightly older than the other
deposits in the Safford district (M. D. Barton, unpub. data). The more primitive Nd
value for the Dos Pobres porphyry relative to the porphyries at the Lone Star deposit also
is interesting (Lang and Titley, 1998). It seems that some fundamental change may have
taken place in the Safford district, in which the magmas changed from the more primitive
type present at Dos Pobres to the more evolved type seen in the other deposits.
comparisons (e.g., Ryan et al., 1995; Barton and Johnson, 2000). Indeed, the abundance
sodic- and potassic-calcic alteration (e.g., Dilles et al., 1995; Lang et al., 1995) has led
some to speculate a genetic link between this deposit type and IOCG deposits (Marschik
and Fontboté, 2001). However, the differences between the two deposit types are more
significant than their similarities. By definition, porphyry deposits show a clear genetic
relationship with intrusive rocks, whereas the link between magmatism and IOCG
deposition is not fully understood. IOCG deposits typically have extensive sodic- and/or
Pobres) is commonly absent and limited in scope where present. IOCG deposits
46
commonly are enriched in cobalt, nickel, and REE, while Dos Pobres shows no such
enrichment. Quartz veins are abundant in nearly all porphyry deposits, whereas
contain several tens of percent iron oxide, but magnetite content in porphyry deposits
rarely reaches 10%. In light of these observations, the resemblance between Cu-Au-Mo
Conclusions
mineralization styles are typical of the deposit type, as outlined by Sillitoe (2000). The
ore deposit was formed by the devolatilization of porphyry dikes and the subsequent
cooling of those magmatic fluids, resulting in deposition of voluminous quartz veins and
Cu-Fe sulfide minerals. We expect that as more deposits are discovered and described,
the characteristics of Dos Pobres will closely resemble many more Cu-Au-Mo deposits
worldwide.
Acknowledgments
This work was undertaken as the senior author’s Masters Thesis at the University
of Arizona guided by committee members Mark Barton, Eric Seedorff, and Jon Patchett.
Primary funding for this project and permission to publish this report were provided by
Phelps Dodge, now a part of Freeport-McMoRan Copper and Gold, Inc., and are
gratefully acknowledged. Related work was funded through NSF grant EAR 02-30091,
47
the U.S. Geological Survey Porphyry Copper Life Cycle Project, and the University of
Arizona-U.S.G.S Center for Mineral Resources. We thank Jeff Gerwe, Ralph Stegen, and
Bill Stavast for providing access to drill core and relevant data as well as support and
ideas throughout the process; we also appreciate their reviews of this manuscript.
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2–16.
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56
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University of Arizona, 91 p.
57
Figure Captions
Fig. 1: Location maps. (A) Arizona, showing location of the Safford mining district. (B) Enlargement of the Safford
mining district (modified from Langton and Williams, 1982). The town of Safford is 13 km SSW of Dos Pobres.
(C) Surface map of Dos Pobres (modified from Langton and Williams, 1982). (D) 2000 ft (600 m) level map of Dos
Pobres showing grade contours from Langton and Williams (1982).
Fig. 2: Rock geochemical plots. Triangles are Safford andesites, circles are porphyries. Gray symbols represent
intense alteration; black symbols are data from Langton and Williams (1982) or Lang and Titley (1998). (A) Total
alkali vs. silica plot, showing fields of Le Maitre et al., (1989) and approximate composition of Safford andesites
before the intrusion of the porphyry. (B) La/Yb vs. Sc/Ni andesite discrimination plot showing Safford andesites
and classification fields of Bailey (1981). (C) K2O vs. silica plot showing alteration type paths and fields of
Rickwood (1989). (D) A/(N+K) vs. A/(C+N+K) plot. (E) IUGS diagram showing normative compositions of
Safford rocks and fields of Streckheisen (1974). The gray shaded area in the lower right is the basalt/andesite field.
(F) Chondrite-normalized REE plots of Safford district rocks, using the normalization of Anders and Grevesse
(1989).
Fig. 3: Mineral composition plots. (A) Amphibole compositions, showing fields from Leake (1978). Higher
tetrahedral silicon (TSi) indicates lower crystallization temperature. Samples with lower TSi may be relict igneous
hornblende. (B) Biotite compositions, markers corresponding to the alteration packages with which the samples are
associated.
Fig. 4: Alteration geochemical plots: (A) Al2O3-Na2O+CaO-K2O ternary plot (molar proportions) showing ‘fresh’
rock compositions (gray oval). Inset shows alteration type paths. (B) Spider diagram showing the effect of
alteration on chemical components in the porphyry dikes. Samples are normalized to
Al2O3 in the least-altered porphyry. Samples U-2 and U-3 have intense potassic alteration; the other Dos Pobres
samples have weak-moderate potassic alteration. One sample is “porphyry altered to quartz-sericite” from Langton
and Williams (1982), which shows hydrolytic alteration superimposed on potassic.
Fig. 5: Photos of rocks, veins, and age relationships. Scale bar is 1 cm except where noted. Vein and envelope
terminology is: vein mineral(s)//envelope mineral(s); i.e. a quartz + bornite vein with a biotite envelope is qtz-bn//
bio. (A) Least altered porphyry, with weak biotitic and later weak chl + ep ± cal alteration. Mafic minerals are
converted to biotite (some to chl + ep) and feldspars are partially altered to sericite+clay. (B) Porphyry showing
weak hydrolytic alteration and a possible anhydrite phenocryst. (C) Intense qtz + kfs + mt alteration in andesite.
Groundmass is replaced by irregular masses of K-feldspar and magnetite which are cut by sugary quartz (qtz-kfs-
mt//-) veins. (D) Photomicrograph (crossed polarizers) of biotite-amphibole-magnetite alteration developed in
amygdaloidal (?) andesite. “Amygdule” is filled with biotite and amphibole and cut by a sugary quartz (qtz-anh//
bio) vein; the groundmass is darkened by fine magnetite. (E) Sugary quartz (qtz-bn//kfs) veins developed in
porphyry cut by a comb quartz (qtz-cpy-anh-bn//-) vein, which is in turn cut by a sulfide-sericite (cpy-ser-
bn//ser+chl) vein. (F) Complex biotite (bio-qtz-mt-kfs-bn-cpy-cal-zeol//bio-qtz-kfs) vein cut by a sulfide sericite
(cpy-ser-chl-anh//ser-chl) vein that has reopened a sugary quartz (qtz+bn//bio) vein in andesite. (G) Green mica
(bio-ser-cpy-bn-mt//bio-ser-kfs) vein cutting a sugary quartz (qtz-kfs-bn-bio//-) vein in fragmental andesite. (H)
Propylitic alteration in andesite, with patches of intense epidote alteration. A narrow sugary quartz veinlet (qtz//bio)
is reopened by zeolites. (I) Green mica (?) (chl[after bio?]-cpy-ser//ser) vein cut by propylitic (cpy-qtz-cal-chl-
zeol//qtz-chl-ep-ser) vein in andesite. (J) Green mica (?) (bio-cpy-kfs//bio) vein cut by numerous zeolite veins in
andesite. (K) Anhydrite-dominated (anh-qtz-cpy) vein with zoned (inner qtz, outer chl) envelope cuts (cross cutting
58
relationship not shown) a magnetite-dominated (mt-anh-cpy-bio//qtz) vein in andesite. (L) Complex biotite (bio-
kfs-qtz-cpy-cal-chl[after bio]//bio-qtz) vein cut by a magnetite-dominated (mt-cpy-qtz-zeol-cal//qtz) vein in
andesite. A propylitic (cpy-qtz-chl-ep//qtz-chl-ser) vein is shown in the corner of the sample. (M) Molybenite
(moly-qtz//-) vein cuts complex biotite (qtz-bio-cal-kfs-cpy-bn//qtz-bio) and comb quartz (qtz-cpy-kfs//-) veins in
andesite. (N) Chlorite-pyrite (chl-pyr-qtz//bio-amph) vein cuts quartz veinlets in andesite with biotite + amphibole
+ magnetite alteration. (O) Complex cross cutting relationship in andesite with a sulfide-sericite (cpy-moly//?) vein
that has reopened a sugary quartz (qtz-bn//-) vein, and has been reopened by zeolites which fracture and embed
fragments of the earlier veins. Amph = amphibole, anh = anhydrite, bio = biotite, bn = bornite, cal = calcite, chl =
chlorite, cpy = chalcopyrite, ep = epidote, kfs = K-feldspar, mt = magnetite, moly = molybdenite, pyr = pyrite, qtz =
quartz, ser = sericite, zeol = zeolite minerals.
Fig. 6: Ore photos: (A) and (B) Bornite (Bn) with bluish gray exsolved chalcocite (Cc) and native gold (Au). (C)
Bornite with gold and sylvanite (Sylv, [Au,Ag]2Te4). (D) Bornite with chalcocite and wittichenite
(Cu3BiS3). (E) Hessite (Hess, Ag2Te) and galena (Gal) deposited on the edge of chalcopyrite (Cpy). (F) Bornite with
chalcocite and associated magnetite (Mt) pseudomorph after hematite (Hm). (G) Back-scattered electron (BSE)
image of galena and hessite deposited along a grain boundary between bornite and chalcopyrite. (H) BSE image of
chalcocite and covellite (Cov) with associated hawleyite (CdS).
Fig. 7: Plan maps and cross sections. Gray bars in cross sections are logged intervals, vertical scale is elevation in
feet. (A) and (B) Plan map and cross section showing dominant alteration type. (C) and (D) Plan map and cross
section showing dominant sulfide mineral. (E) and (F) Plan map and cross section showing quartz vein abundance.
Fig. 8: Cartoon cross section showing formation of hydrothermal features and subsequent faulting and tilting at Dos
Pobres. (A) Intrusion of early porphyry dikes into andesite and development of intense potassic alteration. (B)
Intrusion of later dikes and widespread weaker potassic alteration. (C) Formation of weak hydrolytic (sericitic) and
propylitic alteration. (D) Faulting, tilting, weathering, and erosion.
Figure 1
59
60
Figure 2
61
Figure 3
62
63
Figure 4
64
Figure 5
65
Figure 6
66
Figure 7
67
Figure 8
68
Propylitic association
chl, ep,
± ep, chl,
Andesite sph, cal chl, ep
cal, clay
[bio]
Propylitic (intense)
chl, ep,
± ep, chl,
Porphyry sph, cal chl, ep
cal, clay
[bio]
Propylitic, Zeolite
chl, ep,
± ep, chl,
Andesite sph, cal chl, ep
cal, clay
[bio]
Propylitic (weak)
chl, ep,
± ep, chl,
Porphyry sph, cal chl, ep
cal, clay
[bio]
69
Table 3: Summary of Fluid Inclusion Observations
Table 2: Summary of Dos Pobres Vein Types
Minerals present Abundance Abundance in
Environment
Vein type L-VVein Fill L-V-H
Envelope L-V-H-Op
description Complex Comments Cu Mo Deposit Observed Timing Relationships
Quartz
Potassic
Hairline Biotite
veins Common biotite Common
biotite ± quartz ± bornite ±magnetite
Common Common Inclusions with daughter
Very thin ( 1 mm), brown to black, appearing as dark lines along hairline fractures T - T Cut by all other veins; intrusive
assoc-iated with secondary minerals usually have contacts not observed.
strong
Sugary K alteration
Quartz quartz + K-feldspar + Cu-Fe-sulfide ± negative crystal forms
K-feldspar ± quartz ± biotite ± anhydrite [ Sugary-textured quartz-K-feldspar veins with disseminated bornite, minor biotite and anhydrite, and C T A Cut hairline and complex biotite veins,
magnetite ± anhydrite ± biotite ± ± chlorite ± sericite] rare chalcopyrite. Envelopes most commonly consist of K-feldspar, though biotite and/or K-feldspar cut by all other veins; occasionally
molybdenite [ ± chlorite ± sericite ± envelopes may be present in andesitic host rocks. Several observed examples are cut by breccias truncated at intrusive contacts.
Quartz veins sphene ± rutile] Common Common Rare
and porphyry. Similar to "A"Rare
veins of Gustafson and Hunt Same (1975). as above;
associated with secondary inclusions in distal veins
Comb Quartz quartz + K-feldspar + Cu-Fe-sulfide ± K-feldspar ± quartz ± biotite ± anhydrite [ Dominated by inward-growing quartz with scattered sulfides, K-feldspar, and biotite. They show C T C Cut hairline and complex biotite veins
weak K alteration
biotite ± anhydrite ± molybdenite[± ± chlorite ± sericite] have
poorly- to well-defined centerlines of K-feldspar, chalcopyrite, fewer
and/or bornite.daughter
If present, envelopes and sugary quartz veins, commonly
chlorite ± sericite ± calcite ]
minerals
are similar to 2b veins but not as intense. K-feldspar envelopes in andesitic host rocks are easily
overlooked in hand sample but distinctive when stained. Similar to "B" veins of Gustafson and Hunt
reopened by green mica and sulfide-
sericite veins. Cut intrusive contacts
Quartz veins Common Common Very
(1975)Rare Very Rare Some inclusions with where observed.
associated
Complex Biotite with primary
biotite + quartz + Cu-Fe-sulfide ± K- andbiotite + Cu-Fe-sulfide + quartz ± Very thin veins dominated by biotite with envelopesdaughter minerals may
zoned from inner biotite-quartz-sulfide with minor A - R Cut sugary quartz veins; intrusive
feldspar ± anhydrite [ ± chlorite ± sericite] magnetite [ ± chlorite ± sericite] secondary chlorite-sericite to outer quartz. Possibly similar to "C" veins of Gustafson and Quiroga contacts not observed.
sericitic alteration secondary (1995) or "type 4" veins of Atkinson et al. (1996). be related to earlier
Green Mica biotite + muscovite + Cu-Fe-sulfide + K- biotite + muscovite + K-feldspar + Cu-Fe- Thin (<5mm) mineralogically complex veins with lumpy irregular envelopes events zoned from inner biotite R - C Cut sugary quartz and comb quartz
feldspar ± anhydrite ± andalusite [ + sulfide ± anhydrite [ + chlorite + rutile + (usually replaced by chlorite, rutile, and titanite), sericite, and K-feldspar to outer K-feldspar. Sulfides veins; cut intrusive contacts (one
Quartz veins Common
chlorite + rutile ± titanite ± epidote] Absent
titanite ± epidote] Absent Absent
are commonly scattered throughout the envelope. PossiblyOnly similarL-V inclusion
to "green mica" veins of Brimhall example).
(1977).
associated with primary and observed; these are late
Magnetite-Dominated magnetite ± pyrite ± chalcopyrite ± quartz quartz ± alkali feldspar Wavy to planar veins up to 1 cm thick, dominated by large magnetite grains with other minerals R - R Cut complex biotite veins (one
propylitic ± anhydrite ± actinolitesecondary,
± epidote ± interstitial. Common in deep distal zones and mostly distal veins example), cut by anhydrite-dominated
alterationchlorite some have veins (one example).
Molybdenite molybdenite ± quartz none Thin (<2 mm) planar veins that are continuous for several meters. Common in deep flanking zones. - A T Cut complex biotite, sugary quartz,
large bubbles and comb quartz veins
Complex
Hydrolytic inclusions contain elongate birefringent daughter minerals
Sulfide-Sericite Cu-Fe-sulfide ± quartz ± sericite ± sericite ± chlorite ± Cu-Fe-sulfide ± quartz Typically consist of massive chalcopyrite, commonly reopening or filling residual open spaces in A R A Cut all potassic veins; relationships
(anhydrite?) chlorite ± anhydrite ± molybdenite earlier veins. Envelopes consist of coarse sericite and chlorite, in rare cases zoned from chlorite with other sericite-chlorite veins are
inner to sericite (±K-feldspar) fringes. Similar to "D" veins of Gustafson and Hunt (1975). uncertain. Cut all intrusive contacts.
L = liquid, V = vapor, H = halite, Op = opaques
Clotty Sulfide-Chlorite quartz + Cu-Fe-sulfide + chlorite ± sericite sericite + quartz ± Cu-Fe-sulfide ± chlorite Most commonly occur as thin (<3mm) quartz veins with clots of sulfides and chlorite, with envelope C - C Same as above
± anhydrite width approximately 3 times vein width.
Anhydrite-Dominated anhydrite + quartz + chalcopyrite quartz + anhydrite + sericite + chlorite Planar veins of variable width with distinctive envelopes zoned from inner quartz to outer chlorite- T - T Cut magnetite-dominated veins (one
sphene example)
Low-Temperature
Chlorite-Pyrite chlorite + pyrite ± quartz ± sericite chlorite + actinolite Thin (<3 mm), planar, straight-sided veins dominated by chlorite with quartz and intermittent pyrite T - T Cut sugary quartz veins (one
and actinolite envelopes. example), cut by propylitic veins (one
example)
Propylitic quartz + Cu-Fe-sulfide + chlorite ± calcite quartz + chlorite + epidote ± titanite ± Quite variable in appearance, speckled green and white envelope can be confused with that of other R - C Cut all veins except zeolite. Not
± epidote ± zeolites ± amphibole albite ± K-feldspar types. Commonly observed reopening earlier veins, leading to complex relationships. observed in porphyry dikes.
Base Metal calcite + sphalerite + chalcopyrite + sericite + chlorite Very rare veins with Zn-Pb-Cu mineralization and intense sericitic envelopes. C - T Cut sugary quartz veins
galena + pyrite + sericite
Zeolite-Dominated stellarite ± heulandite ± phillipsite ± stilbite fine-grained zeolites, clays Occur as both planar and irregular veins, very commonly reopening earlier veins of all types. - - C Cut all veins wherever present.
± laumontite ± gonnardite(?) ± analcime ± Stellarite, heulandite, and phillipsite are common. Envelopes are rare; where present they consist of
calcite clays and very fine zeolites. Commonly reopen, shatter, and cement earlier veins, hence appearing
to be Cu-Mo bearing.
Estimation of overall vein abundance (VA), and Cu and Mo abundance in each vein type: A = abundant, C = common, R = rare, T = trace, - = not present
70
Appendix A: Geochronology
U-Pb analyses were performed at the Arizona LaserChron Center, using a Multicollector Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass
Spectrometer (GVI Isoprobe) coupled to a 193 nm Excimer laser ablation system (New Wave Instruments and Lambda
Physik). Re-Os analyses were performed by Fernando Barra at the University of Arizona.
Table A1: Summary of Geochronology
Sample Method Age (Ma) Description/Comments
Number
Andesite, weak-moderate biotite
alteration with partial propylitic
S-2 U-Pb (zircon) 73.3+1.0/-0.72 overprint. Age based on 8 usable
zircons.
Porphyry, bornite-chalcopyrite
S-5 U-Pb (zircon) 57.0±1.1 mineralization with sugary quartz+K-
feldspar veins.
Porphyry, intense quartz + K-
S-7 U-Pb (zircon) 57.2±1.2 feldspar + magnetite alteration
Porphyry, feldspars altered to clay,
S-16 U-Pb (zircon) 57.7±0.65 zeolite veins common
~0.5 cm pyrite-molybdenite vein
Re-Os cutting across core; paragenetic
RL-2 60.4±0.3
(molybdenite) relationships unknown
2 mm molybdenite-quartz vein,
observed cutting sugary quartz,
Re-Os
S-10 60.9±0.3 comb quartz, and complex biotite
(molybdenite)
veins (Fig. 5M).
71
83
81
79
77
AGE
75
73
71
S-2
AGE = 73.4 +2.6/-1.7 Ma
69 (2
67
Fig. A1: Individual laser spots for sample S-2.
Fig. A2: Individual laser spots for sample S-5.
72
68
64
60
AGE
56
52
S-7
AGE = 57.2±1.2 Ma
Mean = 57.2±0.7
48
MSWD = 2.3
)
(2
44
Fig. A3: Individual laser spots for sample S-7.
73
63
61
59
AGE
57
55
S-16
AGE = 57.2±0.9 Ma
53
Mean = 57.19±0.44
MSWD = 1.00
)
(2
51
49
Fig. A4: Individual laser spots for sample S-16.
74
0.24
1300
0.20
1100
0.16
900
Pb/238U
0.12 700
206