Basic Science: Anatomy and Histology Notes

- Plasma membrane: a lipid bilayer membrane found in eukaryotes made up of two amphiphilic (both
hydrophobic/philic) phospholipid layers.
 Eg of amphipathic lipid: micelle, lipid bilayer, liposomes
 Hydrophobic/nonpolar/ oil phase and hydrophilic/polar/phosphate group/aqueous phase make
up amphipathic lipids. Between two polar layers, an aqueous compartment may be found, while
the center of the membrane is composed of hydrophobic layers.
 Contains: steroid molecules (from cholesterol), glycolipids (fatty acid with sugar moieties),
proteins, and glycoproteins (proteins with sugar moieties) etc. Cholesterol and glycolipids alter
the physical properties of the cell (increases melting point), while the protein aid in transporting
nutrients, signal transduction (interactions with external environment).
 Function: protects, maintains homeostasis and enables external interactions

- Nucleus and Nucleolus: surrounded by two lipid bilayers: inner defines the boundaries of nucleus
while outer is continuous with the RER.
 Contains: DNA, proteins for: maintainence (repairs/replicates), expression (transcription),
transportation (DNA/RNA)
 Nucleolus (within nucleus): produces rRNA passes through nuclear pores into the cytosol and
then RER.

- RER: contains majority of ribosomes. rRNA doublets associates with tRNA to translate mRNA into
amino acid sequence and finally into protein.
 Function: membrane/secretory protein production and modification (most developed in
secretory cells like pancreatic acinar or plasma cells)

- SER: site of FA and phospholipid production as seen in adrenal cortex or steroid secreting cells of
ovaries/testes.
 Eukaryotes usually have small SER, but hepatocytes have well developed SER because they
constantly detoxify hydrophobic compounds through conjugation and excretion.

- Golgi apparatus: proteins from RER are packaged into transport vesicles, which fuse to the Golgi
vesicles. Golgi modify these proteins in one of three major regions in the Golgi network (depending
on their final destination): cis (CGN), medial (MGN), or trans (TGN).
 Then they are either secreted after storage in secretory granules from which they are expelled or
repackaged (transport vesicle) and transferred to their target location (lysosome, plasma
membrane etc.)
 Some protein fuse with endosomes (prelysosomes) to form lysosomes.
 Function: distributes proetins/lipids from ER to various locations, target protein to lysosomal
degradation (add mannose-6-phosphate to protein), others:
o Modify N-oligosaccharides on asparagines
o Add O-olligosaccharide to serine/threonine residue
o Assemble proteoglycan from core protein
o Sulfating sugars in proteoglycan and tyrosine residues on protein

- Lysosomes (trash collector): single lipid bilayer; endocytosed extracellular material enclosed in
endosome (transport vesicle), fuse with lysosome leading to hydrolytic enzymatic degradation of its
content.
 Lysosomal enzymes (nuclease, protease, phosphatase) require a pH less than 4.8, thus the
lysosomal membrane has hydrogen ion pump, which hydrolyzes ATP to move protons against
the gradient.
- Mitochondria: primary site of ATP production in aerobic respiration. Composed of outer membrane
(transport of large molecules for respiration), intermembranous space, inner membrane (has folds
‘cristae’ and is selectively permeability is maintained by transmembrane protein).
 Transmembrane proteins make up the electron transport chain (generates energy to store in
ATP bonds) and maintains a proton gradient between intermembranous space and lumen of
inner membrane.
 Enzymes: Outer membrane (acyl CoA synthetase, glycerolphosphate acyl transferase), inner
membrane ( electron carrier complex I-IV, ATP synthase, membrane transporter), matrix (center
of mitochondria; citric acid cycle enzymes, B-oxidation enzymes, pyruvate dehydrogenase).

- Microtubules and Cilia: microtubules are intracellular proteins consisting of a and B-tubulin dimers
each bound to 2 guanosine triphosphate molecules giving them a + and – polarity. They combine to
form polymers (24nm diameter).
 Polymerization occurs slowly from positive end of microtubule but depolymerization occurs
rapidly unless a GTP cap is placed.
 Microtubules makes up both cilia and flagella. In cilia, microtubules pair up to form ‘doublets’, 9
doublets each linked by an ATPase (dynein) circumference to form a single cilium. Dynein
anchors to one doublet, moves along the length of the adjacent doublet in coordination, resulting
in ciliary motion.
 Plasmalemma surrounds the cilia.

- Epithelial Cell Junction: transmembrane protein mediate intercellular interaction by cell adhesion
and signaling. Organs/tissue exposed to external environment are the most resilient, they are
referred to as epithelial (origin). These epithelial cells contain cell junctions that mediate those
interactions. 5 types of cell junctions:
 Zona occludens (tight junctions): determines epithelial cell polarity and regulates transport
across the epithelial barrier (paracellular transport aka diffusion etc). In epithelial cell,
membranes of adjacent cells meet to seal the paracellular space (cells in adenocarcinoma lose
their epithelial junctions allowing infiltration of basal membranes and transforms from in-situ to
invasive) at the site of interaction of the junctional protein complex between adjacent cells. This
complex is made up of occludin (4-span transmembrane protein) and claudin.
 Zona Adherens (intermediate junctions): right below the tight junctions near apical surface of
epithelial layer. Intracellularly these transmembrane protein complexes are associated with
actin microfilaments, outside, cadherin (Ca dependant adhesion proteins) from adjacent cells
span wider intracellular space than zona occludens.
 Adherens junction (desmosome): resembles spot wheel (instead of belt like the other two);
found below the apical surface; smaller site of attachement. Intracellularly associated with
keratin intermediate filament (provides strength and rigidity of epithelial surface). Also
mediated by cadherin interactions.
 Hemidesmosomes: asymmetrical anchors (due to laminin 5, a protein filament that binds the cell
to the basal lamina aka basement membrane, instead of cadherin) that provides epithelial
adhesion to underlying CT layer (extracellular matrix: BM/BL).
 Gap junctions: intercellular junctions that allows rapid transmission of electrical/chemical
information between cells. A complex of 6 connexin proteins for a connexon, a cylindrical
structure in the plasma membrane. When two connexon join between two cells, a gap junction is
formed, creating an open channel for fluid/electrolyte transport.

- Hematopoiesis: hematopoetic cells are individual cells engaed in process of cellular interaction,
physiological transport and immune surveillance.
 Blood: CT composed of cells in plasma (composed of water, protein, electrolyte). Erythrocyte
makes up 45% of blood by volume (Hct). Once centrifuged (from bottom to up), we have
erythrocytes, leukocytes (buffy coat), and then plasma. Plasma without platelets and clotting
factor is known as blood serum.
 Hematopoietic stem cell: in bone marrow where hematopoiesis (blood production) occurs. They
are capable of asymmetric reproduction, simultaneously renew (to preserve stem cell) and
differentiate (into specialized mature cells). 2 cell lines arise from them, myeloid and lymphoid,
they are committed (begun differentiation).
o Myeloid lineage produces 6 CFU, each ending in distinct mature cell: erythroid (RBC),
megakaryocytes (platelets), basophils, eosinophils, neutrophils, and monocyte
(macrophages; develops from monoblast not promyelocyte like the other leukocytes).
o Lymphoid lineage: produced 2 cell lines: T cells and B cells; considered leukocytes too
 Erythrocytes: 7.7u diameter, non-nucleated (no organelles: lose all as they mature), biconcave
(surface area). They have a plasma membrane, cytoskeleton, Hb and glycolytic enzymes (for
aerobic respiration 90% and hexose monophosphate shunt 10%).
o This limits the life span to 120 days (removed by splenic macrophages and liver).
o Bone marrow produces reticulocytes (still have nucleus) that replaces them, in 1-2 days
they mature.
o Metabolism: GLUT 1 transporter moves glucose across plasma membrane, meanwhile,
glycolytic enzymes produce ATP and lactic acid via anaerobic metabolism. Important
aspects of RBC metabolism:
 RBC is highly dependent on glucose (GLUT 1) plus lacks a mitochondria thus no
oxidative phosphorylation (no ATP production).
 Pentose phosphate pathway metabolizes 5-10% of glucose and produces reduced
form of NADPH (hemolytic anemia due to G6PD or enzymes of nucleic acid
metabolism deficiency is common).
 NAPDH to reduce glutathione (produced by RBC) to counteract the action of
potentially toxic peroxides.
 2,3-bisphosphoglycerate production by reaction closely associated with glycolysis is
important to regulate Hb’s ability to transport O2.
 Iron of Hb must be in ferrous state, ferric iron is reduced to ferrous by NADH-
dependant methemoglobin reducatase system involving cytochrome b5 and
cytochrome b5 reductase.
 No synthesis of glycogen/FA/protein/nucleic acid take place in RBC but some lipids
(cholesterol) in membrane can exchange with corresponding plasma lipids.
 Eventually, globin is broken into amino acid (heme into iron) and reused. The
tetrapyrrole component of heme is converted to bilirubin (excreted into bowel).
 Leukocytes: