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5Transporte de sólidos -
TRANSFER OF SOLIOS
n contrast to f/uids which are transferred almost equipment. Most commonly, solids are carried on or pushed
I
exclusive/y through pipelines with pumps or blowers, a a/ong by sorne kind of conveyor. Solids in granular form a/so
greater variety of equipment is emp/oyed for movmg are transported in pipe/ines as s/urries in inert liquids or as
solids to and from storage and between process suspensions in air or other gases.
In short process lines slurries are readily handled by centrifuga} = exp( -2.55u,/ kuYiJ , (5.2)
pumps with large clearances. When there is a distribution of sizes,
the fine particles effectively form a homogeneous mixture of high where
density in which the settling velocities of larger particles are less C = concentration of a particular size at a leve! 92% of the
than in clear liquid. Turbulence in the line also helps to keep vertical diameter,
particles in suspension. It is essential, however, to avoid dead C0 = concentration at the center of the pipe, assumed to be the
spaces in which solids could accumulate and also to make provisions same as the average in the pipe,
for periodic cleaning of the line. A coal-oil slurry used as fue! and f = Fanning friction factor for pipe flow
acid waste neutralization with lime slurry are two examples of
process applications. 2
l!..P/ L u (5.3)
Many of the studies of slurry transfer have been made in = 0.25--p l5 2gc
connection with long distance movement of coal, limestone, ores,
and others. A few dozen such installations have been made, in At high Reynolds numbers, for example, Blasius' equation is
length from severa! miles to severa! hundred miles.
Coal-water slurry transport has been most thoroughly f = 0.0791/N/.;.,;5, (5.4)
investigated and implemented. One of the earliest lines was 108
miles long, 10 in. día, 50-60 wt % solids up to 14 mesh, at velocities k in Eq. (5.2) is a constant whose value is given in this paper as
of 4.5-5.25 ft/sec, with positive displacement pumps at 30-mile 0.35, but the value 0.85 is shown in a computer output in a paper by
intervals. The longest line in the United States is 273 miles, 18 in. Wasp, Thompson, and Snoek (1971, Fig. 9). With the latter value,
dia and handles 4.8-6.0 million tons/yr of coa!; it is described in Eq. (5.2) becomes
detail by Jacques and Montfort (1977). Other slurry pipeline
literature is by Wasp, Thompson, and Snoek (1971), Bain and C/C0 = exp(-3.00u,/uYiJ. (5.5)
Bonnington (1970), Ewing (1978), and Zandi (1971).
Principally, investigations have been conducted of suitable The latter paper also states that satisfactory fiow conditions prevail
linear velocities and power requirements. Slurries of 40-50 vol % when C/C0 ?.0.7 for the largest particle size. On this basis, the
solids can be handled satisfactorily, with particle sizes less than 24- mínimum line velocity becomes
48 mesh or so (0.7-0.3 mm). At low line velocities, particles settle
out and impede the fiow of the slurry, and at high velocities the u 8.41u,/Vf, (5.6)
frictional drag likewise increases. An intermediate condition exists Wln(C0/C)
at which the pressure drop per unit distance is a mínimum. The
velocity at this condition is called a critica! velocity of which one where u, is the settling velocity of the largest particle present.
correlation is As Example 5.1 shows, the velocities predicted by Eqs. (5.1)
and (5.6) do not agree closely. Possibly an argument in favor of Eq.
(5.6) is that it is proposed by the organization that designed the
u = 34.6Cu Du,Vg(s - 1)/d, consistent units, (5.1) successful 18 in., 273 mi Black Mesa coa! slurry line.
Pressure drop in fiow of aqueous suspensions sometimes has
where been approximated by multiplying the pressure drop of clear liquid
uc = critica} flow velocity, at the same velocity by the specific gravity of the slurry. This is not
u, = terminal settling velocity of the particle, given by Figure borne out by experiment, however, and the multiplier has been
5.1, correlated by other relations of which Eq. (5.7) is typical:
Cv = volume fraction of solids,
D = pipe diameter, gD(s - l)Ji. 3
69
70 TRANSFER OF SOLIOS
1 000
800
600
EXAMPLE 5.1 400
Conditions of a Coal Slurry Pipeline : :;
Data of a pulverized coal slurry are 200
¿ v _,.
t;:::
k: ,,
Cv = 0.4, 100
D = 0.333 ft,
f = 0.0045 (Blasius' eq. at N,e = 105),
.i' V/
.-"'.
/L.;
'""' -
'l - L/
¡,...
¡_,,.
60
40
h
..... ¡...
l./ [.....-'
!./" ,,,,.....
-
20
""
s = 1.5. ,,V
"' ""<e0%' t/',:, 1/ ¡... ,_,,.
Mesh size 24 48 100 Mixture
10 '/
/
" ",.p () /.V
¡,, '\. .,
'
' 1/
.;'
v
d(mm) 0.707 0.297 0.125 0.321 7 r77
/
'....".. ,7
17 d>
r/'
'
Weig ht fraction 0.1 0.8 0.1 o
6 7h 177 17
4
u, (ft/sec) 0.164 0.050 0.010 0.0574
e"'·
'!'
r1t i// ll l/,¡v'
mixture are weight averages. "ü I ' l/ //,
J j
The terminal velocities are read off Figure 5.1, and the values of the
o 2
17 ll¡, 17
The following results are found with the indicated equations:
I 1 I
ltem rn1/ / J / /
o
Eq. 24 48 100 Mixture -¡¡ /, 1, IJ / f / J J
V¡J 1/ /1
Uc >
11'
u
ve;, 5.1 7.94 5.45 3.02
5.6 20.6 6.27 1.25
t'l
e::
E.,
06
04 I
!J.P5 /!J.PL 5.8
5.11
1.36 2.89 9.38 3.39
1.539
Vl
02 V¡f )1/ J 1¡/
I I 7
5.13 1.296
o1 I I Jl / /
o 06
!J.P5 /!J.PL
0 04
'/ I / /7
Eq. (5.1): u = 34.6(0.4)(0.333)V32.2(0.5) ya;;;, ' _
0 02
// / j
= 323-u,_
304 8
o 01 :¡¡/ J I
I I J
ya;;;, ' 0 006
/ I
B.4lu, o 004
Eq. (5.6):
u = y0.004 5 = 125u,, 0 002 /J
Eq. (5.8):
4 32.2(1.5 - 1) dmm 0.0704dmm
cv = 3 u 304.8 = u ' o 001 /
t.P, = 1+ 0.69 [ 1- /32.2(0.5)0.321]1. 3 0 002 0-004 0-01 0 02 0-040·06 01 02 04 o6 1 2 3 5 7
Eq. (5.11):
t.PL 0.4°·3 0.0574 V 304.8(3.39) 2 Sphere diameter, cm
= 1.5391, Figure 5.1.Settling velocities of spheres as a function of the ratio ot
3
t.P,= l O 27Z(O 4)[0.0045(0.333)32.2(0.5)Jt. densities of the two phases. Stokes law applies at diameters below
Eq. (5.13): approximately 0.01 cm (based on a chart of Lapple et al., Chemical
t.PL + . . (0.0574)2(3.39)
Engineering Handbook, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1984, p. 5.67).
= 1.296.
The drag coefficient is The pressure drop relation at the critica! velocity given by Eq. (5.1)
is found by substitution into Eq. (5.7) with the result
Cv = l.333gd(s - l)/u;. (5.8)
favored, M'
For mixtures, a number of rules has been proposed for evaluating ,/
the drag coefficient, of which a weighted average seems to be (5.9) t.P
5.2. PNEUMATIC CONVEYING 71
L = 1+ ;[(1/u,)Vgd(s - 1)/Cv]u. (5.11)
V
10 1
10°
o
CD
en
a"..' 2
10
10·1 a"..'
i
·¡¡; ui
en
o
o
en iñ 101
> 10·2
Figure 5.2. Non-Newtonian behavior of suspensions: (a) viscosity as a function of shear rate, 0.4 wt % polyacrylamide in water at room
temperature; (b) shear stress as a function of shear rate for suspensions of Ti02 at the indicated vol % in a 47.1 wt % sucrose solution whose
viscosity is 0.017 Pa sec ( Denn, Process Fluid Mechanics, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NI, 1980).
ª HP/ton = (pressure factor)(hp/T)(sat.). The units of sat. are standard cuft of air/lb of solid transferred), and those of hp/T are
horsepower/(tons/hr of solid transferred).
(Stoess, 1983).
5.4 shows a typical pilot plant arrangement. A preliminary design solids from a source and to deliver them under positive pressure.
procedure is given by Raymus (1984). Many details of design and Friable materials also may be handled effectively by the equipment
operation are given in books by Stoess (1983) and Kraus (1980) and of Figure 5.5 in which altemate pulses of granular material and air
in articles by Gerchow (1980), and Perkins and Wood (1974). Sorne are transported.
of that information will be restated here. Pressure drop and power Typical auxiliary equipment is shown on Figure 5.6. The most
requirements can be figured largely on the basis of general used blower in pneumatic conveying is the rotary positive dis-
knowledge. placement type; they can achieve vacua 6-8 psi below atmos-
pheric or positive pressures up to 15 psig at efficiencies of about
EOUIPMENT 65%. Axial positive displacement blowers also are used, as
well as centrifugals for large capacities. Rotary feeders of many
The basic equipment consists of a solids feeding device, the transfer proprietary designs are available; Stoess (1983) and Kraus (1980)
line proper, a receiver, a solid-air separator, and either a blower at illustrate severa! types. Receivers may be equipped with fabric
the inlet or a vacuum pump at the receiver. Four common kinds of filters to prevent escape of fine particles; a dacron fabric suitable for
arrangements are shown on Figure 5.3. Vacuum systems are up to 275ºF is popular. Cyclone receivers are used primarily for
favored for shorter distances and when conveying from several entirely nondusting services or ahead of a filter. A two-stage design
sources to one destination. Appropriate switching valves make it is shown in Figure 5.6(d). Typical dimensions are cited by Stoess
possible to service several sources and destinations with either a (1983), for example:
vacuum or pressure system. Normally the vacuum system is favored
for single destinations and the pressure for severa! destinations or
over long distances. Figure 5.3(b) shows a rotary valve feeder and line diameter (in.) 3 5 8
Figure 5.3(c) a Venturi feeder which has a particularly gentle action primary diameter (ft) 3.5 4.5 6.75
suitable for friable materials. Figure 5.3(d) utilizes a fan to suck the secondary diameter (ftl 2.75 3.5 5.0
74 TRANSFER OF SOLIOS
3-way
Valve
Pickup (a)
;;-a
and Motor Rotary
Vl"-< >
a - t Switch
Station
---------Rotary Valve
(b)
Venturi
Figure 5.3. Basic equipment arrangements of pneumatic conveying systems. (a) Vacuum system
with severa! sources and one destination, multiple pickup; (b) pressure system with rotary valve
feeder, one source and severa! destinations, multiple discharge; (c) pressure system with Venturi
feed for friable materials; (d) pull-push system in which the fan both picks up the solids and
delivers them [after F. J. Gerchow, Chem. Eng. ( 17 Feb. 1975, p. 88)).
Piping usually is standard steel, Schedule 40 for 3-7 in. IPS and feeders, pos1t1ve pressure systems are limited to about 12 psig.
Schedule 30 for 8-12 in. IPS. In order to minimize pressure loss and Other feeding arrangements may be made for long distance transfer
abrasion, bends are made long radius, usually with radii equal to 12 with 90-125 psig air. The dense phase pulse system of Figure 5.4
times the nominal pipe size, with a maximum of 8 ft. Special may operate at 10-30 psig.
reinforcing may be needed for abrasive conditions. Linear velocities, carrying capacity as cuft of free air per lb of
solid and power input as HP/tons per hour (tph) are listed in Table
OPERATING CONDITIONS
5.1 as a general guide for a number of substances. These data are
for 4-, 5-, and 6-in. Jines; for 8-in. Jines, both Sat. and HP/tph are
Vacuum systems usually operate with at most a 6 psi differential; at reduced by 15%, and for 10-in. by 25%. Roughly, air velocities in
lower pressures the carrying power suffers. With rotary air lock low positive pressure systems are 2000 ft/min for light materials,
5.2. PNEUMATIC CONVEYING 75
ft/min
Line length
(ft) 55 lb/cuft 55-85 85-115
200 4000 5000 6000
500 5000 6000 7000
1000 6000 7000 8000
Figure S.4. Sketch of pilot plant arrangement for testing pneumatic wc = 3.5(53.3)(T + 460)m;[(P2/P1)º· 2857 -1] (ft lbf/sec)
conveying under positive pressure ( Kraus, Pneumatic Conveying of (5.15)
Bulk Materials, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1980).
with the flow rate in lb/sec.
Frictional losses are evaluated separately for the air and the
3000-4000 ft/min for medium densities such as those of grains, and solid. To each of these, contributions are made by the line itself, the
5000 ft/min and above for dense materials such as fly ash and elbows and other fittings, and the receiving equipment. lt is
cement; ali of these velocities are of free air, at atmospheric conservative to assume that the linear velocities of the air and solid
pressure. are the same. Since the air flow normally is at a high Reynolds
Another set of rules for air velocity as a function of line length number, the friction factor may be taken constant at f. = 0.015.
Accordingly the frictional power loss of the air is given by
To receiving hopper The unity in the bracket accounts for the entrance loss, ne is the
Air to number of cyclones, n1is the number of filters, L is the line length,
and L; is the equivalent length of an elbow or fitting. For long
radius bends one rule is that the equivalent length is 1.6 times the
actual length of the bend. Another rule is that the long bend radius
is 12 times the nominal size of the pipe. Accordingly,
On/off pulse uz ,
to air knife w2 =2g m, (ft lbf/sec). (5.18)
ACCESS COVER
ROTOR SHOE
ISPRING LOAOEOl
ROTOR
SPRING
(b)
NYLON FllTER
TUBES, A1R -
CLEANEO ANO
AUTOMATICALLY
SHAK[N [V[RY
TWO MINUTES
lShokinq
mechonism
not shown l
Air
Thimble
Secondary cyclone
Air and
material - lnner skirt
Primary cyclone
Secondary
discharge lock
Primary discharge lock
Material
(e) (d)
(e)
Figure 5.6. Components of pneumatic conveying systems. (a) Rotary positive displacement blower for pressure or vacuum. (b) A rotary
airlock feeder for fine materials ( Detroit Stoker Co.). (e) A four-compartment receiver-filter ( Fuller Co., Bethlehem, PA). (d) A two-stage
cyclone receiver. (e) The Fuller-K.inyon pump for cement and other fine powders. Powder is fed into the aeration chamber with a screw and
is fluidized with compressed air ( Fuller Co., Bethlehem, PA).
5.2. PNEUMATIC CONVEYING 77
the value of fs is 0.58-1.00. The sliding friction in the line is company's manufacture and a factor for determining the power
requirement. An abbreviated table of about 150 substances appears
w4 = fsLm; (ft lbf/sec), (5.20) in the Chemical Engineers Handbook (1984, p. 7.5). Hudson (1954,
pp. 6-9), describes the characteristics of about 100 substances in
where L is the line length. relation to their behavior in conveyors. Table 5.3 lists bulk
Friction in the curved elbows is enhanced because of densities, angles of respose at rest, and allowable angles of
centrifuga! force so that inclination which are angles of repose when a conveyor is in motion;
references to more extensive listings of such data are given in this
u2 (2nR) , 2 , table.
W5 =Js gR 4 m5 = 0.0488fsu m5 (ft lbf/sec). (5.21) The angle of repose is a measure of the incline at which
conveyors such as screws or belts can carry the material. The
The total frictional power is tangent of the angle of repose is the coefficient of sliding friction.
This property is a factor in the power needed to transfer the
(5.22) material by pushing or dragging as in pneumatic, screw, flight, and
Redler equipment.
and the total power consumption is Special provisions need to be made for materials that tend to
form bridges; Figure 5.13(a) is an example of a method of breaking
( wc + W¡) up bridges in a storage bin so as to ensure smooth flow out.
w (HP/(ton/hr)], (5.23)
55071(1.8m;) Materials that tend to pack need to be fluffed up as they are pushed
along by a screw; adjustable paddles as in Figure 5.7(d) may be
where 71 is the blower efficiency. Pressure drop in the line is sufficient.
obtained from the frictional power, the total flow rate, and the
density of the mixture: SCREW CONVEYORS
The physical properties of granular materials that bear particularly These are high capacity, relatively low power units for primarily
on their conveying characteristics include size distribution, true and horizontal travel and small inclines. The maximum allowable
bulk densities, and angle of repose or coefficient of sliding friction, inclination usually is 5-15º less than the angle of repose; it is shown
but other less precisely measured or described properties are also of as "recommended maximum inclination" in Table 5.3 for sorne
concern. A list of pertinent properties appears in Table 5.2. The substances, and is the effective angle of repose under moving
elaborate classification given there is applied to about 500 materials conditions.
in the FMC Corporation Catalog 100 (1983, pp. B.27-B.35) but is The majority of conveyor belts are constructed of fabric,
too extensive for reproduction here. For each material the table rubber, and wire beads similarly to automobile tires, but they are
also identifies the most suitable design of screw conveyor of this made also of wire screen or even sheet metal for high temperature