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Abstract
This paper presents a detailed review and analysis of sonic gas flow in pipelines, adding considerably more detail to the analysis, particularly
for long pipelines. Our results show that (1) the mass flow rate is asymptotic as the velocity head pipe loss increases (2) the asymptotic value is
identical for both adiabatic and isothermal conditions and (3) a maximum is found in the gas flow, although this maximum is near the asymptotic
value. A graphical method for isothermal flows and a simple, shortcut formula is presented using asymptotic analysis which accurately
estimates gas flow rates in long pipelines under both adiabatic and isothermal conditions. Process safety applications are provided.
q 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Compressible flow theory of the pressure head and kinetic energy of the flowing gas,
both acting over the cross-section of the fluid element:
There have been many studies of the flow of compres-
sible gases in pipelines in textbooks (Churchill, 1980; Crowl pD2 pD2
tpDdx Z K dP K ur du (1)
& Louvar, 2002; Levenspeil, 1984), in articles (Cochran, 4 4
1996; Farina, 1997; Kumar, 2002; Levenspeil, 1977), and In industrial practice, long piping networks may not be
technical documents (Crane Co, 1986). Two limiting cases, horizontal. However, the contribution of gravitational poten-
adiabatic and isothermal, are often considered. Adiabatic tial to the mechanical energy balance is generally negligible.
flow conditions assume flow through an insulated pipe. The following steps are applied to Eq. (1):
These conditions are usually valid for short pipelines since
there is little heat transfer to or from the gas. Isothermal flow 1. Rewrite Eq. (1) in terms of the mass velocity (which is
conditions assume flow through a pipe held at a uniform also called the mass flux): GZur.
temperature; these conditions are commonly assumed when 2. Introduce the Fanning friction factor, f, from the relation-
studying the flow of a gas in an uninsulated pipeline. Most ship tZfru2/2ZfG2/2r.This results in the following:
natural gas pipelines are considered isothermal. f rD D dr
dx Z K 2 dP C (2)
For isothermal flow, the literature (Crane Co, 1986; 2 4G 4 r
Dodge & Thompson, 1937) states that flow under isothermal
3. Integrate Eq. (2) over the length of the pipe.
conditions is applicable to most industrial conditions, the
4. Introduce the sonic velocity, a, and the Mach number,
ideal example being a lengthy pipeline submerged under MaZu/a.
water. The analysis begins with a mechanical energy 5. Apply the ideal gas law.
balance about a fluid element of length dx within a 6. Apply mass conservation, which states that the mass
horizontal pipe of diameter D. The shear stress at the velocity, G, denoted by the product of the density and
exterior surface of the fluid element is balanced by the sum velocity, ru, must be a constant at steady-state. Thus,
r1u1Zr2u2. The exiting density can now be calculated as
r2Zr1(u1/u2) which can be written as r2Zr1(Ma1/Ma2).
* Corresponding author. Tel.: 906 487 3221; fax: 906 487 3213.
E-mail address: crowl@mtu.edu (D.A. Crowl). Similarly, the exit pressure is given by P2ZP1(Ma1/Ma2).
0950-4230/$ - see front matter q 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.jlp.2004.12.004
56 J.M. Keith, D.A. Crowl / Journal of Loss Prevention in the Process Industries 18 (2005) 55–62
Nomenclature
a Speed of sound Ma Mach number
A Area P Pressure
CP Heat capacity R Ideal gas constant
D Diameter T Temperature
F Fanning friction factor u Velocity
gc Gravitational constant x Distance
G Mass flux Y Expansion factor defined by Eq. (28)
h Enthalpy
Symbols
K Velocity head losses
3 Pipe roughness
L Length
g Heat capacity ratio
m_ Mass flow
r Density
M Molecular weight
t shear stress
The following equation results after completion of steps 2. The gas temperature is determined by the conservation of
1 through 6 above: thermal energy:
4fL 1 1 1 Ma1 udu Z Kdh Z KCp dT
Z K C 2 ln (3)
D g Ma21 Ma22 Ma2
Under choked flow conditions, the speed of the exiting 3. The sonic velocity is introduced in the form:
gas reaches a maximum (as shown by Churchill, 1980), such
g K1
that the exiting Mach number Ma22 Z 1=g. This gives: Yi Z 1 C Ma2i
2
4fL 1 1
C ln C 1K Z0 (4) Differentiation and integration of the resulting equation,
D gMa21 gMa21
with considerable algebraic manipulation, results in the
such that the exit velocity is u2Za/g1/2, the exit pressure is following equation for the adiabatic case:
P2ZP1Ma1g1/2 and the exit density is r2Zr1Ma1g1/2. A 2
g C1 Ma2 Y1 1 1 4fL
detailed derivation of Eq. (4) is provided in Keith and Crowl ln K K Cg Z0 (6)
2 Ma21 Y2 Ma21 Ma22 D
(2004).
The mass velocity can also be written in terms of the Under choked flow conditions, the maximum velocity of
Mach number at the inlet and exit conditions: the exit gas is at the speed of sound (as shown by Churchill,
rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi 1980), such that the Mach number is unity. This simplifies
ggc M (6) to the form:
G Z r1 u1 Z r1 Ma1 a Z Ma1 P1 Z r2 u2
RT
g C1 2Y1 1 4fL
rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ln K K1 Cg Z0 (7)
ggc M 2 ðg C 1ÞMa21 Ma21 D
Z r2 Ma2 a Z Ma2 P2 (5)
RT such that the temperature ratio T2/T1Z2Y1/(gC1), the
A more complicated situation exists under adiabatic flow pressure ratio P2/P1ZMa1(2Y1/(gC1))1/2, and the density
conditions because the temperature changes as the gas flows ratio r2/r1ZMa1((gC1)/2Y1)1/2. A detailed derivation of
towards the tube exit. The temperature may either increase Eq. (7) is provided in Keith and Crowl (2004).
or decrease depending upon the relative effects of gas The assumptions that are inherent in the above analysis
expansion and friction. for both the adiabatic and isothermal flow cases are:
The following steps are applied to Eq. (1) for the
1. Either isothermal or adiabatic conditions along the entire
adiabatic case:
pipe length.
1. The gas velocities at the inlet and exit are introduced: 2. The fluid is an ideal gas
rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi 3. Potential energy contributions, Dz, are negligible
gc RT1 g compared to kinetic energy and pressure
u1 Z Ma1 a Z Ma1 and
M head/compressibility
rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi 4. Constant compressibility ratio, g, along the entire pipe
gc RT2 g length
u2 Z Ma2 a Z Ma2
M 5. Constant friction factor, f, along the entire pipe length.
J.M. Keith, D.A. Crowl / Journal of Loss Prevention in the Process Industries 18 (2005) 55–62 57
0.8
P 0.5
where Y is a unitless gas expansion factor and K is the
sum of frictional losses, including pipe friction, entrance and 0.4
exit losses, and fittings, which areP written in terms of an
equivalent friction factor given by K Z 4fL=D. 0.3
For adiabatic flows, the gas expansion factor Y is
determined by equating Eqs. (9) and (5) with TZT1 to yield: 0.2
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
P
g K P1 0.1
Y Z Ma1 (10)
2 ðP1 K P2 Þ
0
0.01 0.10 1 10 100 1000
Figs. 1 and 2 are determined by repeated trial-and-error
P
or direct solutions of Eq. (7), given a value for K and for Velocity Head Loss, Σ K
g. Then the exit pressure is determined from P2Z Fig. 2. Gas expansion factor as a function of the excess velocity head pipe
P1Ma1(2Y1/(gC1))1/2 and the gas expansion factor, Y, is losses for adiabatic flow. The results are a weak function of heat capacity,
determined from Eq. (10). The gas expansion factor is but the difference is less than can be shown on this figure.
58 J.M. Keith, D.A. Crowl / Journal of Loss Prevention in the Process Industries 18 (2005) 55–62
1 Table 1
Correlations for the expansion factor Y and the sonic pressure drop ratio
P
(P1KP2)/P1 as a function of the pipe loss K for adiabatic flow conditions
Pressure Drop Ratio (P1 - P 2)/P1
Fig. 4. Gas expansion factor as a function of the excess velocity head pipe The equation used to fit the functions are of the form ln YZA (ln K)3CB (ln
losses for isothermal flow. The results are independent of the heat capacity K)2CC (ln K)CD for the expansion factor and fðP1 K P2 Þ=P1 gK1 Z AC
ratio. Bðln KÞ2 C C=K 0:5 for the pressure drop ratio.
J.M. Keith, D.A. Crowl / Journal of Loss Prevention in the Process Industries 18 (2005) 55–62 59
Figs. 1 and 3). Thus, the exit gauge pressure approaches Eq. (17) is used to determine the mass flow for the first
zero. Under these circumstances, the upstream pressures can case.
be high enough to suggest the possibility of non-ideal For the second case, the solution can be found directly
behavior. In fact, for very long pipelines simulation of from Eq. (16). Solving for D,
Eq. (2) suggests there is a small pressure drop over most of sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
the pipe. Near the pipe exit, the pressure drop is much higher 5 64m_ 2 fL
DZ (18)
as the gas is now expanding at a rapid rate. Therefore this is p 2 gc r1 P 1
the most restrictive assumption of the theory. Nevertheless,
ideal gas solutions are usually used as a back-of-the- If we further substitute the ideal gas law for the upstream
envelope tool for predicting the pressure-volume relation- density, then,
ship. The ideal gas law thus can be used here to provide a sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
5 64m _ 2 fLRT1
similar tool for predicting choked flow. DZ (19)
The assumption of constant friction factor will now be p gc MP21
2
discussed. Simulation of Eq. (2) shows that the local gas The solution to Eq. (19) is by trial and error since the
Mach number (and hence the velocity) at any position x friction factor, f, depends on the pipe diameter.
slowly increases until near the pipe exit, where it quickly
increases to a value of unity. Although the velocity is
changing along the pipe length, its rate of change is small
and a constant friction factor is probably a good assumption. 4. Some examples
The remaining two assumptions concerning horizontal
pipes and constant gas compressibility ratio will now be We now use these results to estimate mass flow rates
discussed. In many industrial situations, pipelines are not under sonic conditions for two examples. The first problem
horizontal; however, even for cases with significant is number 4–14 from the second edition of Crowl and
potential energy
P changes these losses can be lumped into Louvar’s (2002) textbook on chemical process safety.
an effective K value. The heat capacity ratio is a material
property and is relatively independent of pressure. There- Example 1. A laboratory apparatus uses nitrogen at 250
fore, the assumption of constant heat capacity ratio should psig. The nitrogen is supplied from a cylinder, through a
not affect the solution. regulator, and to the apparatus via 15 feet of 1/4-inch ID
drawn copper tubing. If the tubing separates from the
apparatus, estimate the flow of nitrogen from the tubing.
The nitrogen in the tank is at 75 8F. Assume that gZ1.4 and
3. Special cases a friction factor of fZ0.00355, which is estimated for fully
developed turbulent flow. The gas density at the supply
Two special cases of choked flow occur in practice which pressure is determined from the ideal gas law and is
can use the asymptotic solution of Eq. (15). In the first case, 1.2846 lbm/ft3.
the pipe diameter and length are known, and the mass flow is Solution: Adiabatic flow is assumed. The 1/4-in ID is
required. This is equivalent to the rupture of a pipeline at a equivalent to 2.08!10K2 ft, and the cross-sectional area of
specified location. In the second case, the mass flow is the tube can be calculated as 3.41!10K4Pft2. Thus the
specified over a fixed distance and the pipeline diameter friction losses can be calculated as K Z 4fL=DZ
required to transport the gas is required. In both cases it is ð4 !0:00355 !15ftÞ=ð2:08 !10K2 ftÞZ 10:24. A (lengthy!)
assumed that the frictional loss is due entirely to the pipe trial and error computation using Eq. (7) yields Ma1Z0.231.
friction due to the pipe length. Eq. (5) can be used to compute the mass flowrate:
For the first case, for a circular pipe AZpD2/4 and sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
assuming that the frictional
P losses are due entirely to the ggc M
pipes length results in K Z 4fL=D. Substituting into _
mZAMa 1 P1
RT1
Eq. (15) results in
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi 2 lbf 144in2
p gc r1 P 1 D 5 Zð3:41!10 ft Þð0:231Þ!ð250C14:7Þ
K4
Table 1. For this case the pressure drop ratio (P1KP2)/P1Z Now guess DZ6.18 cm. Then fZ0.00457, and the
0.778 and YZ0.70. computed DZ6.32 cm
Alternatively, substituting into Eq. (15) yields the Now guess DZ6.32 cm. Then fZ0.00455 and the
asymptotic solution: computed DZ6.32 cm.
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
gc r1 P 1 K4 2 ð32:17 ft–lbm =lbf –s2 Þð1:2846 lbm =ft3 Þð250 C 14:7Þðlbf =in2 Þð144 in2 =ft2 Þ
m_ Z A P Z ð3:41 !10 ft Þ !
K 10:24
Z 0:134 lbm =s
which has a difference of 13% from the rigorous solution. The answer is DZ6.32 cm. For this problem 4fL/DZ
Clearly, the velocity head pipe loss of 10.24 is too small for 2880 so the asymptotic solution does apply.
the asymptotic solution to apply. Nevertheless, it provides a
good estimate of the mass flow, which is within reasonable
accuracy for process safety applications.
P
It is worth mentioning that if K Z 50, the full solution
of Eq. (5) for adiabatic flow gives a mass flow rate of 5. Discussion and conclusions
0.058 lbm/s while the asymptotic theory of Eq. (15) yields a
mass flow rate ofP0.061 lbm/s, an error of 3.9%. Further- This paper has presented significantly more detail on
more, increasing K to 100 and 500 give an error of 2.2 sonic gas flow than has been presented elsewhere,
and 0.2%, respectively. Thus, the asymptotic theory particularly for the case of a long pipeline. In this case,
becomes more accurate with increasing the pipe length. both the adiabatic and isothermal equations show maxi-
mum and asymptotic values in the gas expansion
Example 2. You wish to construct a pipeline to deliver
parameter. The asymptotic values for the adiabatic and
1 kg/s of nitrogen to a location 10 km away. The pipeline is
isothermal cases are the same. A shortcut formula is
constructed from commercial steel pipe. If the upstream
derived from the asymptotic values, enabling easy
pressure of the nitrogen is 50 barg, what is the required
calculation of the flow.
pipeline diameter? Assume a temperature of 25 8C, that
nitrogen is an ideal gas, and the gas exits at choked The key to the success of the shortcut formula lies mainly
conditions. in the Y parameter, and somewhat in the P pressure ratio.
Figs. 1–4 show that for pipelines with K Z 5 the gas
Solution: The asymptotic solution, provided in Eq. (19), expansion parameter, Y, is within 5% or less of the
applies for this very long pipeline. The procedure is as asymptotic value of 0.707. In addition, the pressure ratio
follows: is
Pwithin 30% or less of the asymptotic value of 1.0. For
K Z 10 the error in the gas expansion factor and pressure
1. Guess a pipe diameter, D.
ratio are 2 and 20%, P respectively. As most industrial
2. Use Eq. (8) for fully developed turbulent flow to
pipelines have large K values due to their length, the
determine f.
asymptotic equation is very good at predicting the
3. Compute a new diameter using Eq. (19).
maximum gas flow rate. The argument of isothermal vs.
4. Continue steps 1 through 3 until guessed D equals
adiabatic flow is also unimportant.
computed D.
The equations presented here are useful for conse-
The procedure converges rapidly if the computed D is quence modeling of releases of gases. A simple, direct
used as the next guess. solution is possible rather than a complicated trial and
For this case, P1Z50 bargZ51 baraZ5.1!106 kg/m s2. error procedure.
Guess DZ10 cmZ0.1 m. For commercial steel pipe,
3Z0.046 mm. From Eq. (8), fZ0.004098. Substituting into
Eq. (19)
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
5 64m _ 2 fLRT1
DZ
p gc MP21
2
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
5 ð64Þð1 kg=sÞ ð0:004098Þð10; 000 mÞð8:3143 kPa–m =kg–mole–KÞ½ð1000 kg=m–sÞ=ð1 kPaÞð298 KÞ
2 3
DZ
ð3:14Þ2 ð1 kg–m=s2 =NÞð28 kg=kg–moleÞð5:1 !106 kg=m–s2 Þ2
D Z 0:0618 m Z 6:18 cm
62 J.M. Keith, D.A. Crowl / Journal of Loss Prevention in the Process Industries 18 (2005) 55–62