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This
document
is
not
complete.
It
is
a
work-‐in-‐progress.
The
final
version
of
this
technical
report
will
be
a
chapter
in
my
book,
“Earth
History:
The
Evolution
of
the
Earth
Systems”.
Though
this
work
is
incomplete,
I
thought
that
it
would
be
worth
sharing
because
there
are
many
diagrams
and
nuggets
of
information
that
a
student
of
earth
history
might
find
interesting.
You
may
notice
that
the
format
of
this
report
is
not
in
the
standard
format
for
scientific
papers.
This
is
intentional.
I
would
like
this
essay
to
be
readable,
literate
(i.e.,
sound
nice),
and
uncluttered
by
jargon
and
ellipsis.
You
may
notice
that
the
main
body
of
the
text
has
few
scientific
citations.
The
only
citations
are
the
“must
know”
citations.
A
more
detailed
scholarly
discussion,
including
numerous
cited
references,
will
be
found
in
the
footnotes.
Using
the
footnotes
motivated
readers
will
be
able
to
follow
the
trail
of
information
that
lead
me
to
the
summaries
and
conclusions
present
in
the
paper.
Though
this
is
a
cumbersome
approach,
I
believe
that
this
“hypertext”
style
will
be
the
ideal
format
for
the
final,
digital
version
of
my
book
.
The
final
format
of
the
book
will
be
similar
to
the
linked
articles
in
WikiPedia.
The
reader
will
be
able
to
follow
interlinked
trails
of
information
describing
the
evolution
of
the
Earth
System.
I
also
plan
to
add
links
to
animations
that
will
illustrate
important
tectonic
events.
So
think
of
this
as
a
different
kind
of
blog.
A
blog
about
the
history
of
the
Earth.
.
I
apologize
if
the
incompleteness
of
this
work
is
annoying
or
raises
unanswered
questions.
In
this
regard,
feel
free
to
contact
me
at
cscotese@gmail.com
if
you
have
questions,
comments
or
corrections.
Plate
Tectonics
during
the
Last
1.5
billion
years:
An
Atlas
of
Continents
come
in
a
variety
of
sizes
and
shapes
(Table
1).
We
Ancient
Oceans
and
Continents
reserve
the
name
“continent”
for
regions
of
continental
crust
greater
than
10
Mkm2
.
7.1
The
present-‐day
continents
are:
Africa,
Antarctica,
Asia,
Australia,
Europe,
North
America,
and
Introduction
South
America.
In
the
Early
Ordovician
the
continents
were:
Baltica,
Cathaysia,
Laurentia,
and
Siberia.
Regions
with
areas
The
maps
in
this
atlas
are
the
first
draft
of
a
new
set
of
plate
less
than
10
Mkm2,
but
more
than
1
Mkm2
are
“subcontinents”.
tectonic
reconstructions
that
will
provide
the
framework
for
the
revised
paleogeographic
and
paleoclimatic
maps
that
I
am
Subcontinents,
like
the
Indian
subcontinent
(4.6
Mkm2)
may
be
preparing
for
my
book,
“Earth
History:
Evolution
of
the
Earth
contiguous
with
a
larger
continent,
but
are
considered
to
be
a
Systems”1.
As
the
title
of
this
work
implies,
the
goal
of
this
atlas
distinct
region7.2.
India
is
subcontinent
because
it
is
separated
is
to
identify
the
major
continents
and
oceans
back
through
from
Asia
by
the
Himalaya
mountains
and
Tibetan
plateau.
time.
Tables
1
and
2
list
the
names
of
the
continents
and
Greenland
(2.1
Mkm2)
and
Zealandia
(4.9
Mkm2
)
are
island
oceans
shown
in
Figures
4
-‐
52.
Figure
1
is
a
“plate
tectonic
subcontinents7.3.
Regions
of
continental
crust
less
than
1
phylogeny”
that
shows
how
these
continents
and
oceans
have
Mkm2
are
“microcontinents”
(e.g.,
S.
Orkney
Islands,
Seychelles,
developed
through
time2.
Rockall
plateau,
or
Tasman
Rise).
7.4
Almost
all
of
the
modern
microcontinents
are
islands
(Table
1).
At
the
other
end
of
the
scale
are
the
“supercontinents”
of
Pangea,
Gondwana,
Pannotia,
Continents
Rodinia,
Terra
Borealis,
and
Columbia
which
have
comprised
Continents
are
defined
to
be
regions
of
the
Earth
that
are
more
than
100
Mkm2
of
the
Earth’s
surface
(Table
1).
underlain
by
continental
crust3.
Continents
may
be
“emergent”
The
etymology
of
the
names
of
the
continents
is
summarized
in
or
“flooded”
depending
on
sea
level,
which
has
varied
from
Table
1.
With
regard
to
the
modern
continents,
the
term
“Asia”
~200
meters
above
modern
sea
level
to
~200
meters
below
is
one
of
the
most
ancient
recorded
geographic
names,
whose
modern
sea
level
during
the
past
600
million
years4.
The
ultimate
provenance
is
unknown.
8
“Africa”
is
from
the
Latin,
continental
regions
on
these
maps
are
shown
in
two
colors:
gray
and
white.
The
gray
areas
represent
extant
regions
of
“afri”,
which
refers
to
the
lands
south
of
the
Mediterranean.
9
continental
crust.
The
white
regions
represent
areas
of
The
Latin
term
“Antarctic”
means
“opposite
of
the
north”
continental
crust
that
have
been
removed
by
subduction
(Arctic).
Antarctica,
was
originally
known
as
Terra
Australis
(tectonic
erosion)
5,
have
been
underthrust
beneath
continents
(Land
of
the
South),
but
that
name
was
taken
by
Australia.10
Europe
is
named
after
the
Greek
goddess,
“Europa”,
a
beautiful
(e.g.,
Greater
India)
6,
or
have
been
squeezed
and
compressed
into
much
narrower
zones
(e.g.
the
Rocky
Mountains
or
the
Phoenician
princess.
11
Both
North
and
South
America
are
Central
Asian
collision
zone)
7.
named
after
Armerigo
Vespucci,
a
16th
century
cartographer.
12
The
best-‐known
paleocontinents
are:
Pangea,
Gondwana,
Ocean
basins
are
defined
to
be
regions
of
the
Earth
that
are
Laurasia,
Pannotia,
Rodinia,
and
Columbia.
Pangea12.1
(also
underlain
by
oceanic
crust.
13
Ocean
basins,
together
with
the
Pangaea)
meaning
“all
lands”
was
the
name
given
by
Alfred
flooded
portions
of
the
continents,
comprise
the
Earth’s
oceans,
Wegener12.1a
(1912)
to
describe
the
supercontinent
that
broke
seas,
and
seaways.
14
Table
2
lists
the
oceans
illustrated
in
this
apart
to
form
the
modern
continents
and
ocean
basins.
The
Atlas.
It
is
interesting
to
note
that
according
to
the
definition
of
terms
Gondwana12.2
(also
Gondwana-‐Land)
and
Laurasia
were
continent
and
ocean
proposed
here,
there
are
regions
of
the
Earth
that
can
be
considered
to
be
both
“continents”
and
coined
by
Alex
Du
Toit
in
1937.
Laurasia12.3
referred
to
the
“oceans”.
These
regions
are
the
portions
of
the
continents
northern
half
of
Pangea
composed
of
North
America
and
flooded
by
the
sea.
For
example,
the
Grand
Banks
of
eastern
Eurasia
(minus
India).
Gondwana
referred
to
the
southern
half
Canada
is
part
of
the
continent
of
North
America,
but
the
water
of
Pangea
made
up
of
Africa,
Arabia,
South
America,
above
the
Grand
Banks
is
part
of
the
Atlantic
Ocean.
This
Madagascar,
India,
Australia,
Zealandia,
and
Antarctica.
During
duality
is
due
to
the
fact
that
the
landward
boundary
of
the
the
Precambrian
there
were
four
large
continents
worthy
of
the
ocean
is
the
shoreline,
whereas
the
seaward
boundary
of
the
nomen,
“supercontinent”.
The
youngest
Precambrian
continent
lies
near
the
junction
of
the
continental
rise
and
supercontinent,
Pannotia12.5,
was
named
by
Chris
Powell
in
continental
slope.
15
In
the
past,
this
duality
has
lead
to
a
fair
1995.
Pannotia
was
formed
during
the
Pan-‐African
Event
(600
degree
of
confusion
when
it
came
to
naming
oceans
and
Ma
–
550
Ma)
when
many
of
the
southern
continents
collided,
continents.
Also,
it
should
be
noted
that
no
attempt
has
been
assembling
Gondwana.
The
best-‐known
Precambrian
made
to
show
past
coastlines
on
the
maps
in
this
atlas.
16
supercontinent,
Rodinia12.6,
was
formed
~1000
Ma
during
the
peak
of
the
Grenville
Orogeny.
The
name,
Rodinia12.6,
which
is
The
derivation
of
the
names
of
the
modern
oceans
generally
derived
from
a
Russian
term
meaning
“to
beget”,
was
coined
by
falls
into
one
of
three
categories:
mythological
names,
location
Mark
and
Dianna
McMenamin.
Rodinia
has
been
called
“the
names,
and
descriptive
names.
For
example,
the
Atlantic
Ocean
mother
of
all
supercontinents”.
The
oldest
Precambrian
is
named
after
the
Greek
god,
Atlas17;
the
Indian
Ocean
is
supercontinent,
Columbia12.7,
is
thought
to
have
formed
during
named
after
the
subcontinent
of
India;
the
Pacific
Ocean
was
the
late
Paleoproterozoic
(~1700
Ma).
It
was
named
by
John
J.
named
by
Francisco
Pissarro,
who
thought
that
the
Pacific
Rodgers
and
Madhava
Santosh
for
the
Columbia
region
of
North
Ocean
looked
“peaceful”
18.
Some
of
Paleozoic
and
Mesozoic
America,
which
they
thought
was
a
good
geological
match
for
Oceans
are
named
after
Greek
gods
related
to
Atlas.
Iapetus
parts
of
India.
The
derivations
of
the
names
of
the
other
~50
was
the
father
of
Atlas,
and
Rhea
(Rheic
Ocean)
was
the
sister
continents
and
paleocontinents
are
given
in
Table
1.
of
Iapetus.
Tethys
was
the
sister
(and
wife)
of
Oceanus.
19
Because
it
is
difficult
to
meaningfully
continue
these
lineages,
none
of
the
new
oceans
are
named
after
Greek
gods.
Instead
Oceans
we
have
adopted
a
dual
naming
convention.
The
names
of
the
new
oceans
either
reflect
the
local
geography
(e.g.,
the
Mozambique
Ocean
once
ran
through
most
of
East
Africa,
including
Mozambique)
or
a
related
geologic/tectonic
feature
(
e.g.,
the
Grenville
Ocean
is
the
ocean
basin
that
closed
during
is
easy
to
confuse
the
“Pacific
plate”
with
the
“Pacific
ocean”.
the
Grenville
Orogeny
(~1050
Ma)
in
eastern
North
America.
The
Pacific
Ocean
is
currently
made
up
of
several
plates
(the
Pacific
plate,
Nazca
plate,
and
Cocos
plate
–
to
name
a
few);
Coining
new
names
for
every
new
ocean,
however,
can
be
whereas
there
is
only
one
“Pacific
plate”.
confusing.
To
avoid
confusion
and
promote
clarity
we
have
tried
to
make
slight
modifications
to
existing
names,
especially
Like
an
infuriatingly
difficult
jigsaw
puzzle
whose
pieces
change
if
there
is
a
relation
of
inheritance.
For
example,
originally
size
and
shape
as
you
try
to
solve
it,
the
continents
constantly
there
was
just
one
ocean
called
the
“Tethys
Ocean”.
However,
break
apart
as
new
ocean
basins
form,
and
then
reassemble
we
now
know
that
three
distinct
oceans:
ProtoTethys,
into
new
shapes
as
subduction
zones
bring
them
back
together.
PaleoTethys,
and
NeoTethys
once
existed
in
the
Tethyan
realm.
The
global
plate
tectonic
model20
that
I
have
built
has
more
Using
this
format,
we
have
coined
the
new
terms
than
500
“jigsaw
puzzle
pieces”.
These
puzzle
pieces
are
called
“PaleoPanthalassa”
and
“ProtoPanthalassa”
to
described
earlier
versions
of
the
Panthalassic
Ocean.
“tectonic
elements”
(Table
X).
21
Figure
XX.
Is
a
modern
map
with
labels
for
the
XX
principal
tectonic
elements
shown
in
this
The
names
of
these
bodies
of
water
may
change
slightly
Atlas
.
depending
on
the
maturity
of
an
ocean
basin.
A
newly
formed
ocean
basin,
one
that
is
still
relatively
narrow,
may
be
called
a
“sea”,
like
the
Red
Sea,
or
if
it
connects
two
larger
bodies
of
Data
&
Methods
water,
it
may
be
called
a
“seaway”.
The
term
“sea”
is
also
used
for
bodies
of
water
surrounded
or
partially
enclosed
by
continents,
like
the
Mediterranean
Sea
or
Weddell
Sea.
Oceans
The
methods
used
to
reconstruct
the
past
positions
of
the
as
they
age,
gradually
narrow
as
the
continents
on
either
side
of
continents
and
the
configuration
of
the
surrounding
ocean
the
ocean
approach
each
other
(through
subduction
of
oceanic
basins
varies,
depending
on
the
age
of
the
reconstruction
lithosphere).
Thus,
it
is
possible
for
a
once
mighty
“ocean”
to
(Figure
2
&
3).
As
one
might
suspect,
the
useful
information
become
a
narrow
“sea”
or
“seaway”
prior
to
its
demise.
decreases
in
both
quantity
and
quality
back
through
time.
22
Ten
lines
of
evidence
are
used
to
produce
plate
tectonic
Plate
Tectonics
reconstructions:
1)
the
age
of
the
ocean
basins,
2)
synthetic
isochrons,
3)
hot
spots
and
large
igneous
provinces
(LIPS),
4)
Plate
boundaries
are
also
shown
on
these
maps,
but
no
attempt
subduction
graveyards,
5)
paleomagnetism,
6)
true
polar
has
been
made
to
identify
the
plates
(e.g.,
Pacific,
Farallon,
wander
(TPW),
7)
paleobiogeography,
8)
paleoclimate,
9)
Nazca,
etc.)
or
label
the
individual
plate
boundaries
(e.g.,
Mid-‐ continental
geology
and
tectonics,
and
10)
the
rules
of
plate
Atlantic
Ridge).
This
will
come
later.
tectonics.
I
think
that
it
is
important
that
we
have
different
and
distinct
Age
of
the
Ocean
Basins23
(add
text)
names
for
the
continents
and
oceans,
on
the
one
hand,
and
the
plates,
which
underlie
them,
on
the
other
hand.
For
example,
it
Synthetic
Isochrons24
(add
text)
Hot
Spots25
&
LIPS26
(add
text)
To
arrive
at
these
percentages,
I
used
the
following
procedure.
1)
I
started
with
the
number
of
lines
of
evidence
used
to
make
Subduction
Graveyards27
(add
text)
each
map.
Back
to
~150
million
years
all
10
lines
of
evidence
could
be
used
to
make
a
plate
tectonic
reconstruction
(blue
Paleomagnetism:
Paleopoles
&
Apparent
Polar
Wander
line).
Between
150
million
years
and
300
million
years
the
(APW)Paths28
(add
text)
number
of
lines
of
evidence
drops
off
sharply,
then
plateaus.
There
is
a
final
drop-‐off
at
540
Ma.
For
the
Precambrian
maps,
True
Polar
Wander29
(add
text)
there
are
only
6
lines
of
evidence
available
(Paleoclimate,
LIPS,
paleomagnetism,
TPW,
continental
tectonics,
and
the
plate
Paleobiogeography30
(add
text)
tectonic
rules).
37
As
one
might
expect
there
is
greater
confidence
in
the
more
Plate
Tectonic
History
1.5
Billion
-‐
Today
recent
plate
tectonic
reconstructions
that
in
the
plate
tectonic
The
maps
in
this
report
have
been
excerpted
from
the
reconstructions
for
older
times.
In
Figure
3,
I
have
tried
to
animation
by
Scotese
and
Elling
(2017).
The
full-‐length
version
quantify
these
changing
levels
of
confidence.
The
percentages
of
this
animation
can
be
found
at
shown
are
my
estimates
of
the
accuracy
of
the
maps36.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IlnwyAbczog.
40
This
animation
focuses
of
the
plate
tectonic
development
of
our
supercontinent,
“Terra
Borealis”.
See
Figure
XX
for
a
south
planet
during
the
last
1.5
billion
years.
41
polar
view
of
the
collision.
1250
-‐
1150
Ma
-‐
The
ProtoPanthalassic
midocean
ridge
is
Some
highlights42:
subducted
beneath
Amazonian
and
triggering
the
breakup
of
Mesoproterozoic
(1600Ma
–
1000
Ma)
Terra
Borealis.
The
Grenville
Ocean
closes
as
Greater
Amazonia
collides
with
Grenvillia
(Grenville
Orogeny).
1800
–
1500
Ma
-‐
the
supercontinent
“Columbia”
breaks
up
into
Grenvillia,
Chimeria,
and
Greater
Amazonia.
1150
–
1100
Ma
-‐
The
Congo
continent
and
Balto-‐Siberia
rift
away
from
Terra
Borealis
forming
the
PaleoPanthalassic
Sea
1500
Ma
-‐
An
unknown
continent
rifts
away
from
the
and
the
Sea
of
Hijaz;
Arabia
and
the
Kalahari
craton
rift
apart.
southern
margin
of
Chimeria
opening
the
ProtoPanthalassic
Ocean;
The
Cathaysian
seaway
opens
as
BundelWAus
and
1100
–
1000
Ma
-‐
The
PaleoPanthalasssic
Ocean
widens
at
Aravarabia
rift
away
from
Chimeria;
a
failed
rift
between
the
expense
of
the
ProtoPathalassic
Ocean.
BundelWAus
and
Aravarabia
becomes
the
Aravalli
seaway.
Neoproterozoic
(1000
Ma
–
541
Ma)
1450
Ma
-‐
Dharayner
rifts
away
from
Greater
Amazonia
1000
Ma
-‐
Balto-‐Siberia
collides
with
Grenvillia
forming
opening
the
Mozambique
Sea.
Rodinia.
Congo
continent
collides
with
southwest
margin
of
1400
–
1200
Ma
-‐
subduction
of
the
Bundelkhand
ocean
along
Rodinia.
the
southwest-‐dipping
Kalahari-‐Aravalli-‐Bundelkhand
1000
–
950
Ma
-‐
Congo
continent
rifts
away
from
Amazonia
subduction
zone;
subduction
of
the
Musgrave
ocean
along
the
and
opens
the
Pharusian-‐Adamaster
Ocean
and
begins
to
close
the
southeast-‐dipping
Northern
Australian-‐Siberian
subduction
the
Mozambique
Sea.
Baltica
rifts
from
Siberia
opeing
the
Aegir
zone;
subduction
of
the
ProtoPanthalassic
oceanfloor
beneath
Sea.
the
Amazonian-‐West
African
subduction
zone
an
the
Grenvillian
subduction
zone.
950
–
900
Ma
-‐
The
southerwestern
margin
of
Lauentia
collides
with
the
northeastern
margin
of
Laurentia.
1300
Ma
-‐
Subduction
begins
along
the
northern
margin
of
the
Cathaysian
ocean.
900
–
800
Ma
-‐
The
Pharusian-‐Adamastor
ocean
widens
as
the
Mozambique
Sea
narrows.
1250
–
1200
Ma
-‐
The
Cathaysian
ocean
closes
as
Chimeria
collides
with
BundelWAus
and
Aravarabia.
The
Bundelkhand
800
–
700
Ma
-‐
Rodinia
breaks
apart
as
North
Rodinia
rifts
sea
closes
as
Dharayner
collides
with
BundelWAus.
The
away
from
South
Rodinia
opening
the
Panthalassic
Ocean.
The
Gamburtsev
Sea
closes
as
Grenvillia
collides
with
Dharayner;
PaleoPanthalassic
triple
junction
is
subducted
beneath
Baltica.
The
Arctida
ocean
closes
as
the
Gawler
craton
collides
with
Northern
Australia,
and
the
Mawson
craton
collides
with
the
800
–
600
Ma
-‐
complex
,
diachronous
closure
of
the
BHWI
-‐
Bundelkhand
craton.
These
four
continent-‐continent
Mozambique
seaway.
collisions
assemble
much
of
eastern
Gondwana
and
form
the
750
Ma
-‐
The
Pharusian-‐Adamastor
midocean
ridge
is
475
Ma
-‐
rifting
of
the
Cathaysian
continents
(N.China,
S.
subducted
beneath
the
southern
margin
of
the
Congo
continent.
China,
Indochina,
&
Tarim)
from
the
Indo-‐Australian
margin
of
Gondwana
700
Ma
-‐
the
opening
of
the
Kipchak
Ocean
as
continental
arcs
rift
away
from
Siberia
465
Ma
-‐
collision
of
the
Taconic
arc
with
the
eastern
margin
of
Laurentia
600
Ma
-‐
the
start
of
multiple
subduction
zones
along
eastern
Australia
and
Antarctica,
the
north-‐facing
margin
of
Siberia
455
Ma
-‐
westward,
Andean-‐style
subduction
begins
along
(Mongolia
&
Amuria),
and
the
Cadomian
region
of
northern
the
eastern
margin
of
Laurentia;
eastward-‐dipping
subduction
Gondwana
begins
along
the
western
margin
of
Laurentia
600
–
580
Ma
-‐
the
conversion
of
slow-‐spreading
ridges
in
445
Ma
-‐
Avalonia
collides
along
the
southern
margin
of
the
Kipchak
Sea
to
subduction
zones
Baltica
and
subduction
begins
along
the
southern
margin
of
Avalonia
580
Ma
-‐
the
opening
of
the
Iapetus
Ocean
440
–
425Ma
-‐
1500
km
of
sinistral
strike-‐slip
motion
580
–
520
Ma
-‐
1500
km
of
dextral
strike-‐slip
motion
between
Siberia
and
Laurentia
between
Siberia
and
Laurentia
425
Ma
-‐
Baltica
collides
with
Laurentia
(Caledonian
Paleozoic
(541
Ma
–
252
Ma)
orogeny);
Rheic
MOR
is
subducted
beneath
Laurassia
530
Ma
-‐
subduction
of
the
Panthalassic
midocean
ridge
(Laurentia
&
Baltica);
opening
of
Seventy
Mile
back-‐arc
basin
(BAB)
along
the
western
margin
of
LAurentia
beneath
the
Tasman-‐TransAntarctic
subduction
zone
(SZ)
515
Ma
-‐
the
conversion
of
the
Central
Iapetus
midocean
420
Ma
-‐
subduction
begins
along
northern
margin
of
Gondwana
ridge
(MOR)
into
a
subduction
zone
and
the
start
of
the
Taconic
island
arc
400
Ma
-‐
collision
of
southern
Laurentia
and
northern
South
America
(Acadian
orogeny);
Laurussia,
reverses
direction
and
510
Ma
-‐
subduction
of
the
SW
Iapetus
MOR
beneath
the
NW
Amazonian
SZ;
and
the
rifting
of
the
pre-‐Cordillera
terrrane
head
northward
causing
the
conversion
of
MOR
is
the
Seventy
Mile
Sea
to
convert
to
a
subduction
zone;
Amuria
begins
to
from
the
southern
margin
of
Laurentia
rotate
counter-‐clockwise
closing
the
Mongol-‐Okhotsk
Seaway
500
–
400
Ma
-‐
accetion
and
collision
of
island
arcs
in
the
370
Ma
-‐
initial
collision
between
northern
Gondwana
Kipchak
Sea
to
form
core
of
Kazakhstania
(Amorican
terranes)
and
Laurussia
495
Ma
-‐
the
rifting
of
Avalonia
from
Amazonia
resulting
in
360
Ma
-‐
collision
of
Seventy
Mile
island
arc
with
western
the
opening
of
the
Rheic
Ocean
Laurussia
(Antler
/Caribou
orogeny);
Tarim
collides
with
485
Ma
-‐
subduction
of
the
ProtoTethyan
MOR
beneath
the
southern
Kazakhstania
(Tien
Shan
orogeny);
northward
easternmost
Kipchak
island
arc
dipping
subduction
begins
beneath
the
Cathaysian
continents
(N.China,
S.
China,
Indochina,
&
Tarim);
South
China
(Yangtze
240
–
220-‐
Ma
-‐
subduction
begins
along
southern
margin
of
craton)
begins
to
rotate
clock-‐wise
closing
the
QinLing
Ocean
Cimmeria
(propogating
east
to
west)
360
–
300
Ma
-‐
1000
km
of
dextral
strike-‐slip
collision
220
Ma
-‐
closure
of
QinLing
Seaway
and
accretion
of
between
Armorican
terranes
of
northern
Gondwana
and
Songpan-‐Ganze
as
South
China
(Yangtze
craton)
collides
with
Hercynian
Europe
North
China;
initial
rifiting
in
Central
Atlantic
region
(Newark
group)
300
Ma
–
closure
of
Central
Asian
Oceans
(Altaids)
and
accretion
of
Kazakhstania
between
Europe
and
Siberia
(Urals);
200
Ma
-‐
eruption
of
Central
Atlantic
Magmatic
Province
subduction
of
PaleoTethyan
MOR
beneath
Kazakhstania
and
(CAMP);
PaleoTethyan
MOR
is
subducted
beneath
Cimmeria;
Cathaysia;
rifiting
of
the
Cimmerian
continent
(
Sanandaj-‐Sirjan
unknown
sliver
continent
rifts
away
from
northern
margin
of
terrane
of
Iran,
Sistan
and
Farah
blocks
of
Afghanistan,
Lhasa,
Gondwana;
Mongol-‐Okhotsk
seaway
narrows;
East
Gondwana
QiangTang,
and
Sibumasu
(Siam,
Burma,
Malaysia,
and
(Madagascar/India/Australia/Antarctica)
begins
to
rift
away
Sumatra)
from
the
Indo-‐Australian
margin
of
Gondwana;
from
West
Gondwana
(South
America/Africa)
collisionof
LAurusssia
and
Gondwana
to
form
western
half
of
Pangea
(Alleghenian/Variscan
orogenies);
accretion
of
Chileana
195
Ma
-‐
Final
closure
of
Paleotethys
as
Cimmeria
accretes
to
and
Patagonian
terranes
of
SW
Gondwana
(Cape
orogeny)
Eurasia;
BAB
between
QiangTang
and
Lhasa
opens;
260
Ma
-‐
collapse
of
Seventy
Mile
back
arc
basin
and
collision
190
Ma
-‐
the
Karoo
LIP
erupts
(Walvis
Ridge
/
Tristan
da
of
Sonoma
island
arc
along
western
North
America;
accretion
of
Cunha
hot
spot)
Marie
Byrdland
and
Zealandia
to
East
Antarctica
and
eastern
185
Ma
-‐
the
Pacific
plate
is
created
at
the
Australia;
Eruption
of
the
Omeishan
LIP
in
SW
China;
Izanagi/Phoenix/Farallon
triple
junction
255
Ma
-‐
closure
of
Solonker
Sea
between
Amurian
and
180
Ma
-‐
Seafloor
spreading
starts
in
Central
Atlantic
and
North
China
proto-‐Caribbean
,
rifting
in
Gulf
of
Mexico
and
the
Western
and
250
Ma
-‐
eruption
of
the
West
Siberia
large
igneous
province
Eastern
Mediterranean;
sinistral
strike-‐slip
between
Mexico
(LIP)
and
North
America;
rifting
begins
in
the
Canada
Basin
between
the
North
Slope
block
and
Arctic
North
America;
extension
in
Mesozoic
(252
Ma
–
66
Ma)
the
southern
regions
of
the
North
Atlantic
(between
North
America
&
Greenland,
between
Greenland
–
Rockall);
245
Ma
-‐
opening
of
Cache
Creek
BAB
as
Wrangellia
rifts
subduction
begins
along
eastern
margin
of
Asia
(Yenshanian
away
from
northwestern
South
America;
opening
of
Slide
orogeny)
Mountain
BAB
as
Stikinia
rifts
away
from
northern
Mexico
180
–
100Ma
-‐
Wrangellia
moves
~3000
km
northward
closing
240
Ma
-‐
Sibumasu
collides
with
Indochina
along
Bangong-‐ Cache
Creek
BAB
Nujiang
Co
collision
zone
175
Ma
-‐
spreading
ridge
in
Slide
Mountain
BAB
converts
to
subduction
zone
as
North
America
is
driven
westwards;
170
Ma
-‐
Seafloor
spreading
between
East
and
West
100
Ma
-‐
Wrangellia
collides
with
western
North
America
Gondwana;
seafloor
spreading
between
Iberia
and
North
(British
Columbia);
collision
of
Caribbean
oceanfloor
with
Mid-‐
America;
America
SZ
results
in
“capture”
of
Caribbean
and
start
of
west-‐
dipping
SZ
along
the
eastern
margin
of
the
Caribbean
plate;
165
Ma
-‐
Caribbean
(B’’)
oceanic
crust
is
created
near
Rifitiing
in
the
Tasman
Sea
as
Zealandia
begins
to
separate
from
Izanagi/Phoenix/Farallon
triple
junction
eastern
Australia;
160
Ma
-‐
NeoTethyan
MOR
is
subducted
beneath
Eurasia;
105
Ma
-‐
Seafloor
spreading
stops
in
the
Somali
Basin
and
Izanagi
MOR
connects
with
new
MOR
north
of
Exmouth
plateau
between
NW
India
and
the
Lut
block;
as
100
–
50
Ma
-‐
Dextral
strike-‐slip
along
western
North
150
Ma
-‐
Rifting
in
South
Atlantic;
Stikine
terranes
collide
America
carries
Wrangellia
and
portions
of
the
Stikine
terranes,
with
North
America
closing
the
Slide
Mountain
BAB;
Lhasa-‐ northward
(~1500
km).
Qiangtang
BAB
closes
95
–
50
Ma
-‐
Australia
slowly
rifts
away
from
Antarctica
150
–
Today
-‐
North
America
moves
westward
and
the
Rocky
Mts
are
thrust
skyward
(Sierra
Nevada,
Sevier
and
Laramide
90
Ma
-‐
India
rifts
away
from
Madagascar
opening
the
orogenies)
Madagascar
basin
145
Ma
-‐
Gulf
of
Mexico
stops
opening
90
–
Today
-‐
Sinistral
strike-‐slip
along
the
northern
margin
of
South
America
as
Caribbean
plate
moves
eastward
along
140
Ma
-‐
Seafloor
spreading
begins
in
southern
South
Atlantic
transpressive
boundary;
creation
of
the
Ninety
East
Ridge
by
the
Kerguelen
HS
135
Ma
-‐
Eruption
of
the
Etendeka
(Namibia)-‐Serra
Gerral
(SE
Brazil)
LIPs
80
Ma
-‐
Obduction
of
ophiolites
in
Guatemala
and
Honduras
120
Ma
_
Rifting
in
east-‐central
Africa
(Chad
/
Sudan);
as
Caribbean
plate
collides
with
Central
America
complete
closure
of
the
Mongol-‐Okhotsk
Seaway;
85
–
70
Ma
-‐
The
oceanic
lithosphere
of
the
Bering
Sea
is
120
-‐90Ma
-‐
Eruption
of
large
LIPs
in
the
SW
Pacific
(Manihiki,
created
at
the
Izanagi
MOR
Ontong-‐Java)
75
-‐
35Ma
-‐
Sea
Floor
Spreading
in
the
Philippine
Sea
115
–
90
Ma
-‐
Creation
of
the
Kerguelen
plateau
by
65
Ma
-‐
India,
as
it
moves
northward,
collides
with
Lut
block
voluminous
reruptiosn
at
the
Kerguelen
hot
spot
(HS)
and
carries
it
northward
towards
Eurasia;
Eruption
of
the
Deccan
LIP;
115
–
75Ma
-‐
Opening
of
the
Olyutorska
BAB
of
NE
Siberia
110
Ma
-‐
Seafloor
spreading
begins
in
the
northern
South
Cenozoic
(66Ma
–
Modern)
Atlantic;
the
Philippines
island
arc
rifts
away
from
the
margin
60
Ma
-‐
Subduction
of
the
Izanagi
MOR
beneath
eastern
Asia;
of
S.
China;
Subduction
of
the
NE
Indian
Ocean
MOR
north
of
Australia;
Collision
of
the
island
arcs
that
makeup
Kamchatka
with
NE
25
Ma
–
Today
-‐
Baja
California
and
California
west
of
the
San
Siberia;
Capture
of
the
Sea
of
Okhotsk;
Andreas
Fault
are
carried
northwestwards
with
the
Pacific
plate;
continuing
extension
in
the
Basin
&
Range
60
Ma
–
Today
-‐
Collision
of
Adria/Apulia
to
form
the
Alps;
55
Ma
-‐
The
Pacific
plate
changes
direction
(from
N
to
W-‐NW);
20
Ma
-‐
Seafloor
spreading
(oldest
ocean
floor)
in
the
Gulf
of
Aden;
50
Ma
-‐
India
begins
to
collide
with
Asia;
Greater
Antilles
arc
(Cuba
&
Hispaniola)
collides
with
Bahamas
platform
opening
15
–
0
Ma
-‐
Calabria
rifts
away
from
Sardinia
opening
the
the
Yucatan
basin;
Caribbean
plate
begins
to
move
eastward
Tyrrhenian
Sea
(due
to
slab
roll-‐back);
~500
km
of
dextral
with
spreading
at
Cayman
Ridge;
motion
along
the
North
Anatolian
Fault
as
Turkey
is
squeezed
westwards
between
Arabia
and
Eurasia;
50
-‐
25Ma
-‐
Sea
floor
spreading
in
the
Caroline
Sea
10
Ma
–
Today
-‐
The
extension
in
the
Aegean
Sea;
~150
km
50
Ma
–
Today
-‐
The
collision
of
India
deforms
south-‐central
sinistral
displacement
along
the
Dead
Sea
Fault
;
Asia
and
results
in
the
southeastward
“extrusion’
of
SE
Asia;
Australia,
together
with
India,
rapidly
rifts
away
from
Antarctica
45
Ma
-‐
Extension
begins
in
South
China
Sea
Addenda
35
Ma
-‐
Extension
begins
in
East
Africa
and
Red
Sea/Gulf
of
Aden;
Abbreviations
Used:
30
Ma
-‐
Youngest
ocean
floor
in
South
China
Sea
and
Sea
of
HS
–
hot
spot
(i.e.
the
surface
expression
of
a
mantle
plume)
Japan;
closure
of
the
deep
marine
connection
between
Tethys
MOR
-‐
Midocean
Ridge
and
the
eastern
Mediterranean;
SZ
-‐
Subduction
Zone
30
–
15
Ma
-‐
Cosica
and
Sardinia
rifts
away
from
the
southern
coast
of
France
opening
the
Ligurian
Sea
,
and
the
Balearic
BAB
-‐
Back-‐arc
Basin
islands
rift
away
from
the
eastern
coast
of
Spain
opening
the
Balearic
Sea
(due
to
slab
roll-‐back);
LIP
-‐
Large
Igneous
Province
30
Ma
–
Today
-‐
Extension
begins
in
the
Basin
and
Range;
Collision
of
Arabia
and
Ian
to
form
the
Zagros
Mts.;
Some
Definitions:
25
Ma
-‐
Subduction
of
the
Farallon
MOR
beneath
northern
Mexico/southernmost
California
resulting
in
the
rifting
of
Baja
Continent
–
a
large,
(>10Mkm2)
mostly
emergent
landmass
California
from
northwestern
Mexico;
foundered
on
continental
lithosphere.
Subcontinent
–
a
medium-‐sized,
(<10Mkm2
-‐
>
1Mkm2
)
(insert
Gplates
logo)
landmass
foundered
on
continental
lithosphere.
Microcontinent
–
a
small
(>
1Mkm2
)
region,
usually
an
island,
References
Cited
foundered
on
continental
lithosphere.
(to
be
added
later)
Ocean
–
a
large,
deep
(>
2500
m)
ocean
basin
foundered
on
oceanic
lithosphere
Credits
Figure
Captions
This
figure
illustrates
how
continents
have
come
together
through
time
to
form
supercontinents
(PANGEA,
PANNOTIA,
RODINIA,
TERRA
BOREALIS,
&
COLUMBIA),
and
how
these
supercontinents
have
broken
apart
to
form
new
oceans
and
sea
(blue
lettering).
The
vertical
axis
is
the
timescale
of
Gradstein
et
al.
(2012).
ARB
=
Arabia,
AFR
=
Africa,
ANT
=
Antartica,
AUS
=
Australia,
BAJ
=
Baja
California,
CAR
=
Caribbean
islands,
EUR
=
Eurasia,
Jp
=
Japan,
Nq
=
Neuquen
terrane,
SAM
=
South
America,
SC
=
Scotia
arc,
1A. Origin of the Earth (4.6 Ba) to the base of Cambrian Period (541 Ma)
1B. Mesoproterozoic (1400 Ma) to the top of the Triassic (201 Ma)
This
diagram
highlights
the
ten
lines
of
evidence
that
are
used
to
make
plate
tectonic
reconstructions.
The
vertical
width
of
each
swath
represents
the
relative
importance
of
that
line
of
evidence
at
each
age.
The
confidence
levels
are
semi-‐quantitative
estimate
of
the
accuracy
of
the
plate
tectonic
reconstructions.
Accuracy
improves
when
the
continents
are
gathered
together
in
supercontinents
(Mesozoic
Pangea,
Paleozoic
Pangea,
Pannotia,
Rodinia,
Terra
Borealis,
and
Columbia).
Events:
a
=
collision
of
India
(50
Ma),
b
=
marine
connection
between
Central
and
South
Atlantic
(100
Ma),
c
=
Permo-‐Triassic
extinction
(250
Ma),
d
=
start
of
Permo-‐Carboniferous
Ice
House
(350
Ma),
e
=
well-‐
defined
Ordovician
faunal
realms
(460
Ma),
f
=
Cambrian
Explosion
(540
Ma)
,
g
=
Snowball
Earth
(635
Ma),
h
=
Breakup
of
Rodinia
(800
Ma),
i
=
Breakup
of
Terra
Borealis
(1150),
j
=
Breakup
of
Columbia.
Figure
4.
Footnotes
Note:.
The
footnotes
will
be
renumbered
in
a
simple,
consecutive
style
once
the
text
in
finished.
3 Continental crust is the uppermost layer of the continental lithosphere. More & figure.
4
What
is
meant
by
sea
level.
Problems
in
defining
sea
level.
How
ancient
sea
level
is
measured.
Examples
of
published
sea
level
curves.
6 Definition of Greater India. Evidence for subduction of Greater India. Figures & animation
7 Estimates of convergence in various mountain belts. Inverse “beta factor”
7.1
Definition
of
what
is
a
continent.
Rational.
Sources.
Figures
from
Cogley(1984)
&
Mortimer
et
al.
(2017).
12.4
15 Discussion of “continent-‐ocean boundary” or COB. Map of modern COBs.
16
Introduce
the
term
paleogeographic
map
and
provide
example
map.
Cite
Atlas
of
Continental
Flooding.
Introduce
hyposometry
and
hypsographic
maps.
Relationship
between
continental
flooding,
topography,
and
sea
level.
All
of
this
can
be
reused
in
chapter
on
Paleogeography.
23 Elaboration on Age of Ocean basins and tectonic fabric of the ocean floor
34
For
example
the
modern
ocean
basins
were
all
formed
in
the
last
180
million
years.
Deep
mantle
subduction
graveyards
can
be
mapped
back
to
~250
million
years,
at
best.
Fossil
evidence
relies
heavily
on
the
preservation
of
animals
with
hard
parts
(~540
Ma).
42
Each
of
these
highlights
has
a
footnote
(43
–
142)
describing
and
documenting
the
tectonic
event
in
more
detail.
Addition
discussion
will
be
found
in
the
chapters
describing
the
chronological
evolution
of
the
Earth
System
(Volume
2,
Chapters
1
-‐
13;
Volume
3,
Chapters
14
-‐
26).
See
Table
of
Contents
(Appendix
B).