UNIT-2

Concept of financial statement analysis:-

Financial Statement Analysis is an analysis which highlights the important relationships between
items in the financial statements. The analysis of financial statement is a process of evaluating
the relationship between component parts of financial statement to obtain a better understanding
of firm financial position. Analysis is a process of critically examining the accounting
information given in financial statements. For the purpose of analysis, individual items are
studied; their interrelationship with other related figures is established. Thus analysis of financial
statement refer to treatment of information contain in financial statement in a way so as to afford
a full diagnosis of the profitably and financial position of the firm concern. Financial Statement
analysis embraces the methods used in assessing and interpreting the results of past performance
and current financial position as they relate to particular factors of interest in investment
decisions. It is an important means of assessing past performance and in forecasting and planning
future performance. According to Lev: “Financial Statement Analysis is an information
processing system designed to provide data for decision making models, such as the portfolio
selection model, bank lending decision models, and corporate financial management models.”
According to Myser “Financial study analysis is largely a study of relationship among the
various financial factors in the business as disclosed by the single set of statement and a study of
trend of these factor shown in the financial statement”.
OBJECTIVES:-

The major objectives of financial statement analysis is to provide decision makers information
about a business enterprise for use in decision-making. Users of financial statement information
are the decision makers concerned with evaluating the economic situation of the firm and
predicting its future course. Financial statement analysis can be used by the different users and
decision makers to achieve the following objectives:
1. Assessment of Past Performance and Current Position:-

Past performance is often a good indicator of future performance. Therefore, an investor or

creditor is interested in the trend of past sales, expenses, net income, cast flow and return on
investment. These trends offer a means for judging management’s past performance and are
possible indicators of future performance.

Similarly, the analysis of current position indicates where the business

stands today. For instance, the current position analysis will show the types of assets owned by a
business enterprise and the different liabilities due against the enterprise. It will tell what the cash
position is, how much debt the company has in relation to equity and how reasonable the
inventories and receivables are.

2. Prediction of Net Income and Growth Prospects:-

The financial statement analysis helps in predicting the earning prospects and growth rates in the
earnings which are used by investors while comparing investment alternatives and other users
interested in judging the earning potential of business enterprises. Investors also consider the risk
or uncertainty associated with the expected return.

The decision makers are futuristic and are always concerned with the future. Financial statements
which contain information on past performances are analysed and interpreted as a basis for
forecasting future rates of return and for assessing risk.

3. Prediction of Bankruptcy and Failure:-

Financial statement analysis is a significant tool in predicting the bankruptcy and failure
probability of business enterprises. After being aware about probable failure, both managers and
investors can take preventive measures to avoid/minimize losses. Corporate managements can
effect changes in operating policy, reorganize financial structure or even go for voluntary
liquidation to shorten the length of time losses.

In accounting and finance area, empirical studies conducted have suggested a set of financial
ratios which can give early signal of corporate failure. Such a prediction model based on
financial statement analysis is useful to managers, investors and creditors. Managers may use the
ratios prediction model to assess the solvency position of their firms and thus can take
appropriate corrective actions

Investors and shareholder can use the model to make the optimum portfolio selection and to
bring changes in the investment strategy in accordance with their investment goals. Similarly,
creditors can apply the prediction model while evaluating the creditworthiness of business
enterprises.

4. Loan Decision by Financial Institutions and Banks:-

Financial statement analysis is used by financial institutions, loaning agencies, banks and others
to make sound loan or credit decision. In this way, they can make proper allocation of credit
among the different borrowers. Financial statement analysis helps in determining credit risk,
deciding terms and conditions of loan if sanctioned, interest rate, maturity date etc.

TYPES:-

Following are the various types of financial analysis.

A. On the basis of material used.

1. External Analysis:-

Analysis of financial statements may be carried out on the basis of published

information. i.e.., information made available in the annual report of the enterprise. such
analysis are usually carried out by those who do not have access to the detailed
accounting records of the Co. i.e., Banks, Creditors etc.

2. Internal Analysis:-

Analysis may also be based on detailed information available within the Co. which is
not available to the outsiders. such analysis is called internal analysis. this type of
analysis id of a detailed one and is carried out on behalf of the management for the
purpose of providing necessary information for decision making, such analysis
emphasizes on the performance appraisal and assessing the profitability of different
activities.
B. According to objectives of analysis

1. Short Term Analysis

Short term analysis is mainly concerned with the working capital analysis. In the short
run, a Co. must have ample funds readily available to meet its current needs and
sufficient borrowing capacity to meet the contingencies. in short term analysis the current
assets and current liabilities are analysed and liquidity is determined.

2. Long Term Analysis

In the long term a Co. must earn a minimum amount sufficient to maintain a reasonable
rate of return on the investment to provide for the necessary growth and development of
the Co., and to meet the cost of capital.Financial planning is also desirable for the
continued success of a Co. Thus in the long term analysis the stability and the earning
potentiality of the C. is analysed i.e., fixed assets, long term debt structure and the
ownership interest is analysed.

C. According to the Modus Operandi of analysis

1. Horizontal Analysis

Analysis of financial statements involves making comparisons and establishing

relationship among related items. such comparison or establishing of relationship may be
based on financial statements of a Co.for a number of years and the
 financial statements of different Co's for the same year. such analysis is called horizontal
analysis. it may take the following two forms.

a. Comparative financial statement analysis

b. Trend analysis.

2. Vertical Analysis.

Analysis of financial data based on relationship among items in a single period of

financial statement is called vertical analysis. from a single balance sheet or P&L A/C
relationships of various items may be established.
e.g. various assets can be expressed as percentage of total assets. statements containing
such analysis are also called as common size statements. The common size P&L A/C is
more useful in analysing the operating results and costs during the year. It shows each
element of cost as a percentage of sales. Similarly common size balance
sheet show fixed assets as a percentage to total assets.
The types f financial statements can also be explained as:-

The four main types of financial statements are:

1. Statement of Financial Position:-

Statement of Financial Position, also known as the Balance Sheet, presents the financial position
of an entity at a given date. It is comprised of the following three elements:

 Assets: Something a business owns or controls (e.g. cash, inventory, plant and machinery, etc)
 Liabilities: Something a business owes to someone (e.g. creditors, bank loans, etc)
 Equity: What the business owes to its owners. This represents the amount of capital that remains
in the business after its assets are used to pay off its outstanding liabilities. Equity therefore
represents the difference between the assets and liabilities.

2 Income Statement

Income Statement, also known as the Profit and Loss Statement, reports the company's financial
performance in terms of net profit or loss over a specified period. Income Statement is composed
of the following two elements:

 Income: What the business has earned over a period (e.g. sales revenue, dividend income,
etc)
 Expense: The cost incurred by the business over a period (e.g. salaries and
wages, depreciation, rental charges, etc)

Net profit or loss is arrived by deducting expenses from income.

3 Cash Flow Statement

Cash Flow Statement, presents the movement in cash and bank balances over a period. The
movement in cash flows is classified into the following segments:
 Operating Activities: Represents the cash flow from primary activities of a business.
 Investing Activities: Represents cash flow from the purchase and sale of assets other than
inventories (e.g. purchase of a factory plant)
 Financing Activities: Represents cash flow generated or spent on raising and repaying
share capital and debt together with the payments of interest and dividends.

4.Statement of Changes in Equity

Statement of Changes in Equity, also known as the Statement of Retained Earnings, details the
movement in owners' equity over a period. The movement in owners' equity is derived from the
following components:

a. Net Profit or loss during the period as reported in the income statement
b. Share capital issued or repaid during the period
c. Dividend payments
d. Gains or losses recognized directly in equity (e.g. revaluation surpluses)
e. Effects of a change in accounting policy or correction of accounting error.

Ratio Analysis:-

Accounting ratios are an important tool of financial statements analysis. A ratio is a

mathematical number calculated as a reference to relationship of two or more numbers and can
be expressed as a fraction, proportion, percentage and a number of times. When the number is
calculated by referring to two accounting numbers derived from the financial statements, it is
termed as accounting ratio. For example, if the gross profit of the business is Rs. 10,000 and the
‘Revenue from Operations’ are Rs. 1,00,000, it can be said that the gross profit is 10% of the
‘Revenue from Operations’ . This ratio is termed as gross profit ratio. Similarly, inventory
turnover ratio may be 6 which implies that inventory turns into ‘Revenue from Operations’ six
times in a year. Ratios are essentially derived numbers and their efficacy depends a great deal
upon the basic numbers from which they are calculated. Hence, if the financial statements
contain some errors, the derived numbers in terms of ratio analysis would also present an
erroneous scenario. Further, a ratio must be calculated using numbers which are meaningfully
correlated. A ratio calculated by using two unrelated numbers would hardly serve any purpose.
For example, the furniture of the business is Rs. 1,00,000 and Purchases are Rs. 3,00,000. The
ratio of purchases to furniture is 3 (3,00,000/1,00,000) but it hardly has any relevance. The
reason is that there is no relationship between these two aspects.

Ratios are essentially derived numbers and their efficacy

depends a great deal upon the basic numbers from which they are calculated. Hence, if the
financial statements contain some errors, the derived numbers in terms of ratio analysis would
also present an erroneous scenario. Further, a ratio must be calculated using numbers which are
meaningfully correlated. A ratio calculated by using two unrelated numbers would hardly serve
any purpose. For example, the furniture of the business is Rs. 1,00,000 and Purchases are Rs.
3,00,000. The ratio of purchases to furniture is 3 (3,00,000/1,00,000) but it hardly has any
relevance. The reason is that there is no relationship between these two aspects.

Functional classification based on the purpose for which a ratio is

computed, is the most commonly used classification which is as follows:

1. Liquidity Ratios: To meet its commitments, business needs liquid funds. The ability of
the business to pay the amount due to stakeholders as and when it is due is known as liquidity,
and the ratios calculated to measure it are known as ‘Liquidity Ratios’. These are essentially
short-term in nature.
2. Solvency Ratios: Solvency of business is determined by its ability to meet its
contractualobligations towards stakeholders, particularly towards external stakeholders, and the
ratios calculated to measure solvency position are known as ‘Solvency Ratios’. These are
essentially long-term in nature.
3. Activity (or Turnover) Ratios: This refers to the ratios that are calculated for measuring
the efficiency of operations of business based on effective utilisation of resources. Hence, these
are also known as ‘Efficiency Ratios’.
4. Profitability Ratios: It refers to the analysis of profits in relation to revenue from
operations or funds (or assets) employed in the business and the ratios calculated to meet this
objective are known as ‘Profitability Ratios’.

Liquidity Ratios:-

Liquidity ratios are calculated to measure the short-term solvency of the business, i.e. the firm’s
ability to meet its current obligations. These are analysed by looking at the amounts of current
assets and current liabilities in the balance sheet. The two ratios included in this category are
current ratio and liquidity ratio.
Current Ratio
Current ratio is the proportion of current assets to current liabilities. It is expressed as follows:
Current Ratio = Current Assets : Current Liabilities or
Current Assets/Current Liabilities.

Current assets include current investments, inventories, trade receivables (debtors and bills
receivables), cash and cash equivalents, short-term loans and advances and other current assets
such as prepaid expenses, advance tax and accrued income, etc.
Current liabilities include short-term borrowings, trade payables (creditors and bills payables),
other current liabilities and short-term provisions.

Solved Example:- Calculate current Ratio from the following information:

Particulars Rs.
Inventories 50,000
Trade receivables 50,000
Advance tax 4,000
Cash and cash equivalents 30,000
Trade payables 1,00,000
Short-term borrowings (bank overdraft) 4,000
Solution:
Current Ratio =
Current Assets
Current Liabilities
Current Assets = Inventories + Trade receivables + Advance tax +
Cash and cash equivalents
= Rs. 50,000 + Rs. 50,000 + Rs. 4,000 + Rs. 30,000
= Rs. 1,34,000
Current Liabilities = Trade payables + Short-term borrowings
= Rs. 1,00,000 + Rs. 4,000
= Rs. 1,04,000
Current Ratio =
Rs.1,34,000
=1.29 :1
Rs.1,04,000
Quick Ratio:-

It is the ratio of quick (or liquid) asset to current liabilities. It is expressed as Quick ratio = Quick
Assets : Current Liabilities or Quick Assets/Current Liabilities. The quick assets are defined as
those assets which are quickly convertible into cash. While calculating quick assets we exclude
the inventories at the end and other current assets such as prepaid expenses, advance tax, etc.,
from the current assets. Because of exclusion of non-liquid current assets it is considered better
than current ratio as a measure of liquidity position of the business. It is calculated to serve as a
supplementary check on liquidity position of the business and is therefore, also known as ‘Acid-
Test Ratio’.

Solved Example:-

Calculate quick ratio from the information given in illustration 1.

Solution:

Quick Ratio =

Quick Assets

Current Liabilities

Quick Assets = Current assets – (Inventories + Advance tax)

= Rs. 1,34,000 – (Rs. 50,000 + Rs. 4,000)

= Rs. 80,000

Current Liabilities = Rs. 1,04,000

Quick Ratio =

Rs. 80,000
= 0.77 :1

Solvency Ratios:-

The persons who have advanced money to the business on long-term basis are interested in
safety of their periodic payment of interest as well as the repayment of principal amount at the
end of the loan period. Solvency ratios are calculated to determine the ability of the business to
service its debt in the long run. The following ratios are normally computed for evaluating
solvency of the business.

1. Debt-Equity Ratio;

2. Debt to Capital Employed Ratio;

3. Proprietary Ratio;

4. Total Assets to Debt Ratio;

5. Interest Coverage Ratio.

Debt-Equity Ratio:-

Debt-Equity Ratio measures the relationship between long-term debt and equity. If debt
component of the total long-term funds employed is small, outsiders feel more secure. From
security point of view, capital structure with less debt and more equity is considered favorable as
it reduces the chances of bankruptcy. Normally, it is considered to be safe if debt equity ratio is 2
: 1. However, it may vary from industry to industry. It is computed as follows:

Debt-Equity Ratio =Long - term Debts/Shareholders' Funds where:

Shareholders’ Funds (Equity) = Share capital + Reserves and Surplus + Money received against
share warrants

Share Capital = Equity share capital + Preference share capital

or

Shareholders’ Funds (Equity) = Non-current assets + Working capital – Non-current liabilities

Working Capital = Current Assets – Current Liabilities.

Debt to Capital Employed Ratio:-

The Debt to capital employed ratio refers to the ratio of long-term debt to the total of external
and internal funds (capital employed or net assets). It is computed as follows:

Debt to Capital Employed Ratio = Long-term Debt/Capital Employed (or Net Assets).

Capital employed is equal to the long-term debt + shareholders’ funds. Alternatively, it may be
taken as net assets which are equal to the total assets – current liabilities.

It may be noted that Debt to Capital Employed Ratio can also be computed in relation to total
assets. In that case, it usually refers to the ratio of total debts (long-term debts + current
liabilities) to total assets, i.e., total of non-current and current assets (or shareholders, funds +
long-term debts + current liabilities), and is expressed as

Debt to Capital Employed Ratio = Total Debts /Total Assets .

Proprietary Ratio.

Proprietary ratio expresses relationship of proprietor’s (shareholders) funds to net assets and is
calculated as follows :

Proprietary Ratio = Shareholders Funds/Capital employed (or net assets).

Total Assets to Debt Ratio

This ratio measures the extent of the coverage of long-term debts by assets. It is calculated as

Total assets to Debt Ratio = Total assets/Long-term debts

Interest Coverage Ratio

It is a ratio which deals with the servicing of interest on loan. It is a measure of security of
interest payable on long-term debts. It expresses the relationship between profits available for
payment of interest and the amount of interest payable. It is calculated as follows:

Interest Coverage Ratio = Net Profit before Interest and Tax/ Interest on long-term debts

Profitability Ratios

The profitability or financial performance is mainly summarised in the statement of profit and
loss. Profitability ratios are calculated to analyse the earning capacity of the business which is the
outcome of utilisation of resources employed in the business. There is a close relationship
between the profit and the efficiency with which the resources employed in the business are
utilised. The various ratios which are commonly used to analyse the profitability of the business
are:

1. Gross profit ratio

2. Operating ratio

3. Operating profit ratio

4. Net profit ratio

5. Return on Investment (ROI) or Return on Capital Employed (ROCE)

6. Return on Net Worth (RONW)

7. Earnings per share

8. Book value per share

9. Dividend payout ratio

10. Price earning ratio.

Gross Profit Ratio:-

Gross profit ratio as a percentage of revenue from operations is computed to have an idea about
gross margin. It is computed as follows:

Gross Profit Ratio = Gross Profit/Net Revenue of Operations × 100

Operating Ratio

It is computed to analyse cost of operation in relation to revenue from operations. It is calculated

as follows:

Operating Ratio = (Cost of Revenue from Operations + Operating Expenses)/ Net Revenue from
Operations × 100.

Operating expenses include office expenses, administrative expenses, selling expenses,

distribution expenses, depreciation and employee benefit expenses etc. Cost of operation is
determined by excluding non-operating incomes and expenses such as loss on sale of assets,
interest paid, dividend received, loss by fire, speculation gain and so on.

Operating Profit Ratio

It is calculated to reveal operating margin. It may be computed directly or as a residual of

operating ratio.

Operating Profit Ratio = 100 – Operating Ratio

Alternatively, it is calculated as under:

Operating Profit Ratio = Operating Profit/ Revenue from Operations × 100

Where Operating Profit = Revenue from Operations – Operating Cost.

Net Profit Ratio

Net profit ratio is based on all inclusive concept of profit. It relates revenue from operations to
net profit after operational as well as non-operational expenses and incomes. It is calculated as
under:

Net Profit Ratio = Net profit/Revenue from Operations × 100

Generally, net profit refers to profit after tax (PAT).

Return on Capital Employed or Investment

It explains the overall utilisation of funds by a business enterprise. Capital employed means the
long-term funds employed in the business and includes shareholders’ funds, debentures and
long-term loans. Alternatively, capital employed may be taken as the total of non-current assets
and working capital. Profit refers to the Profit Before Interest and Tax (PBIT) for computation of
this ratio. Thus, it is computed as follows:

Return on Investment (or Capital Employed) = Profit before Interest and Tax/ Capital Employed
× 100.

Return on Shareholders’ Funds

This ratio is very important from shareholders’ point of view in assessing whether their
investment in the firm generates a reasonable return or not. It should be higher than the return on
investment otherwise it would imply that company’s funds have not been employed profitably. A
better measure of profitability from shareholders point of view is obtained by determining return
on total shareholders’ funds, it is also termed as Return on Net Worth (RONW) and is calculated
as under :

Return on Shareholders’ Fund = Profit after Tax /Shareholders' Funds × 100.

Earnings per Share

The ratio is computed as:

EPS = Profit available for equity shareholders/Number of Equity Shares In this context, earnings
refer to profit available for equity shareholders which is worked out as

Profit after Tax – Dividend on Preference Shares.

This ratio is very important from equity shareholders point of view and also for the share price in
the stock market. This also helps comparison with other to ascertain its reasonableness and
capacity to pay dividend.

Book Value per Share

This ratio is calculated as :

Book Value per share = Equity shareholders’ funds/Number of Equity Shares

Equity shareholder fund refers to Shareholders’ Funds – Preference ShareCapital. This ratio is
again very important from equity shareholders point of view as it gives an idea about the value of
their holding and affects market price of the shares.

Dividend Payout Ratio

This refers to the proportion of earning that are distributed to the shareholders. It is calculated as.

Dividend Payout Ratio =Dividend per share/Earnings per share.

This reflects company’s dividend policy and growth in owner’s equity.

Price / Earning Ratio

The ratio is computed as –

P/E Ratio = Market Price of a share/earnings per share.

For example, if the EPS of X Ltd. is Rs. 10 and market price is Rs. 100, the price earning ratio
will be 10 (100/10). It reflects investors expectation about the growth in the firm’s earnings and
reasonableness of the market price of its shares. P/E Ratio vary from industry to industry and
company to company in the same industry depending upon investors perception of their future.